


LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 

Cfi. ,1.-/ 1 ' i':;;nir;«!il Da.. 

Shelf 

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 


















































N 





WEBSTER’S 



WORLD’S ATLAS 


A UNIVERSAL ASSISTANT AND TREASURE-HOUSE OF INFORMATION ON EVERY CONCEIVABLE SUBJECT, 
FROM THE HOUSEHOLD TO THE MANUFACTORY. GIVES INFORMATION ABOUT EVERYTHING, 

IS ABSOLUTELY INDISPENSABLE TO EVERY ONE IN ALL WALKS OF LIFE; 

IT IS TO BE CONSULTED ON EVERY QUESTION THAT ARISES IN 
EVERY-DAY LIFE BY OLD AND YOUNG ALIKE. 


AND CONTAINS 


INFORMATION OF SOLID VALUE AND PRACTICAL UTILITY FOR WORKINGMEN 
OCCUPATIONS AND PROFESSIONS, THE STOCK RAISER, THE HOUSEHOLD, 
FAMILY WHO WANTS TO SAVE MONEY; CONTAINING A REMEDY 
EVERY ILL, A SOLUTION FOR EVERY DIFFICULTY, AND A 
METHOD FOR EVERY EMERGENCY. 

4" 


OF ALL TRADES, 
AND EVERY 
FOR 


BT 

PROFESSOR D. L. WEBSTER. 


ILLUSTRATED. 


OF CG »Gf?. 

^ c.o pvRlQ Hr 

NOV 25 1889 f 

jci) 




0 


COPYRIGHT, 1889 , BY OOIBVIE & GILIfcET’T OO. 


CHICAGO, ILL.: 

OGILVIE & GILLETT COMPANY, Publishers, 
9 TO 15 RIVER STREET. 
















































AC, 'o S 
,VI 2.3 




THE LIBEAETI 
OF C ONGE S—] 

WASMIHOTOH] 










EPARTMENTS 




ACCIDENTS AND INJURIES. 

ATLAS DEPARTMENT. 

COOKERY INSTRUCTIONS. 

BANKING DEPARTMENT. 

BUSINESS LAWS. 

BOOK-KEEPING. 

CALCULATIONS OF ALL KINDS. 

THE CIVIL WAR HISTORY. 

HORSE MEDICINES. 

FAMILY PHYSICIAN. 

MEATS AND VEGETABLES. 

MINING DEPARTMENT. 

POLITICAL HISTORY. 

TWENTY THOUSAND THINGS 
WORTH KNOWING. 

MULTUM IN PARVO. 

SPECULATIONS. 

> 


WONDERFUL BUILDINGS, TOWERS AND MONUMENTS 

AND HUNDREDS OF OTHER TOPICS. 
























































ILLUSTRATIONS. 



PAGE 

Alabama, Map of .. ..305 

Alaska, Map of. 304 

An American Farm Scene. 335 

A Pool. 556 

A Retail Street.343 

Arizona, Map of. 306 

Arkansas, Map of. 305 

A Tower 1,000 feet high.415 

Arms of the States of the American Union. 373-32 

Articles, Bill of Sale. 324 

Auction Sale of Personal Property.262 

Baltimore & Ohio Railroad Elevator, Locust Point, Baltimore.496 

Bank Counter. 48 

Bank of England.— .395 

Bank of North America Prior to 1846 . 396 

Bank of North America Since 1846. 397 

Beehive. 171 

Board of Trade Building, New, Chicago.-..481 

Book-keeper’s Office, Illustrated Heading of Book-keeping. 450 

Bricklayers at Work. 186 

Bulls and Bears of the New York Stock Exchange. 548 

Bunker Hill Monument. 415 

Burning of Chicago, October 9,1871.. 337 

Business Writing. 27-38 

Capital Letters on Scale, Showing Relative Proportions. 35 

Capital Loop Letters, Eighth Principle. 36 

Capital Stem, Capital Loop. 33 

Capital Stem Letters, Seventh Principle. 36 

Different Movements, Lateral and Rolling Combined. 33 

Figures and Copies for Practice.... 37 

Form and Loops of Small Letters. 35 

Movement Exercises, Ovals. 32 

Ornamental Penmanship. 38 

Oval Caps, Sixth Principle. 35 

Position of the Body While Sitting. 29 

Position of the Body While Standing . 30 

Position of the Hand and Pen. 31 

Principles in Writing. 33 

Principles Applied, Small Letters. 34 

Small Alphabet, Letters of . 34 

Types, Resemblance of, and an Absurdity. 34 

California, Map of.306 

Capitol at Washington.322 

Cathedral at Cologne. 415 

Central America, Map of. 397 

Chamber of Commerce, Chicago. <80 

Colorado, Map of. 808 

Commission Houses. 166 

Connecticut, Map of. .. • 307 

Cordwood.. 186 

Corn Crib, Flared. 1‘9 

Cotton Bud and Blossom. 504 

Cotton Compressor. 60/ 

Cotton Picking. 505 

Cotton Pressing and Baling. 506 

Counsel and Advice. 215 

Cylindrical Vessels .181 

Cutting Logs . 358 

Dakota, Map of. 308 

Damage by Fire. 240 

Delaware, Map of. 309 

Detecting Counterfeit Money. 68 

Dictionary Mercantile and Legal Terms, Illustrated Heading. 283 

Dog and Safe, Beehive... .. 217 

Domestic Animals. 245 

Elevator and Grain Trade, Illustrated Heading. 495 

Exterior Cotton Exchange, New Orleans. 509 

Exterior of the New York Stock Exchange . 649 

Firemen at a Fire. 168 

Florida, Map of. 309 

Fruit.246 

Game . 

Georgia, Map of. ••••••: .*. .Voo 

Globe, Showing Converging Lines. . 183 

Grain Bins. . l°9 

Grain Bins, Partial View. 499 

Grain Bucket. . 503 

Grain Elevator Boot and Tank.503 

Grain Elevator Shoveling Machine. »01 

Grain Elevator, Transverse Section. 498 

Grain House, Partial View —. 497 

Handful of Currency. "51 

Hay Measuring.—. Jis 

Highest Buildings in the World. 415 

Hydraulic Mining, Full Page. 544 

Idaho, Map of. 811 

Illinois, Map of .. 

Indiana, Map of . — “13 

Indian Territory, Map of..... ..••••••• . . 

Interior Cotton Exchange, New Orleans, Full Page. 511 

Interior First National Bank, Chicago. . 

Interior of Bank, Cashier and Book-keeper’s Windows.318 

Iowa, Map of—...... • • ■ • • ■ ■ .. “1“ 

Jay Gould in His Private Office . 565 


PAGE 

Kansas, Map of.813 

Kentucky, Map of.302 

Land and Water Scene. 238 

Law of Copyright, Illustrated Heading.. 263 

Logging Locomotive. 364 

Lousiana, Map of. 314 

Lumber Interests, Illustrated Heading. 356 

Lumber Mill. 361 

Lumber Yard. 184 

Maine, Map of. 315 

Manitoba, Map of. 299 

Marshall Field & Company’s Retail Store, Chicago.341 

Maryland, Map of. 315 

Massachusetts, Map of. 316 

Meeting of the Board of Directors of a Bank. 399 

Miner’s Blow-pipe. 538 

Mexico, Map of. 297 

Michigan, Map of. 316 

Mining Camp. 540 

Mining, Illustrated Heading. 536 

Minnesota, Map of. 317 

Mississippi, Map of.318 

Missouri, Map of.318 

Montana, Map of. 319 

Nebraska, Map of.319 

Mowers at Work. 241 

Nails, Specimens of. 187 

Nevada, Map of. 320 

New Hampshire, Map of. 301 

New Jersey, Map of.320 

New Mexico, Map of. 321 

New York, Map of. 322 

New York Post Office. . 297 

New York Stock Exchange in Operation.553 

North America, Map of.294 

North Carolina. Map of. 302 

Ocean Steamer. 57 

Ohio, Map of. 322 

Ontario, Map of. 299 

Oregon, Map of.323 

Palmer House, Chicago... 234 

Paying Teller. 401 

Pennsylvania, Map of. 323 

Political Rally.. 72 

Pyramid of Cheops . 415 

Pyramid of Cephren.415 

Quebec, Map of. . 300 

Recovery and Collection of Debts, Illustrated Heading. 271 

Residence.249 

Rhode Island, Map of. .324 

Road in the Country.236 

Road Scene. 316 

Ruins of the Chicago Fire.258 

Run on the Bank. 412 

Scene in London. 69 

Selling Flour by Sample. 484 

Selling Grain by Sample.483 

South America, Map of. 294 

South Carolina, Map of.302 

Spread Eagle and Shield. 303 

Stampede of Texas Cattle.526 

Stationery Stock. 144 

Steamship at Sea.256 

St. Mark’s, Philadelphia. 415 

St. Paul’s, London.415 

St. Peter’s at Rome. 415 

Strasburg Cathedral. 415 

Surveying. 181 

Tennessee, Map of.302 

Texas, Map of. 324 

Treasury Building at Washington. D. C. 70 

Trespass. 239 

Trinity Church N. Y-. 415 

Union Depot, Chicago & Alton Railroad, Chicago, Ill. 462 

Union Stock Yards Exchange Building and Bank.528 

Union Stock Yards, General View, Full Page.532 

Union Stock Yards Grand Entrance.. 525 

United States Patents, Illustrated Heading. 268 

United States Supremo Court in Session. 220 

Utah, Map of.325 

Vermont, Map of. 301 

Virginia, Map of. 303 

Wall Street Broker’s Office.561 

Wall Street Customer’s Room. 563 

Wall Street, with Treasury Building, and Trinity Church. 547 

Ward.254 

Washington Homestead, Mount Vernon. ... 253 

Washington Territory, Map of.^... 326 

Washington Capitol. 415 

West Indies, Map of. 297 

West Virginia, Map of. 303 

Wisconsin, Map of. 326 

Wreck at Sea. 260 

Wyoming, Map of.-.327 







































































































































































































































































INDEX 



iiiiisniiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiin! 

^^ALPHABETICAL INDEX^^ 



A PAGE 

Abolitionists, Abolition of Slavery . 72 

Abstract of Homestead and Exemption Laws.272 

Abyssinia, Description of. 294 

Accident, Insurance, Showing Form of Accident Ticket.. . 338 

Accidents and Injuries— 

Bites and Stings of Insects, How to Cure.103 

Bites, Harvest Bug, How to Cure. 103 

Bites, Mad Dog, How to Cure. 103 

Bites, Serpent, How to Cure. 103 

Bleeding at the Nose, Three Methods. 104 

Bleeding from the Bowels, To Stop. 104 

Bleeding from the Lungs, To Stop . 104 

Bleeding from the Mouth, To Stop. .... 104 

B eeding from the Stomach, To Stop. 104 

Bleeding from Varicose Veins, To Stop. 104 

Burns and Scalds, Seven Methods to Cure . 104 

Choking, To Prevent. 104 

Colic, Cure for. . . 105 

Convulsions, Cure for. 105 

Cramps, Cure for. 105 

Cuts, Cure for.105 

Death, How to Distinguish.105 

Dislocation, Temporary, Relief in Cases of. 105 

Ear, Foreign Bodies in the. 106 

Ear Wax, To Remove Hardened. 106 

Eye, To Remove Foreign Bodies in the. 106 

Fainting, What to do in Cases of. 106 

Fits,.105 

Fire, How to Extinguish Clothing on. . 106 

Fractures, General Rules for . 106 

Frost-bite, Treatment of.106 

Poisons, Their Symptoms and Antidotes. 106 

Sprains, How t i Cure. 110 

Suffocation from Foul Air, Gas or Fire-damp.110 

Sunstroke, Treatment for . 110 

Account .283 

Dealei's, Overdrawing Their.416 

Of Daily Sales in Retail Business . 354 

Of Stock . . 354 

Sales, Form of. 167 

Accumulation, Faculty of . 67 

Acre. Table for Measuring an. 435 

Addition, Methods of.•. 164 

Administrations of the United States Government. 83 

Advertisements, When First Appeared. 155 

Affidavit, Form of Mining. 543 

Afghanistan, Description of.292 

Africa—Its Location—Ship Canal—Isthmus of Suez—Extent of Africa— 

Its Coast—Islands—Interior—Elevation—Mountains—Sahara Des¬ 
ert — Oases — Heat — Rains — Droughts—Equatorial Region—The 
River Nile—The Congo—Stanley and Livingstone’s Explorations in 
Africa—Wild Animals—Mines—Its People—Railroads—Animals for 
Travel — The Camel — Civilization—Forests—Climate—Important 

Products—Exports—Agriculture—Commerce, Etc. 292 

Agency . 226-227 

Agreement and Assent....'. 222 

Air, Consumption of in Activity and Repose. 472 

Extracted from Water . 455 

Of What Composed. 455 

That Fish Breathe.455 

Vibrations of the .472 

Ale, How to Mull.365 

How to Spice.365 

Allen, Ethan, Life of .437 

Algeria, Description of.293 

Alpine Snow, How to Make. 370 

Alpnach, The Slide of. 454 

Alps, The—Description of—Number of Mountains and their Height— 
The Summit—Time Required to Ascend—How Many Guides Re¬ 
quired and What They are Paid—Remarkable Ascents—The Intense 
Cold—The Barometer—How it Affects Human Beings—Perils of As¬ 
cending—The View from the Top—Care Required—Limit of Vine 

and Tree Growth . 454 

America, When Discovered.155 

American Association. 72 

Whigs ... .. 72 

Anam, The Kingdom of. 292 

Ancient Roman Aqueducts ........ t - •••••• .455 

Ancient Temples and Pyramids, How Built. 412 

Animals. Designation of Groups of . .. .......... . . .433 

Animals, Periods of Gestation in and Age Attained by. 455 

Antarctic Polar Region, The. 441 

Antilles, The Greater...297 

Anti-masonry, Anti-rentism. 73 

Apple Charlotte, How to Make. 370 

Baked, How to Cook . 371 

Cream, How to Make.370 

Custard, How to Make.370 

Fancy, Howto Make.370 

Fritters, Howto Make. 370 

Tree Wood, Hardness of. 454 

How to Make Essence of. 467 

Snow Balls, Howto Make.370 

Arabia, Description of.......292 


PAGE 

Arabs, The. 293 

Arbitration, Form of General Submission to. 230 

Award, Mutual Release on an .231 

Bond, Form of. 330 

Revocation, Form of.231 

Architectural Ruins in Thebes.455 

Architecture.198 

Bond.200 

Art, Blunders and Absurdities in. 471 

Arctic Explorations. 438 

Area of North America. 449 

Ark—Com parative Size of the Ark and Great Eastern. 423 

Army of the Revolution, The. 447 

Aspen Leaves, Why Always in a Quiver. 461 

Ash, White, Relative Whiteness or. 454 

Asia—Description of—Its Size—Where it Lies—Its Greatest Length—Size 
Compared to the United States—Islands, Mountains—Mt Everest, 
Highest in the World—Caspian Sea—Sea of Aral—Lakes Below Sea 
Level—The Largest Lakes—Rivers—Hindoostan—The Obi River— 

V alleys — Plains — Fertility—Temperature—Rainfall—Climate—Si¬ 
beria—India—Cyclones—Bay of Bengal—Southern Asia—Vegeta¬ 
tion—Products—Plants—Central Asia—Forests—Wheat—Tea—Rice 
—Western Asia—Coifee—Tobacco—Dates—Figs— Olives—Domestic 
Animals—Beasts of Burden—Southern Asia—Animals—Birds and 
Reptiles—Wild Cattle—Gold, Silver and Tin Mines—Petroleum- 

Precious Stones—Pearls—The Birthplace of the Human Race. 290 

Assassination of Presidents. 73 

Assaying Gold Ore.542 

Assignment. 223 

Of Demand for Wages or Debt. 223 

Form of Bond. 224 

Association, New Orleans Cotton, When Formed.507 

Atlantic Cable, The First. 442 

Atlas of the World.290 

Autocracy. 73 

Award by Arbitrators, Form of. 230 

Axle Grease, How to Make Four Kinds of. 99 

Azores, The. 294 


Babel, Tower of. 456 

Babies, Superstitions Regarding. 426 

Bahama Islands, The. . 297 

Bank, Organization of a. 397 

Discount. 173 

Frauds, Embezzlement. 413 

Methods of Defrauding a. 414 

Note Paper, Manufacture of. 69 

Of England. 395 

Of North America, Prior to 1846. 396 

Of North America, Since 1846. 397 

Run on a. 412 

Statement.411 

Bank Checks, Showing Forms. 44-46 

Certificate of Deposit. 46 

Crossed Checks. . 45 

Banking Facts and Suggestions, with Forms. 395-414 

Book-keepers. 409-410 

Cashier, His Duties . 397-398 

Cashier’s Reference Book, Showing Notation. 399 

Certification, Form of .401 

Collection Clerk, His Duties. 405 

Note Book, Page from. 406 

Paper, Protest. 406-407 

Register, Form of. 406 

Collector, Messenger or Runner. 411 

Detection of Counterfeits. 404 

Devices for Restoring Confidence . 413 

Different Classes of Customers. 402 

Discount Book, Discount Ledgers. 408 

Clerk, His Duties.407 

Day and Offering Day._. 407 

Register, Form. 408 

Expense, and Profit and Loss Account. . 410 

General Book-keeper, His Charge. 410 

Kiting. 405 

Meeting of the Board of Directors . 399 

Notice, Form of. 406 

Offering Book, Page from. 407 

Opening a Ledger, Vowel System. 409 

Organization . 397 

Over Certification. 414 

Panic, Want of Confidence. 411 

Paying Teller, His Duties. 400 

Paying Teller’s Estimate of Signatures. 401 

Power of Credit.. 414 

President.. . 397 

Receiving Teller, His Duties.403 

Short Term Paper Preferred. 407 

Stamp for Certified Notes, Form of... 406 

Tickler, or Record of Notes Due, Form. 409 

Bangkok, City of. 292 

Bannocks, How to Make.366 

Barnacles, Destructive Work of.469 





































































































































































































































VI 


INDEX 



PAGE 

Bath, Nourishing Steam.460 

Battering Ram, The Ancient. 455 

Batters tor Cooking Meats, Fruit, Vegetables, Etc. 383 

Beauty in Dress, The Art of. 162 

Beauty, The Secrets of . 417 

Beavers, Age Attaind by. 455 

Bedbug Poisons. 461 

Beechwood, Relative Hardness of.454 

Beef Tea. .. • .365 

Bees, Age Attained by. 455 

Beeswax, How to Reline. 461 

Bells, The Largest .467 

Beloochistan, Description of. 292 

Belts, How to Splice. 457 

How to Lace .457 

How to Clean and Oil.460 

Beneficiarv, or Co-operative Insurance. 339 

Berbers, The. 293 

Bible, Curious Dissection of the. 472 

Bibles, History of the Various of the World.420 

Bill of Sale, Form of . 224 

Birch, White, Relative Hardness of. 454 

Birds, Age A ttained by. 455 

Ra nk of Melody . 455 

Speed at Which They Fly. 457 

Biscuits, How to Make. 366 

Cream. 366 

French. . 366 

Rye. 366 

Soda. 366 

Tea. 366 

Blackberry Syrup, How to Make. 365 

Blackbirds, Age Attained by.— 455 

Blackcap, Age Attained by. 455 

Black Death Plague, The. 444 

Blanc Mange, How to Make. 371-384 

Blood, History of the Discovery of its Circulation. 463 

Quantity Distributed by the Heart’s Action.456 

Blue Laws, Blue-light Federalist.. 73 

Blue Laws, The.449 

Board of Trade, Chicago. 479 

A Cornered Market, Corners. 486-487 

Arbitration and Appeal, Committees of. 480 

Arbitration Committee in Session. 487 

Commission Rates. 494 

Diagram of Board of Trade. 482 

Forms of Contracts, Grain Sold and Bought—.489 

Margins, Rates . . 490-491 

Officers and Standing Committees . 480-481 

Organization, Objects. 479 

Practical Workings. 480 

Puts, Calls and Straddles. 487-488 

Rates of Storage.490 

Receiving Trade, The. 481-482 

Rules Governing Inspection of Grain . 483-484 

Selling Flour by Sample . 484 

Selling Grain by Sample. 483 

Selling Short. 486 

Settlements. 492-494 

Shipping Trade, The. 484-485 

Speculative Trade, The. 485 

Visitors. 481 

Warehouse Receipts, Form of. 490 

Wheat Market, The. 485 

Body, Mean Heat of Human. 456 

Body, The Human, Facts About . 427 

Boilers, Tubular. 460 

Bokhara, Description of. 292 

Bonds, Form of.223 

Bookbinding .200 

Book-keeping—Concise and Comprehensive Explanation of Single and 
Double Entry Systems—Necessity and Advantages of a Knowledge 

of Book-keeping.450 

Balance Sheet, Single Entry..451 

Double Entry. 451 

General Principles. 454 

Single Entry. 450 

The Cash Book. 451 

The Cash Book Examples. .. 452 

The Day Book. 453 

The Day Book, Posting.453 

The Merchandise Account. 453 

The Petty Cash Book. 453 

The Proper System. 450 

Boot, High-heeled. . 419 

Border Ruffians. 73 

Boston Cream, How to Make. 365 

Brass, Paste for Cleaning. 460 

To Remove Spots from. 468 

Brazil, Full Descriptive and Statistical Matter Relative to. 298 

Bread, How to Make Good. 366 

Brown, How to Make Five Kinds of . 366 

Corn. How to Make.366 

Excellent, How to Make. 366 

French, How to Make. 366 

Graham, How to Make. 366 

Italian, How to Make . 366 

Rice and Wheat, Howto Make. 366 

Sago, How to Make . 366 

Steamed, How to Make. 366 

Breakfast Cakes, How to Make . 366 

Brewing. • • . . 260 

Bricklayer’s and Stonemason s Work. 186-187 

Bricks. 200 

Antiquity of. 457 

and Bricklayers. 455 

Brick Walls, Strength of.470 

res. 200 

Arched, Suspension, Tubular. 197 

Form of. 192 

New Toi’k and Brooklyn Suspension.. — 192 



Bridges—Continued. PAGE 

Various. 197 

British Columbia. 299-300 

Brother Jonathan. 73 

Broths, How to Make All Kinds of.390 

Bucktails. 73 

Buckwheat Cakes, How to Make . 367 

Quick, How to Make. 367 

Buffalo, Period of Gestation in.455 

Building, Hints on. 465 

Buildings, Wonderful. 456-457,467 

Bunker Hill Monument, The. 413 

Buns, Spanish, How to Make. 367 

Bath, How to Make. 367 

Burmah, Kingdom of. 292 

Burial Customs. . 438 

Business, How to Conduct a Successful. 88 

Business Forms. 39 

Acceptance. 54 

Bank Check. 44 

Bill for Services. 40 

Certificate of Deposit.. 46 

Certified Check. 45 

Demand Note. 50 

Due Bill. 47 

I.O.U. 47 

Joint and Several Note. 50 

Merchant’s Bill. 41 

Negotiable and not Negotiable Notes . 49 

Orders, Various. 52 

Receipts, Various. 42-43 

Set of Exchange. 55 

Sight Draft. 54 

Business Laws in Brief. 422 

Business Writing, Records of the Pen. . 27 

Application of the Principles, Small Letters One Space High. 34 

Capital Letters, Analysis According to Pinciples 6 , 7 ,8 . 35 

Loop. 33 

Loop Letters, Eighth Principle. 36 

Stem. 33 

Stem Letters, Seventh Principle. 36 

Copies for Practice. 37 

Different Movements Combined in Various Forms. 33 

Essential Elements of Capital Letters. 33 

Figures. 37 

Finger Movement. 32 

Lateral and Rolling Movement Combined. 33 

Lateral Movement Exercises . 33 

Legibility, Finish.. 30 

Letters of the Small Alphabet. 34 

Materials Used in Writing.27-28 

Movement Exercises . 32 

Ovals Drawn Out and Ovals Even. 32 

Oval Letters, Sixth Principle. 35 

Pens, Ink and Paper. 28 

Position of the Body. 29 

Position of the Body While Standing. 30 

Position of the Hand and Pen. 31 

Principles in Writing. 33 

Rapidity, Beauty . 31 

Retracing, an Error. 35 

Shading. 29 

Slant. 29 

Study with Practice. 28 

Types, Resemblance and Absurdity. 34 

Uniformity. 29 

Upper Loops, Crossing at Height of One Space.[ 35 

Whole Arm, or Free Movement. .’ 32 

Butternut, Relative Hardness of.' ’ ” 454 


Cakes—How to Make— 

Almond. 338 

Cinnamon .... ” * 333 

Chocolate, Frosting for. . . . . . 368 

Cocoanut .. . . ” 368 

CocoanutDrop.' 33s 

Cocoanut Jumbles. ” j 338 

Composition. 333 

Cookies. 333 

Cookies, Drop. 339 

Cookies, Molasses.’ 339 

Corn Starch." ‘' 368 

Cream. 333 

Cup .. 369 

Currant. 333 

Delicate.’ “ ” 339 

Delicious Swiss.] 369 

Doughnuts . ” 369 

Drop..;; 369 

Fried. 339 

Frosting for. '338 

Fruit.” 339 

Fruit, Plain. !!.!.. 370 

Ginger Snaps. 339 

Ginger Drop. ”369 

Graham. 339 

Ice Cream Icing for White. 333 

Icing for.339 

Johnnie. 33? 

Jumballs. ' 374 

Jumbles. . .369 

Kisses. 339 

Lemon Puffs and Tarts. o 71 

Light Fruit... ” ” ‘ 339 

Macaroons. 374 


Marble, Light Part 
Marble, Dark Part. 
Molasses Cookies.. 

Muffins. 

Nut. 










































































































































































































































































INDEX 


VII 



Cakes—How to Make— PAGE 

Oat... girQ 

Orange Crumpets...." .*. *. .*..’' ‘' ‘""' ' 37 ^ 

Orange, Most Delicate There is. ” ’ . 379 

Plain. . 

370 


Pound. 

puffs.!370 


Seed 


370 


Short, Rich. . 370 

Snow. . 370 

Sponge.‘ 370 

Sponge, White. 370 

Strawberry Short Cake.. ‘372 

Suggestions for Making Cake.! . 367 

Washington.' 370 

Calculate, See “ How to Calculate,” under H........ iei-191 

Cambodia, Empire of. g92 

Camels, Age Attained by............. !........ 455 

Great Endurance of. 293 

Period of Gestation in.... ...i. .." 455 

Camphor, Small Quantities of for Home Use. 461 

Camphor Ice, How to Make. 461 

Canada—-The Dominion of—Full Description and Statistical Matter 

Relative to . 299 

Canal, The Suez. . .. 293 437 

Canaries’ Eggs, How Long it Takes to Hatch.....’ 455 

Canary Islands, Description of. 294 

Candles, Compared to Oil and Gas. 456 

I’ll n n n Ifn J. 


Cannon, Various Kinds of 


201 


Cannon Balls, How Fast they Travel, and the Air’s Resistance to Them, 455 

Capacity 9 f Boxes.; i80 

of Tin Vessels, How to Ascertain. .. 459 

Cape Town, Description of. 294 

Cape Verde Islands, Description of. . '. ...294 

Capitals, The Use of. 428 

Carp, Age Attained by.. j . 455 

Carpentry . 394 

Carpets, How to Clean on the Fioor.'. . 462 

Carriages, Various Kinds of . 201 

When First Used in France. .. 155 

Cash and Credit Business... . ’ 348-349 

Catacombs of Paris, The.. 446 

Selling Q oods for.^1” 347 

Cats, Period of Gestation of.. . 455 

Catsups, Howto Make. ....!!*!!"!"! 387 

How to Keep Good Twenty Years. !' 387 

Mushroom. 337 

Oyster.387 

Tomato, a Good. 387-388 

Walnut. . 387 

Cattle, Sixty-four Kinds of Medicine for...! .i3i-133 

Caves, Wonderful.. 449 

Cayen ne Pepper.. 442 

Cedar, Relati"e Hardness of. 454 

Celluloid, Dangers of . 424 

Cement, an Unusually Good. ................. 460 

For Filling Letters Cut in Brass.. .460 

For Glass Bottles.. 458 

For Leather, Liquids. ...... 458 

For Mending Pots and Pans.. 458 

Cemeteries, Our National. 439 

Central America—Full, Descriptive and Statistical Matter Relative to . . 297 

Chaffinch, Age Attained by. 455 

Chamois, Age Attained by. 455 

Champagne Cup, How to Make. ..! 365 

Charcoal, Quantity of Wood Required to Make.!.! 455 

Charges, for Inspection of Grain. 603 

For Storing. . 497 

Charlotte Russe.. 374 

Checks. ...” 404 

Check List, Form of.. ..* 494 

Cherry, Wild, Relative Hardness of.. . . 454 

Chess, Antiquity of the Game of. 447 

Chestnut, Relative Hardness of. 454 

Chili—Full Descriptive and Statistical Matter Relative to. 298 

Chimney, Highest in the World. 467 

Chimneys, How to Straighten Settled. 460 

Chinese Empire, The—Population—Fertility of Land—Rivers and Canals 
—How Its People Live—Food—Exports—Tribes of Wandering Peo¬ 
ple—City of Pekin—Walls of China—Heathen Temples—Its Houses, 

Mountains, Etc.291 

Chinese Proverbs..” 433 

Chinese Wall, Description of . 431 

Chocolate, How to Make . 365 

Chromos, How to Varnish .’ 460 

Chronology of Important Events, from 2348 B. C. to Date.. 427 

Cider, Formula for Artificial.. 467 

Cities, The Oldest in the World. 467 

Citrate of Magnesia, How to Make .. ” ” 460 

Civil Law, Civil Service, Definitions of. .. 284 

Civil Rights Bill, Civil Service Reform. 73 

Civil War, The Great. . 158-162 

Bounties Paid by Various States. 158 

Chronological Tables of Battles. 159-162 

Colored Troops Engaged in the Service. 158 

Number of Men Drafted, by States.158 

Total Number of Troops Furnished by Each State. 158 

Civility, Essential Element in Civilization.217 

Cleaning House Records.... 429 

Cloth, How to Remove Spots from. .462 

Clothes Wringers, Method of Manufacture. 459 

Coaches, When First Used. 155 

Coal, Anthracite, Value of as Compared to Natural Gas. 457 

Anthracite, When First Used . 88 

Fields of England. 88 

Fields, American. 88 

First Patent for Making Iron with Granted. 88 

Gas, When First Used Practically. 88 

Great Shaft of Philadelphia & Reading Co. 88 

How Many Cubic Feet in a Ton of Various Kinds of.431 

How Many Pounds to Maintain Given Horse-Power per Hour. 457 

Information About. 88 , 457 


Coal—Continued. PAGE 

Mine, Deepest in England. 334 

Used for Smelting Iron . 88 

When First Used. 88 

First Mined . 88 

First Taxed. 88 

First Used for Smithing. 88 

First Burned in Grates. 88 

First Mined in the United States. 88 

Tax Repealed ... 88 

Coal Oil, When First Used. 165 

Cochin-China, Empire of. 292 

Cocoa Snow .371 

Codfish, Age Attained by . 455 

Coffee, How to Make. 365 

Temperature at which Draws . 456 

Coins, Gold, United States and Foreign. 191 

Of Every Country in the World. 445 

Silver, Foreign and United States. 191 

Value of Old American.430 

Cold, How Measured below 35 Degrees below Zero. 462 

ColdestiCity in the World . 291 

Collodio-Bromide Emulsion. 457 

Colored Population at Each Census. . .438 

Colosseum at Rome, The. 451 

Compressed Yeast, How Made. 462 

Commission, Form of Account Sales. 166-167 

Commissions and Brokerage, Cotton. 522 

Commonwealth, or Republic. 74 

Compound Interest Table, Showing $1 from 1 to 50 years. . 174 

Compromise of 1850 . 74 

Concrete, A Cheap. 470 

Condenser. 202 

Condition Powder. 461 

Condor, The, of Peru. 455 

Confederacy, Confederate States. 74 

Confederation, Articles of. 74 

Congo Free States, Description of. 294 

Congress, American and Colonial. 74 

Consideration. 223 

Consols, English. 284 

Constitution, Constitutional Union Party. 74 

Continental Congress.512 

Contracts, New Orleans Cotton, Form of.512 

Convention of 1787 . 74 

Copper Mines. 293 

Copyright, Law of. 264-266 

Communication Enclosing an Assignment to Librarian of Congress 266 

For Labels. 265-266 

Form of Assignment, General.266 

Recording, Certificate of. Form. 266 

Corners in Grain, Etc. 487 

Corn, How to Measure. 420 

Corn, Speculating in, Chicago Board of Trade. 488 

Cosmetiques, Howto Make. 162 

Bandoline. 162 

Complexion Wash. 162 

Face Powder. 162 

Oil to Make Hair Curl.162 

Pearl Dentrifice. 162 

Pearl Water for the Face.162 

To Remove Wrinkles from the Skin. 162 

To Clear a Tanned Skin. 162 

Wash for a Blotched Skin. 162 

Cotton Exchange, The New Orleans. . 504 

Cotton Speculation . 506-507 

Cough Candy, How to Make. 460 

Syrup, A Good. 461 

Court Plaster, How to Make. 462 

Cows, Age Attained by and Period of Gestation in. 455 

Cranes, Age Attained by. 455 

Cream and Snow. 371-372 

Cream, Gooseberry. 371 

Imperial. 371 

Raspberry .371 

Rock. 372 

Creams, Snow. 372 

Spanish. 372 

Whipped. 372 

Credit Mobilier. 75 

Crocodile, Age Attained by.455 

Cuba, Full Description of. 297 

Currant Cordial, Black. 365 

Wine, Howto Make.365 

Curious Calculations. 472 

Custards, Arrow Root. 371 

Baked. 371 

Chocolate Cream. 372 

Oat Meal. 372 

Orange. 372 

Rice. 372 


Damascus, Description of. 292 

Damp-Proof Walls . 458 

Danish America.295 

Dark Ages, The . 447 

Dark Days, Some Remarkable. •••••-••; .440-448 

Deaths from Diphtheria per 1,000 in the Principal Cities of the World... 462 

Debate, Themes for.. 

Decisive Battles of the World—. 447 

Declaration of Independence— . 

Signers of the. |3< 

Deeds, Parts of a, for Conveyance. "49 

Form of Bond for a. 251 

Gift of Identure, Without any Warranty Whatever. 2o0 

Quit Claim Without any Warranty, Form of. 250 

Trustee’s Form of. "50 

Warranty, Form of. ~4“ 

Deer, Age Attained by... . 

Delivery of Cotton . 518-o20 

Democratic Party. 







































































































































































































































































Vlll 


INDEX 


PAGE 

Deposit, Indorsing for. 63 

Ticket, Form of. 403 

Depositors, Borrowers. 398-399 

Depositor’s Pass Book, Form of . 403 

Depths of the Ocean, The Greatest. 447 

Detecting Counterfeit Money. 67 

Altered Bank Notes. 70 

Bank Note Paper . 69 

Comparing and Examining Notes. . 70 

Counterfeit and Genuine Work. 68 

Counterfeit Money in Circulation.. 67 

Counterfeit Signatui-es. 70 

Devices and Frauds.. 68 

Geometrical Lathe. 68 

Lathe Work. 68 

Piecing, Etc.. 71 

Ruling Engine Work... . 69 

Solid Pi'int.. 69 

Vignettes . 69 

Diamonds. 291-293 

Diana, The Temple of . 456 

Dictionary of Mercantile and Legal Terms, Giving About 600 Terms 

and Definitions. 83-89 

Digestion Tables . 155 

Dinner Menus, Twenty Choice. 428 

Discount, Bank . 173 

Discounts, Trade, Form of Bill. 170-171 

Dog, Period of Gestation in.455 

Dogwood, Relative Hardness of. 454 

Doughnuts, How to Make. 369 

Drafts and Bills of Exchange. 53 

Draft Riots, New York. 75 

Draughtsmen, Useful Hints to. 457 

Dred Scott Decision . 76 

Dredging Machines—What Work They Can Accomplish. 455 

Dressmaking. 421 

Drunkenness, Cex-tain Cure for. 426 

Duck Eggs, How Long it Takes to Hatch. 455 

Ducks, How to Cook .. ... 375 

Speed at Which They Fly. 457 

Dyeing, Receipts for... 468-469 


Eagle, Age Attained by. 455 

Eats. What a Man. 468 

Earth’s Center, The. . . 472 

Earthquakes.440 

Economy, Rules for Economical Bxisiness. 217-218 

Getting a Situation..218 

Eel, Age Attained by. 445 

Eggs, Howto Tell Age of. 463 

How to Cook. . . . 372-373 

How Long it Takes to Hatch Various. 455 

How to Engrave on.442 

Value of for Food and Other Purposes. 464 

Egypt, Description of.293 

Egyptians, The. 293 

Electi-ic Light.203 

Elements of Success in Business . 215-218 

Elephant, Period of Gestation in. 455 

Age Attained by.455 

Elevator and Grain Trade. 495 

Business of Elevator Companies. 495-496 

Charges for Inspection.503 

Compensation for Storage. 499 

Construction, Various Differences in Elevators. 503 

Daily Reportof Shipments. 602 

Different Classes of Public Warehouses. 502 

Elevator as an American Institution. 495 

Elevator, Boot and Tank, Vertical Section of.502 

Elevator C at Locust Point, Baltimore & Ohio Railroad. 496 

Elevator Leg, The ... .:. 497 

Flaxseed, Inspection and Classification.603 

Foreman of the Elevator, His Returns. 501 

Grain Bius, Partial View. 499 

Grain Bucket. 503 

Grain of Same Kind, and Grain Mixed.502 

How Grain is Raised and Conveyed to any Part of the Building 496-498 

Inspection Department and Inspectors . 495-496 

Noting the Weight of Grain . 497 

Order for Delivery of Gi-ain for Shipment, Form of. 500 

Registrar, His Duties ... . 496 

Shovel . 496 

Transvei - se Section of an Elevator. 497 

Trimming —. 501 

Unloading Crain from Railway Cars... 497 

Unloading or Loading Vessels. 499-501 

Warehouse Receipts and Form of. 499-500 

Who Owns the Elevators... 495 

Elm, Relative Hardness of.454 

Eloquence, Masterpieces of. 154 

Emancipation. 76 

Embankments, to Protect. 470 

Emeralds —.291 

Emery Cloth, Device for Stretching. 457 


Engine 


203 


Engines, Useful Hints About..460 

Engineers, Information for. 457 

Engineering Appliances Used by the Ancients. 456 

Envelopes when First Used . 155 

Era of Good Feeling. 76 

Esquimaux.295 

E- • ope—Description of—Where Situated—Size—Population of—Water 
Boundary—The British Isles—Extent of Coast—To What It Owes 
Its Commercial Supremacy—The Islands of Europe—Description 
Of the Land—Caspian Sea—The Netherlands—High Europe-The 
Mountains—The Alps—The Mountain Glaciers—The Rivers of Eu¬ 
rope—The Lakes—Salt Lakes—Climate—Rainfall—Fi-ozen Marshes 
—Forests—What Its Products Are—Animals—Fowls and Fish- 

Minerals—People, to What Races They Belong. 290 

Excellency. 76 


PAGE 

Exchange, New Orleans Cotton. 504 

Lumberman’s . 363-364 

Executive Ability. 216 

Executors and Administrators, Duties of. 253-254 

Exemptions from Forced Sale in Different States. 271-282 

Expansion. 204 


Farmers, Rights and Duties of. 235 

Damage by Fire. 240 

Domestic Animals. 245-246 

Fixtures. 235-236 

Fruit, Who Owns It. 246 

Game. 244 

Hiring a Farm by Lease. 240-241 

Hiring of Help. 241-242 

Railroad Lines Through Farms. 237-238 

Right of Way. 237 

Roads, Trees, Etc. 236 

Trespass. 239 

Water Rights and Drainage. 238 

Fastest Boat in the World.463 

Federal Government, Federalist. 76 

Fenian Movement.. . 76 

Fiction of Law. 285 

Figs, How to Stew.372 

Financial Panics. . 76 

Finger Nails an as Indication of Character. 424 

Files, How to Mend Broken . 458 

Fire Grenades, How to Make. 463 

Fire, How to Extinguish.4*5 

Fire Insurance, How it is Conducted. 327-332 

Account Current for a Month, Form of. ... . 330 

Adjuster, The, His Instructions.329 

Agent’s Agreement with Insured.329 

Contract or Policy. 827-329 

Daily Report of Agent, Form of. 329 

Frauds. 330-331 

Joint Stock. 328 

Mutual... 328 

Notice of Loss. 328-329 

Policy Register, Foiun of. 329 

Proof of Loss, Showing Items of Policy Instructions, and Magis¬ 
trate’s or Notary’s Certificate. 331-332 

Supervising Agent’s Report, Form of. 332 

Fires, Great of History. 433 

Fish, Age Attained by. 455 

How to keep Sound. 374 

Secret Arts of Catching. .. 426 

Fish, How to Choose, Cook and Prepare Various Kinds of. 373-375 

Anchovies.373 

Balls. 374 

Boiled. 374 

Bass, Black. 373 

Chowder. 373 

Clam Fritters. 373 

Cod-fish. 373 

Eels.. ... . 374 

Herrings, Broil, Roast, Fry or Pot. 374 

Lobster, Buttered, Curry of or Chowder. 374 

Mackerel, Fresh and Salt. 374 

Oysters, Fry, Stew, Escalloped, Pickle, Corn and Patties. 373-375 

Potted. 374 

Salmon. 375 

Salt Cod.389 

Salt, General Directions for Cooking all Kinds of. 375 

Sauces for Fish.. 

Sturgeon. 375 

Trout.375 

White Fish . 373 

Flour Paste, How to Make. 462 

Flour, Quantity of Derived from Wheat—. 455 

Flowers, Language of. 153-154 

Natural, a Preparation in Which Dipped, Will be Preserved. 461 

Fogs Off Coast of Newfoundland. 300 

Forests of the World . 466 

Forging, Chisel, Etc. 460 

Fox, Age Attained by. 455 

Freckles, How to Remove Without Injury to Skin. 462 

Freight, Comparative Cost by Rail or Water Transportation. 425 

Fremont, John C., Explorations of. 433 

Friction, The Law of. 456 

Frost in Siberia. 456 

Frosting, Ho4v to Make. 368 

Fruits, How to Preserve. 121-126 

Apples. . .121 

Apricots. 122 

Cherries.„. 122 

Citron. 122 

Crab Apples. )21 

Cucumber. ]22 

Currants.. 122 

Dewberries .... . .. 

Fruits, To Preserve Without Cooking—Without Self-Sealing Cans 
—Without Sugar or Vinegar—By Syrup Without Heat—In 

Brandy—To Bottle—To Keep Fresh in Jars. .. 121,124-125 

Ginger, Green. 123 

Imitation of. 122 

Mock . 123 

To Preserve Melon-like. 122 

Gooseberries . 123 

Grapes, in Bunches. 122 

In Vinegar.. 

Hints on Preserving. 121 

Huckleberries. 123 

Jam, Howto Make .’ 125 

How to Put Up While Hot.' 425 

Jelly, How to Make.’ 125 

Custard ..125 

With Fruit ... 

With Gelatine. " 435 





















































































































































































































































INDEX 


IX 


Jelly—Continued. PAGE 

Isinglass. 125 

Howto Color . 125 

How to Preserve from Mold.. 125 

Marmalade.125 

Mushrooms. 123 

Oranges, to Preserve Whole. 122 

Orange Peel. 123 

Peaches. 124 

Pears. 123 

Pineapples.:.123 

Plums, Damsons. Green Gages, Purple. 122-123 

Quinces. 124 

Raspberries.124 

Rhubarb.124 

Strawberries.124 

Tomatoes.124 

Fruit Wines, How to Make. 125-126 

Apple.125 

Apricot.125 

Blackberry.125 

Currant.. 126, 365 

Gooseberry. 126 

Grape. 126 

Futures, Doctrine of Cotton. 510-517 

G 

Galvanic Battery. 204 

Game, How to Choose and Cook. 375-376 

Ducks. 375 

Partridge. 376 

Pheasant. 376 

Plover. 376 

Quail.376 

Rabbits. 376 

Snipe.376 

Venison.376 

Garfield, President, The Assassination of. 442 

Gas Compared to Oil. 456 

Natural, Information on.457 

Time Required ti Travel Through Pipes. 456 

When First Used. 88 

Gauge. . 204 

Geese, Age Attained by. 455 

Gems, Graham, How to Make.367 

Gerrymander. 77 

Gestation, Period of in Animals. 455 

Ginger Snaps, How to Make.369 

Glass, How to Drill Holes in.458 

How to Polish Plate. 461 

Howto Frost. 469 

Windows, When First Used. 155 

Glue, How to Make Liquid. 463 

How to Keep Sweet. 460 

Size, How to Make. 460 

Gold and Silver Minerals. 205,541-542 

Discovery of in California. 155,421 

How to Make Artificial.422 

How Small it May be Divided.472 

Mines. 291-295 

Goldfinch, Age Attained by. 455 

Goose Eggs, How Long it Takes to Hatch.455 

Governor.205 

Government, Forms of—. 285 

Graceful, How to Appear. .... 419 

Grain Inspection Charges . 484-103 

Mixed. 483-4,502 

Grand Jury. 285 

Grange, or Patrons of Husbandy . 77 

Granite, Enormous Blocks of. 456 

Grant, General U. S., Tour Around the World. 446 

Greenback—. 77 

Greenland. 295 

Griddle Cakes.367 

Griquiland West, Description of. .. .294 

Gruel, Egg, How to Make. 365 

Guaranty, Forms of.224 

Indorsement, Form of. 64 

Guardian, Duties of. 254-255 

Bond by Guardian, Form of. 255 

Petition for Appointment by a Minoi Over FourteenYears,Form of 255 

Guatemala, Description of.294 

Gun, Gun Metal. 205 

Gunpowder. 205 

Charcoal in, of What Woods Made. 455 


Hair, to Prevent Falling Out of The.. 462 

Hard Cider and Log Cabin Campaign. 77 

Hare, Age Attained by. 455 

Havana..297 

Hawks, Age Attained by.455 

Hay ti. 297-298 

Hazel, Relative Hardness of. 454 

Headache, Cure for Nervous. 461 

Health, Rules for the Preservation of.. 429 

Heat and Cold at Which Substances Melt, Boil or Freeze.425 

Heat Creating Power of Coal and Gas.457 

Hen Eggs, How Long it Takes to Hatch.455 

Hens, Age Attained by.455 

Hickory, Relative Hardnessof . 454 

Highest Buildings in the World.415-417 

Point Reached by Man.463 

Hints on Kitchen Work... •. 163 

To Young Housewives.425 

Hives, Their Cause and Cure. 461 

Holy Land, The.— 292 

Homes, Advantages of Owning. 460 

Homestead and Exemption Laws, Different States. 271-282 

Honesty as an Element of Success in Business.. 215 

Honey, How to Make Artificial. 462 

What the Chemical Composition of is . —. 462 


PAGE 

Horse Remedies. 127-131 

Alteratives for Horses— 

Alterative Ball. 127 

Debility of Stomach. 127 

Defective Secretions.127 

Disordered State of the Skin. 127 

Simply Cooling.127 

Anesthetics for Horses. 127 

Adhesive Plasters for Horses, Various Kinds of. 129 

Anodynes for Horses— 

Anodyne Ball. 127 

Ball for Colic.127 

Chronic Diarrhoea Cure.127 

Diarrhoea Ball .127 

Drench for Colic.127 

Antacids for Horses. 127 

Anthelmintics for Horses— 

Drench for Worms. 127 

Worm Ball . 127 

Antispasmodics for Horses— 

Clyster in Colic. 128 

Colic. 128 

Drench for Colic. 128 

Aperients or Purges for Horses— 

A Warmer Physic Ball. 128 

Cooling Drench for Colds. .128 

Condition Powder, a Good . 461 

Gentle Laxative Ball. 128 

Laxative Ball for Washy Horses . 128 

Laxative Drenches.^.128 

Mild Opening Drench. 128 

Ordinary Physic Balls... 128 

Purgative Clyster.. 128 

Purging Balls with Calomel. . 128 

Staggers, Medicine for. 128 

Very Mild Laxative. 128 

Astringents for Horses— 

Astringent Lotion.128 

Bloody Urine. 128 

Diabetes. 128 

Ointments for Sore Feet.. 128 

Ulcerated Sores. 128 

Blisters or Vesicants for Horses— 

Blister Ointments. 128-129 

Ringbone, Spavin and Splint Blisters . 129 

Sweating Blister. 129 

Caustics and Cauteries for Horses, Fourteen Kinds of. 129 

Clysters or Enemata for Horses, Various Kinds of. 129 

Cordials for Horses— 

Cordial and Expectorant. 129 

Cordial Balls.129 

Cordial Drench. 129 

Demulcents for Horses— 

Drench, Demulcent. 129 

Marshmallow Drench . 129 

Diaphoretics for Horses— 

Hide Bound Drenches. 129-130 

Various Drenches for. 129 

Digestives for Horses— 

Digestive Ointment. 130 

Diuretics for Horses— 

Active Powder. 130 

Cooling Diuretic Ball. 130 

Powder for Mash . 136 

Stimulating Diuretic Ball. 130 

Embrocations for Horses— 

Active Sweating. 130 

Mustard Embrocation.130 

Stimulating Embrocation... 130 

Sweating, for Wind Galls.130 

Emulsions for Horses— 

Active Emulsions. 130 

Simple Emulsions. 130 

Expectorants for Horses— 

Cough Expectorant . 130 

Standing Cough. 130 

Strong Expectorant.130 

Febrifuges or Fever Medicine for Horses— 

Cooling Drench. 130 

Cooling Powder.. 130 

Fever Balls . 130 

Lotions or Washes for Horses— 

Wash for Galled Sores . 130 

Wash for Inflammation. 130 

Wash for Ulcers. 130 

Narcotics for Horses, Various Kinds. 130 

Refrigerants for Horses, Various Kinds. 130 

Sedatives for Horses, and Their Effects.130-131 

Stimulants for Horses, Various Kinds. 131 

Stomach Medicines for Horses, Various Kinds of. 131 

Styptics for Horses, for Stopping the Flow of Blood. 131 

Tonic Balls for Horses, Various Kinds. 131 

Horses, Age Attained by. 455 

Durability of . 425 

How Fed in Norway .458 

Period of Gestation in. 455 

Hottest Place on the Globe. 456 

Hot Water Pipes, Joints for. 457 

Household Receipts.99-100 

Beans, How to Shell Easy. 99 

Beds, Feather, How to Cleanse. 100 

Bed-ticks, How to Clean. 99 

Carpets, How to Clean. . 99 

How to Remove Spots from . 99 

How to Remove Ink Spots on. 99 

How to Wash. 99 

Cloth, How to Clean and Scour. 99 

How to Revive Color of Black. 99 

Renovation of. 99 

Crape, How to Restore. 100 

Hams, English Receipt for Sugar Curing—. 100 

Meats, How to Pickle. 100 


tJ 

































































































































































































































































INDEX. 




) Household Receipts—Continued. PAGE 

Pork, How to Cut Up and Cure. 100 

Useful Household Receipts.460 

Washing Preparations. 100 

How Poor Boys Become Successful Men.328 

How the World is Weighed and Its Density and Mass Computed.463 

How the United States Got Its Lands . 436 

How to Be Handsome. 418 

How to Buy 100 Bales of Cotton . 514 

How to Calculate Various Examples of. 164-191 

Addition. 164 

Account Sales, Form of. 167 

Bricklayers’, Stonemasons’ Work, Scale. 186 

Capacity of Boxes. 180 

Cattle, To Find Weight of by Measurement.180 

Cistern or Well, To Find Capacity of. 181 

Commission. 166-167 

Compound Interest, with Table .173-174 

Converging Lines.183 

Corn on the Cob in Cribs. 179 

Fractions. 165-166 

Grain, To Find the Contents of a Bin in Bushels. 180 

Hay, To Find the Number of Tons in Stacks. 179 

Hay, To Find Value of. Etc.180 

Insurance. 168 

Interest. 171-172 

Investments, Real Estate. 177 

Land Surveying, Divisions, Etc. 181 

Loans on Real Estate, Mortgage, and other classes of Investments. 178 

Multiplication, Short Mehtods of. 165 

Nails, Various Kinds, Sizes, Etc., How Made. 137-138 

Painters’ and Calciminers’Work. 186 

Plasterers’Work, to Find Number Yards Plastering in a Room.... 186 

Practical Measurements. 179 

Principal or Astronomical Lines, Diagram. 182 

Quantity of Lumber in a Log, Soundness of Timber. 185 

Rules for Mechanics. 184 

Scantling and Timber Measure Reduced to One Inch Board 

Measure, Tables. 185 

Sell Goods. 346 

Small Savings, with Tables Showing Results of Savings. 178 

Speculate in Wall Street. 656-561 

Speculate on the Board of Trade . 479 

Stocks, Bonds and Investments, Showing Market Quotations. 175 

Table to Find Number of Acres in a Body of Land, Etc . 184 

Timber Measure. 184 

To Find Number of Feet in Scantling. 184 

How to Destroy Household Pests— 

Ants, Red and Black . 101 

Bedbugs, Eleven Methods . 101 

Bees. 101 

Caterpillars. 101 

Crickets. . 101 

Fleas. 101 

Flies. 102 

Fly Paper, How to Make. . 102 

Insects. . 102 

Mice.102 

Mosquitoes, How to Drive Off. 102 

Moths, How to Destroy in Carpets. 102 

How to Preserve Clothing from. 102 

Rats, Fourteen Methods. 102 

Water, to Prevent Vermin in . 103 

How to Tell Any Person’s Age. 422 

Human Body and Longevity.427 

Female, Period of Gestation in. 455 

Strength. 428 

Hurricane, Velocity of a. 155 

Hyena, Age Attained by.455 

Hydraulic, or Hydraulical Engineering, and Hydro-dynamics. 205 

Hydrostatic, or Hydrostatical. 206 

I 

Ice, Hard and Soft Water. 462 

The Elasticity of. 462 

Sustaining Power of. 469 

Which Kind Keeps Best.. . 462 

Ice Cream, How to Make Various Kinds of..366-367 

Iceland.. 295 

Identification.306, 308 

Illustrious Men and Women. 436 

Impeachment, President Johnson. 77 

India, The Empire of—How Ruled—Size—Population—When Settled and 
by Whom—Language—Religion—East India Company—To What 
Country Subject— Mountains — Plains — Fertility — Deserts—Cli¬ 
mate—Agriculture—Stock Raising—Industries—Exports—Food of 
the Natives—Important Cities—Island of Ceylon—Coffee—Spices— 

Pearl Oysters—Fisheries, Etc. 291 

Indians, American. 295 

Independence. 77 

Indorsements of Notes, Drafts and Checks.61-66 

Bank Check, Form of, Showing Face and Back, With Indorse¬ 
ments. 62 

Certificate of Protest, Form of. 65 

Conditional. 63 

Guaranty, Form of. 64 

In Blan'r. 62 

In Full or Special. 63 

Law Governing. 66 

Note for Collection, How to Indorse, Form of. 63 

Protest and Notice. 64 

Infants in Law. 221-222 

Ingersoll’s Oration at the Grave of a Child. 154 

Oration at His Brother’s Grave.154 

In-Inspection and Out-Inspection of Grain, Charges for. 484 

Ink, How to Make Printer’s. 458 

Extractor, Instantaneous.461 

Receipt for Making V iolet. 461 

Inn, Hotel and Boarding House Keepers. 234 

Inspection of Grain in and out of Store. 503 

Insurance, Life.361 

Marine. 260 



Insurance—Continued. PAGE 

Form of Immediate Notice of Loss... 259 

Law Relating to Fire. 258-259 

Notice, with Certificate, and Assignment of a Policy, Form of Each 259 

Or Assurance, Definition of.286 

Integrity, Reliance of a Business Man. 217 

Interest on Money.472 

And Usury.233 

Compound, Casting Up, and Table of.173-174 

Different Merhods of, and How it Accumulates.171-172 

Interesting Industrial Items. 163 

Iron.206 

Malleable, to Color. 458 

Production of. 88 

Rails, when First Used. 88 

Soapstone, Paint for. 133 

When First Made with Coal. 88 

When the Process of Galvanizing was Invented.457 

Items of Interest— —. 155 

Items Worth Remembering.423 


Jack, Jack Lever, Jack Screw. 

Jaguars, Age Attained by. 

Jamaica. 


206 

455 

297 


Japan, The Empire of—Its Islands, Forests, Lakes and Rivers—Animals 
—Mountains—Occupations of Its People—Manufacturing—Mining 

—Exports—Principal Cities—Mikado’s Residence—Tokio.291 

Jellies, How to Make Twenty Kinds of. 371-377 

Jerusalem, History of the City of. 443 

Joint and Several Note, Form of . . 50 

Judgment Note. 49-50 

Jumballs, How to Make.371 

Jurisprudence, General, Particular. 286 

Jury, Different Kinds. 286 


Kansas and Nebraska. 78 

Khartoum, The City of. 294 

Knives, when first used. 155 

Kuklux Klan. 78 


Labor, The Value of. 472 

Land, Cultivation in Japan. 468 

Measurement of. 181-184 

Lands, The United States, How Acquired. 436 

Language Used by Christ, The.442 

Of Broaers.553-554 

Of Gems, The.435 

Languages, Number of. 155 

Law.286 

and Legal Forms .220-267 

Governing Bank Checks . 46 

Governing Drafts and Bills of Exchange. 56 

Governing Indorsements . 66 

Governing Promissory Notes. 61 

Governing Receipts. 43 

Of Mining Regions.542-543 

Statute and Common. 220 

Lead. 206 

Mines.292 

Leaning Tower of Pisa, The. 431 

Leases, Suggestions and Statements.242-243 

by Grant, Form of. 244 

Landlord’s Notice to Leave at End of Term.343 

Landlord’s Notice to Quit for Non-payment of Rent. 243 

Short Form, Without Conditions.243 

Leather, Morocco. 293 

Liquid Cement for. 458 

Lecompton Constitution. 78 

Lee’s Surrender to Grant . 438 

Legislature. 78 

Lemonade, How to Make. 365 

Lemon Puffs and Tarts, How to Make. 371 

Syrup, How to Make. 365 

Leopards, Age Attained by. — 455 

Letter, How to Write a Business.144-152 

A Model Business. 148 

Addressing the Envelope, Diagrams.148-149 

Arrangement of Items. 150 

Body of the Letter.146-147 

Brevity and Style. 150 

Business Letters, Various Forms of. 151-162 

Diagram of the Structure of a. 145 

Folding the Sheet.149-150 

Heading the. 145 

In Advertising — . 214 

Instructions, A Dunning Letter. 150 

Introduction. 151 

Literature of a.150 

Margin and Address. .... . 146 

Ordering Goods. 150 

Paper and Envelope. 144 

Sending Money by.150 

Structure of a. 144 

Letters of Credit, Circular. 57 

Circular Notes. 50 

Form of Circular Letter of Credit. 68 

Lever. 206 

Liberia, Description of. 294 

Liberty Bell.441 

Liens, General,Specific,Mechanics’,Maritime.• •• 255 

Life Insurance. **"50 

Application, Form of .336 

Declaration, Form of. 336 

Double Endowment for Twenty Years. 334 

Expectation of Life, Constructed from Mortality Table. 335 

Extent and Magniture of the Business.337-338 

Frauds. 337 






















































































































































































































































INDEX. 


Life Insurance—Continued. page 

Mortality Table, Assured Lives. 334 

Policy, Form of. 337 

Premiums, Tables of. . 335-336 

Semi-Endowment for Twenty Years. 334 

Single Premium Life Policies. 334 

Ten Premium Non-Forfeiting Plan. 333 

Lightning, Distance Reflected.*.. 455 

Limitations.233 

Limit of Natural Vision. 431 

Linnet, Age Attained by. 455 

Lions, Age Attained by. 455 

Period of Gestation in. 455 

Llamas .455 

Locomotive, The First. 155 

Locomotives, Information About. 457 

London Bridge.468 

Looms. 155 

Losses, Various in Mercantile Business. 351-353 

Lumber and Other Articles, Estimated Weight of.190 

A Day at the Camp. 357 

Booming, Sorting and Sawing. 358-359 

California Redwood. 363 

Dangers of Logging. 358-359 

Interests, Extent and Magnitude. 356 

Log Hunter . 357 

Losses and Difficulties. 3&0 

Lumbermen’s Exchange. 363-364 

Mills and Hands Employed in the United States. 860 

Oregon and Washington Territories.363 

Production and Supply, The Mill. 361-363 

Railroad Logging, Porter’s Locomotive.363 

Receipts of Forest Products. 364 

Saw-Mill First Heard of. First in the United States.. 360 


M 

Macaroni, How to Cook. 

Magnet, Natural, and Magnetism. 

Mahogany, To Stain aud Polish. 

Maine Law. 

Malay Peninsula, The . .. 

Malays, The . 

Malice, Kinds of . 

Malleability. . 

Mandalay, The City of. 

Manifest. 

Manitoba. . 

Maple, Relative Hardness of. . 

Maps of 

Alabama. 

Alaska. 

Arizonia.— 

Arkansas. 

California. . 

Central America. — 

Colorado. 

Connecticut. 

Dakota. . 

Delaware. 

Florida. . 

Georgia. . 

Idaho . 

Illinois. 

Indiana. . 

Indian Territory. . 

Iowa. 

Kansas . 

Kentucky. . 

Louisiana. 

Maine.. 

Manityba.. ... 

Maryland. 

Massachusetts . 

Mexico. 

Michigan.... 

Minnesota. 

Mississippi .. . 

Missouri. . 

Montana. 

Nebraska. ... 

Nevada.:. 

New Hampshire. . 

New Jersey. 

New Mexico. 

New York. 

North America ... 

North Carolina. 

Ohio. . . 

Ontario ... 

Oregon. 

Pennsylvania. 

Quebec. . 

Rhode Island. 

South America. 

South Carolina . 

Tennessee. 

Texas. . . 

Utah . . 

Vermont . 

Virginia. 

Washington Territory... 

West Indies . . . 

West Virginia. 

Wisconsin . . 

Wyoming .. 

Marking Goods, Letters and Characters Used. 169- 

Rapid Process of at any Desired Per Cent. Profit. 

Marshmallows, as Made by Confectioners... 

Mason and Dixon’s Line .78, 

Matches, Preparation for Tops of. 

When Invented.. 

Measurements, Practical . 



373 

307 
463 

78 

393 

393 

287 

207 

392 

257 

300 
454 

305 

304 

306 

305 

306 
297 

308 

307 

308 

309 

309 

310 

311 

311 
313 

312 

313 

313 
303 

314 

315 
299 

315 

316 
297 

316 

317 

318 

318 

319 

319 

320 

301 
330 

321 

322 
294 

302 

323 

299 
323 

323 

300 

324 
294 
302 

302 

324 

325 
201 

303 

326 
297 
303 

326 

327 
-170 
424 
462 
433 
459 
155 
179 


Meats, All Kinds, How to Pre; 
Batter to Use With, All ! 

Beefsteak. 

Beef, Roast . 

Brawn 



PAGE 

>are in Different Styles— 

sorts of.383 

.378 

378 
378 


Calves’ Liver and Bacon. 378 

Cold Meats..378 

Corned Beef.378 

Ham and Chicken in Jelly. 378 

How to Select. 378-423 

Lamb, Leg of. 379 

Mutton. 379 

Observations on. 1 . ..379 

Pigs’ Cheek.379 

Pigs’ Feet and Ears.379 

Pork, in all Styles.. • • 379 

Pork Sausages. 379 

Rolled Beef. 378 

Round of Beef. 378 

Sauces for Meats. 389 

Sausage Rolls. 379 

Spiced Beef .380 

Stewed Beef.380 

Tongue. 380 

Tripe...380 

Veal, all Styles. 380 

Meats, Vegetables, Etc.—Various Receipts for Curing, Pickling, Canning, 
and Preserving- 

Apples. . 110-111 

Beans. Ill 

Beef. Ill 

Beets. 119 

Birds. 112 

Butter. Ill 

Cauliflower. ...112,119 

Celery. 112 

Cherries. 112,119 

Cider. 112 

Chopped Pickles. 119 

Chow Chow. 119 

Crab Apples. 120 

Cucumbers. 119 

Eggs. 112 

Fruit . 113-114 

Gherkins. 120 

Ginger, Green. 120 

Gooseberries. 114 

Grapes.114 

Hams . 114 

Herbs. 114 

Honey. 115 

Horse Radish. 115 

Lard . 115 

Limes. 120 

Meat. 115-116 

Milk..... 116 

Mince Meat. 116 

Mushrooms. 120 

Onions. 117,120 

Parsnips. 117 

Peaches.. . . 117, 120 

Peas. 117 

Peppers. 120 

Piccalilli.117, 120 

Pickles. 191-120 

Plums. 120 

Potatoes. 117 

Pumpkins. 117 

Rain Water. 117 

Roots. 120 

Rosebuds. 117 

Sauer Kraut. 117 

Sausage. 118 

Suet. 118 

Sweet Potatoes. 117 

Tallow. 118 

Tomatoes. 118, 120 

Vegetables. 118 

Vinegar, Cider. 118 

Yeast. 118 

Mecca, Description of. . 292 

Mechanic’s Lien . 255 

Mechanical Powers. 207 

and Scientific Terms, giving Names and Definitions in Architect¬ 
ure and Building, Carpentry and Joinery, Metallurgy, Nautical 

Affairs, and Processes of Art and Industry.198-21 2 

Medical Department- 

Ague in the Breast, Cure for. 89 

Ague Mixture. 89 

Ankle, Sprained, How to Cure. 89 

Apoplexy Relief for. 89 

Asthma, Cure for . 89 

Baldness, Cure for. 89 

Bilious Colic, Cure for. 89 

Bilious Complaints, Cure for. 89 

Blackberry Cordial. 89 

Bleeding, How to Stop. 89 

Blisters on the Feet, Cure for. 89 

Blood-raising . 89 

Boils, Cure for. 89 

Bowels, Swelled in Children . 89 

Breath, How to Cure Bad. 91 

Bunions, How to Cure. 91 

Burns and Scalds, How to Cure.91-104 

Cancer, How to Cure. 91 

Castor Oil Emulsions . 91 

How to Disguise. 91 

Mixture. 91 

Catarrh, Cure for.. . . 91 

Chapped Hands and Lips. 89,94 

Chilblains, Various Cures for. 89-91 


















































































































































































































































































xn 


INDEX, 


Medical Department—Continued. PAGE 

Children, Signs of Disease in . 90,97-98 

Cholera, How to Cure... . 90-91 

Colds, How to Cure. 91 

Consumption, Cure for. 91 

Cough Mixtures, Various. 92 

Corns, How to Cure All Kinds of. 90-92 

Croup, One Minute Remedy for. 91 

Dandruff, How to Cure. 91 

Deafness, Cure for. 92 

Diarrhoea Remedies. 92 

Chronic, Cure for. 92 

Diphtheria, How to Cure. 91 

Dropsy, Cures for . 92 

Drunkenness, Cures for. 92 

Dysentery, Cures for. 92 

Dyspepsia, Cures for. 92 

Earache, Cures for. 92 

Erysipelas, Cures for. 92 

Eyes, Granular Inflammation, Cures for. 93 

Inflamed, Cures for. 93 

Sty, Cures for. 93 

Weeping, Cures for. 93 

Felons, Cure for. 93 

Fever and Ague. 93 

Fever Sores, Cure for. 93 

Fits, Cures for. 93 

Flesh Worms, Cure for. . . 93 

Freckles, How to Remove. 93 

Gravel, Cure for. 93 

Hair, How to Clean the. 94 

Restorative. 93 

Wasfl. 93 

Hands, How to Soften. 94 

How to Remove Stains from. 94 

How to Whiten. 94 

Headache Drops. 94 

Head, To Cure Scurf in the. . 94 

Heartburn, To Cure. 94 

Hiccough, To Cure . 94 

Hive Syrup. 94 

Hoarseness, Remedies for. 94 

Humors, How to Cure. 94 

Hysterics, How to Cure. 94 

Itch, Barber’s, How to Cure. 94 

Ointments. 95 

Seven Year, How to Cure. 95 

Jaundice, Cure for. 95 

Joints, Stiffened, Cure for. 95 

Kidney Disease, Cure for. 95 

Lame Back, Cure for. 95 

Lice, How to Kill. 95 

Liniment, A Wonderful for Sprains. 95 

Rheumatic . 95 

Sore Throat. 95 

Lips, Sore to Cure. 95 

Liver Complaint Cure . 95 

Lock Jaw, Cure for. 95 

Moth Patches, How to Remove. 95 

Mumps, Cure for. 95 

Nails, Finger, Howto Care for the. 94 

Ingrowing, To Prevent. 95 

To Whiten . 95 

Neuralgia Cures . 95 

Of the Face. 96 

Of the Stomach. 96 

Ointment, Glycerine. 96 

For Itch. 96 

For Hemorrhoids . 96 

For Sore Nipples. 96 

For Sulphur. 96 

Pains, Cure for. 96 

Pain-Kil ler, Instantaneous. . 96 

Pimples, Cure for . 96 

Plaster, Poor Man’s. 96 

Mustard . 96 

Strengthening. 96 

Poultice, Bread and Milk. 96 

Linseed. 96 

S uinsy, Cures for and Treatment of. 96 

heumatism,Remedies. . 96 

Ringworm, To Cure. 96 

Salt Rheum. 97 

Salve, Healing . 97 

Stomach, Bleeding of the. 97 

Sickness of the . 97 

Sunburn and Tan, To Remove... 97 

Sweat, To Produce. 97 

Tan, To Remove . 97 

Teeth, Care of the.. 97 


and Gums, Wash for. 

How to Preserve the. 

Teething of Children. 

Throat, Cure for Sore. 

Toothache, Cure for. 

Tooth Powders. 

Urine, Free Passage of. 

Scalding. 

Urinary 0 bstructions... 

Venereal Complaints.. 

Warts, Howto Cure. 

White Swelling, To Cure. 

Whooping Cough, To Cure .. 

W r ounds, To Cure. 

Worms in Children, To Cure. 

Medical Jurisprudence. 

Medicine, Terms Used in. 


97 
97 

97 

98 
98 
98 
98 
98 
98 
98 
98 
98 
98 
98 
98 

287 

429 

Memory, Training of the Faculty of. 216 

Memphis, The Temple of.456 

Mercantile Law. 287 

Metal, White, to Make. 463 

Which Expands the Most Under Heat. 463 


PAGE 

Metal Working, Curiosities. 468 

Mexico, Full Descriptive and Statistical Matter Relative to. 296 

Mighty Hammers. 444 

Military Law... v .287 

Tactics, Remarkable of Charles XII. 456 

Mills, Useful Hints on. .«.. . 460 

Mines and Minerals— 

Coal. 88 

Copper. 291-295 

Gold. 291-295 

Lead . 293 

Petroleum. 291-295 

Silver. 291-295 

Zinc. 295 

Mining. 536 

Abandoned Mine. 543 

Affidavit, Form of. 543 

Assaying the Gold Ore... 542 

Blow-Pipe . 638-539 

Diagram of a Claim . 643 

Gold and Silver Minerals. 541 

Howto Examine a Mineral. 538 

Improvements on Lode Claim. 543 

Laws of Mining Regions. 642-543 

Location Certificate, Form of.643 

Ores and Metals.'. 637 

Prospecting. 537 

Shark. 545-546 

Silver Minerals. 639-541 

Tricks of Mining Swindlers. 546 

Working a Mine..646 

Missouri Compromise. 78 

Mohammedans. 292-293 

Monkey, Age Attained by. 455 

Monroe Doctrine. . 79 

Montreal.300 

Moors, The . 293 

Morocco, Description of... ...293 

Mortgages, General Remarks. 247 

Chatties or Personal Property, Form of a Chattel Mortgage... 262-263 

Form of a Mortgage. 247-248 

Short Form of Chattel Mortgage. 263-264 

Mother Shipton’s Remarkable Prophecy . 430 

Motion.. 207 

Mountain, The Highest in the World. 455 

Moving Powers. 207 

Mozambique, Description of. 294 

Muffins, How to Make. 367-369 

Graham. 369 

Mush, How to Cook. . . 367 

How to Fry. 367 

N 

Nails, Varieties and Number to the Pound.187-188 

Native Americans. 79 

Natural Gas, History of. 465-469 

Naturalization. 79 

Needles, When First Used. 155 

Negro Race, The. 293 

New Brunswick. 390 

New Orleans Cotton Exchange.’ 504 

As Between Members and Non-Members. 520 

Assistant Supervisors. 521 

Chief Supervisor, His Duties. 521 

Commissions and Brokerage.’ ‘ ‘ ’ 522 

Cotton Speculation...506-507 

Damp Cotton, Allowance for. 520 

Delivery and Press Room Inspection.' ’ ’ " 520 

Doctrine of Futures Explained. 515-517 

Duties of Members. 570 

Expenditurefor Information. . !.!!!!". 507 

Failures.517 

Form of Cotton Contract. 512 

Form of Transferable Notice . 513 

Fraudulent Packs and Claims..' ’ ’ 521 

Future Market of New Orleans. 577 

Futures . 579 

Governing Weighers. ....' 520 

Herbaceous, Shrub and Tree Cotton. ................. 595 

Initiation Fee and Annual Subscription. 510 

Membership, Conditions of. 509-510 

Number and Weight of Each Band to Each Bale. ....!! 520 

Object of the Exchange, Committees, Eto. 508-509 

Picking and Sending to Ginning Mill. 505-506 

Press Order, Form of. ’ 574 

Press Supervision .’ .. 507 

Press Supervision and Levee Inspection.619 

Receipts and Deliveries. 523 

Rejections..6i9-520 

Salaries and Weight of Samples. 621 

Sale and Delivery of Cotton. 619 

Seed Product. .’ ” ] 595 

Settlements. .. 51 b 

spot cotton. 576 

Supervision Fee. 522 

Testing Scales ...‘ " 520 

Transferable Notices . 5 i 2-513 

Transfer, Form of . 573 

Varieties, Height, Etc. ." 595 

Weight of a Merchantable Bale. 529 

Newspaper, The First in England.’ . ]' 755 

Niagara Falls, The Stoppage of. .’ ’ ’ ’' 477 

Description of. 455 

Sending Vessels Over. 437 

Niagara Suspension Bridge. ! ”. 431 

Nicknames of States, Cities and People. 79 

Nightingale, Age Attained by. j’. 41 -.c 

River, The .. 





















































































































































































































































































INDEX, 


Xlll 


PAGE 

North America—Its Location—Extent—Shape—Mountains—Volcanoes— 
Highest Peaks—Great Central Plain—Lakes—Mississippi Basin— 
Yukon River —Other Rivers —Soil—Climate—Products—Vegeta¬ 
tion—Seal—Wild Animals—Reptiles—Birds—Mining Resources— 
Petroleum —Gold, Silver and Zinc—Esquimaux—Indians—White 
Race—Industries—Commerce—Fisheries—Agriculture—Greenland 

—Iceland. . 295 

N orthwest Territory. 79 

Notes, Promissory. 48 

Nova Scotia. 300 

Nubia, Description of. 295 

Nuncupative Wills. 252 


Oak Bark, Quantity Required in Tanning.455 

Oak, Red, Relative Hardness of. 454 

Scrub, Relative Hardness of....454 

White, Relative Hardness of. . 454 

Yellow, Relative Hardness of. 454 

Oil, Compared to Gas. 456 

Quantity Required for Different Colors of Paint.424 

Olives, Where Produced. 293 

Omelet, Cheese, How to Make.373 

Asparagus, How to Make.372 

Egg, How to Make.373 

Ontario, Description of.299 

Orange Free States, Description of.294 

Origin of the Names of States. 80 

Ox, Age Attained by. 455 

Oysters, How to Corn, Stew, Fry, Pickle, Escallop and Make Patties. 373-375 


Paint, Quantity Required to Cover a Given Surface. 424 

Spots, Howto Remove. 461 

Palestine, Description of. 292 

Pancakes, English, How to Make . 367 

Panic of 1857, History of the. 446 

Paper, How to Toughen. 458 

How to Fasten Pencil Marks and Prevent Blurring . 458 

How to Transfer Newspaper Prints to Glass. 458 

Parrot, Age Attained by . ••••••• .455 

Eggs, How Long it Takes to Hatch.. 455 

Partnership, Showing Articles of. 288-289 

Partridge, How to Cook .376 

Patents, Foreign and United States. 268-270 

Applicants, Applications for. 269 

Assignments of.270 

Caveats, Conveyance Form. 268 

Design for Ornamental Purposes.270 

Drawings, How They Must be Made. 269 

Duration in the United States. 269 

Fees in the United States and Elsewhere.270 

In Foreign Countries . 270 

Models, How They May be Made.269 

Payment and Tender. 224-226 

Peacock, Age Attained by. 455 

T'earline, Ingredients of. 469 


Pearls. 


291 


Pelican, Age Attained by.455 

Penmanship, Ornamental. 38 

Perseverance, Element of Success in Business.217 

Persia, Description of... 292 

Petroleum . 291 

Theory as to the Origin of. 463 

Phalanx, The Ancient Greek. 455 

Pheasant, How to Cook... 376 

Pickles, H ow to Put up. 386-387 

Beet Roots. 386 

Chow Chow.386 

Eggs. 387 

Green Corn . 387 

Indian Pickle. 387 

Mushrooms.387 

Pickle Sauce .387 

Red Cabbage. 387 

Tomatoes . 387 

Tomato Lilly. 387 

Walnuts.*.387 

Pies—How to Make. . 380-381 

Beefsteak. 380 

Chicken.381 

Cocoanut . 381 

Cream. 381 

Fish. 381 

Game. 381 

Giblet. 381 

Ham . 381 

Lamb.381 

Mince Meat.381 

Mince, Mock . 381 

Mince, Good . 381 

Potato Pastry. 381 

Potato . 381 

Salmon.. 381 

Veal.381 

Vinegar. 381 

Pigeons, Age Attained by.455 

Carrier, Speed of. 457 

Eggs, How Long it Takes to Hatch. 455 

Pike, Age Attained by . 455 

Pine, Yellow, Relative Hardness of .454 

White, Relative Hardness of. 454 

Plate Glass, How to Polish.461 

Platinum Mines.291 

Plover, How to Cook. 376 

Plumbers, Receipts for. 468-469 

Plymouth Rock, History of.446 

Poems, Choice— 

Bingen on the Rhine. 137 

Changes. 136 


Poems—Continued. page 

Hereafter. 135 

Maid of Athens. 142 

Maud Muller. . 134 

Oft in the Stilly Night. 135 

Ob, Why Should the Spirit of Mortal be Proud. 136 

’Ostler Joe. 187 

Rock Me to Sleep. 141 

The Old Oaken Bucket. 140 

The Murderer. 139 

Twenty Years Ago.139 

The Raven. 140 

’Tis the Last Rose of Summer.136 

We Parted in Silence. 134 

Would We Return.134 

Politeness in Selling Goods.347 

Political History of the United States, Vocabulary of Party Names, 

Measures, Terms and Maxims. 72-83 

Popular Vote for Presidents . 88 

Tables Showing the Result of the Electoral College, Proceedings 
by States, Exhibiting at a Glance What Stateo Were Carried by 
the Successful and Unsuccessful Candidates, from Washington 

to Date. 82-86 

Votes by States, Showing How Each State Went in Presidential 
Elections from 1824 to Date, and by What Majority the Party 

Carried It. 86-87 

Pommes-au-Riz, How to Make.. 372 

Pompey’s Pillar, Description of. 456 

Poplar, Relative Hardness of. 454 

Popovers, How to Make.367 

Popular Sovereignity. . 80 

Portau Prince. 298 

Porto Rico. 297-298 

Posts, Howto Preserve. 469 

Timber for, How to Preserve . 454 

Potato Cakes. 373 

Poultry, How to Roast, Broil or Boil- 

Chickens . 388 

Chickens, Escalloped. 388 

Geese.388 

Pigeons. 388 

Sauces for. 388-389 

Turkey . 388 

Pounds in a Bushel, Different States. 191 

Precious Stones. 291 

Arranged According to Color and Hardness. 420 

Pre-emption Right . 80 

Preserve Organic Objects, How to. 460 

Preserves, How to Make- 

Apple Jam.381 

Apple Marmalade. 382 

Barberry Jam. 382 

Black Currents . 382 

Cherry Jam. 382 

Cherry Marmalade.382 

Currants for Tarts.382 

Green Gage Plums. 382 

Green Gage Jam. 382 

Marmalade, Transparent.382 

Marmalade, Tomato.382 

Pears, Boiled and Pickled. 383 

Pickled Citron. 383 

Quinces. 383 

Raspberries . 383 

Spiced Currants. 383 

Stewed Pears, Whole. - . 383 

Strawberries, Whole. 383 

Strawberries in Wine. 383 

Tomatoes. 383 

Prince Edward Islands. . 300 

Printers’ Inks, How to Make. 458 

Profit and Loss, Reckoning Gains and Losses. 168-169 

Promptness Essential in Business. 216 

Protecting Water Pipes. 469 

Puddings, How to Make all Kinds of— 

Amber . 383 

Apple, Baked. 383 

Apple, Boiled. 383 

Apple and Sago. 383 

Arrow»Root. 383 

Aunt Nelly’s.383 

Baked Indian.383 

Beefsteak.384 

Blackcap. 384 

Blanc Mange. 371,384 

Boiled Batter.384,386 

Bread. 384 

Christmas. 384 

Cottage.384 

Crumb. 384 

Damson. 384 

Egg. 384 

Extra. 385 


Fig. 


385 


Gelatine.385 

Gooseberry. 385 

Ground Rice... 385 

Ice. 385 

Indian . .385 

Kidney.385 

Lemon. 385 

Macaroni.385 

Marrow. 385 

Meat and Potato .385 

Nesselrode. .385 

Plum. .385 

’otato. 386 

rince of Wales. . 385 

ueen.386 

tice, Plain and Rich .386 

Rice, with Fruit... 386 * 

Roman. 386J4 

Sago. 38394 

39 




















































































































































































































































XIV 


INDEX 



Puddings—Continued. p ge 

Spanish. 3SC 

Suet.386 

Tapioca.386 

Vermicelli. 386 

Pulse, Natural Pulsation of.456 

Puts, Calls and Straddles, Grain Trade.487-488 

Pyramids, The Egyptian. 456 


Quail, How to Cook ... 376 

Quantity of Corn in a Crib, To Find.179 

of Cotton to a Bale . 504 

of Goods to Buy in Retail Trade .341 

of Hay in a Stack. 179 

of Lumber in a Log. 185 

of Wheat in a Bin . 180 

Quarter, Quarto, Quintal, Quire. 190 

Quebec, Description of. 306 

Quotations. 175 

Familiar.143-143 


Rabbit, Age Attained by. 455 

How to Cook. 376 

Railroad, Horse, The First. 155 

Viaduct, an Australian. 468 

Railroads in Finland.423 

Rails, Iron and Wood, When First Used. 88 

Railways in Africa. 293 

Raspberry Vinegar, How to Make. 365 

Ravens, Age Attained by. 455 

Receipts, Various Forms of. ... 42-43 

Law Governing. 43 

Recipes, Useful. 456 

For Re-Inking Type Ribbons. 458 

Recovery and Collection of Debts.271-282 

Abstract of Homestead and Exemption Laws, Different States.272 

Removal from State to State.272 

Rejections, Cotton—.519-520 

Release, Forms of General.226 

Remarkable Inscriptions . 472 

Republican Party.80-81 

Retail Business, Capital, Etc .341 

Buying Goods on Credit. 342 

Buying in and Getting Started . 341 

Cash Sales Ticket, Form of. 353 

Employes. . 344 

Entering into Partnership.845 

Entering of Goods Bought.353 

Expenses and Profits. 355 

Form of a Letter. 342 

How to Sell Goods.346 

Keeping the Books. 353 

Losses. 351-352 

Memorandum or Slate.349 

Paying for Goods.350-351 

Petty Cash Book, Form of.354 

Proprietor the Most Successful Seller.347 

Receiving and Marking Goods. 343-344 

Replenishing the Stock. 349 

Summary of Business.354 

Talk, Some Salesmen Apt Too Much.347 

The Merchant Socially.355 

Waiting on Customers, Demeanor of the Salesman . 347 

Rhinoceros, Age Attained by.465 

Rice Croquettes, How to Make. 372 

Custard, How to Make.372 

Flummery, How to Make .. .... 372 

Flitters, How to Make.372 

Rivers, Some Great .436 

Solid Matter in. 456 

Robins, Age Attained by. 455 

Rolls, Delicious, How to Make. 367 

French, How to Make. 367 

Roman Legion, The. 455 

Ross Charlie, The Remarkable Story of.448 

Royalty in England, Cost of. 436 

Rubber, How to Cut Easily. 460 

Rubies, Where Found.291 

Rules Governing the Inspection of Grain in the City of Chicago.483-484 

for Mechanics.184-185 

Rusks, How to Make.367 

Russia, Description of. 291 

s 

Sahara Desert, The. 294 

Saigon, The City of .292 

Salaries of United States Officers per Annum. 426 

Salmon, Age Attained by. . 455 

Salt. 292 

Lake, The Great. 435 

Mines. 293 

Salvage, Circumstances Governing the Amount .257 

San Domingo. 298 

Sandy Soil, Pile Driving in. 455 

Sapphires. 291 

Sauces for All Kinds of Meats, Fish, Poultry and Game. 388 

Scouring Paste, An Excellent. 462 

Screws, Various Kinds. 210 

Sea, Temperature of the. 456 

Dead. 292 

Galilee. 292 

Secession and Re-Admission of Rebel States. . 440 

Seed, Quantity Required to Seed an Acre. 425 


Seven Wise Men of Greece, The...... • ■ 

Wondersof the World... 

Sewing Machines, When Invented and by Whom. 429 

Snaving Soap, How to Make.. . ™ 

Sneep, Twenty-two Kinds of Medicine for. 42? 

Age Attained by. Jas 

Period of Gestation in. •• • 

Shingles, How to Stop Joints Between.*•£ 

Shipments, Daily Report of Elevator. 

Shipping, Law of. 

Average. okaJhw 

Bottomry, Charter Party. """"""J* 

Form of Charter Party.S" 

Registration and License of Vessels. 

Ships, History of Big . jxJ 

Shoe Polish, How to Make. 

Shoes, Odd Facts About. 

Siberia, Description of. ■■■ 

Silver Minerals. 639 

To Remove from Plated Ware. 

Singapore, Description of. 

Sinking Fund. 

Skylarks, Age Attained by.. 

Slave Trade and Slavery. 54 

Slavery War. 

Smoke Consumers. 


Senate. 


81 

Senegambia. Description of. 294 

Settlements, by Exchange of Drafts. 428 

Cotton . 518 

For Grain. 492-494 


Smyrna. 

Snipe, Howto Cook."Ix 

Soapine, Ingredients of. fSr 

Solder, How to Make Thirty Kinds. 

Soil, Productiveness of the on the Nile River—.*"* 

Solomon’8 Temple. ■*«> 

Soluble Glass for Floors. 

Soudan,The .• •••••.*94 

Sound, The Speed of, in Air, Water and Other Subtances.— *31 

Soups, How to Make Various Kinds of.. <^-2“ 

Artichoke. 390 

Asparagus. "9" 

Beef Broth......."9® 

Beef Tea. "®® 

Beef Tea, Liebig’s. "9U 

Bouillon. "91 

Brown Gravy. "90 

Carrot. "90 

Clam. 391 

Consomme. gaj 

Croutons. "91 

Game."91 

Julienne. "®} 

Lobster .. .391 

Mock Turtle."91 

Oyster . 39} 

Ox Tail. 39} 

Royal. 39} 

Scotch Broth. 391 

Split Pea,.392 

Tomato. "92 

Turkey. "92 

Various. 

Veal.392 

Veal Gravy. . 392 

Vegetable. 392 

Vermicelli . 392 

South. 82 

South America—Full Descriptive and Statistical Matter Relative to.298 

South Sea Bubble, The.82, 449 

Sow, Period of Gestation in. 455 

Sozodont, How to Make. 462 

Spectroscope. 210 

Spelling, Rules for.428 

Sponge Fisheries... 297 

Spontaneous Combustion. 472 

Springs, Remarkable of California.456 

Boiling, Explanation of. 456 

Under the Ocean . 456 

Squirrel, Age Attained by. 455 

Stag, Age Attained by .45" 

Stain Extractor, Instantaneous.461 

Stamping Powder for Ladies.426 

Starch Enamel for Stiffening Collars and Cuffs.461 

Starling, Age Attained by.455 

State Rights. 82 

Statue of Peter the Great.456 

Statues, Enormous. 456 

Steam. 2}0 

Engine.211 

Engine, First Sent to This Continent. 155 

Engines, Howto Govern. 460 

Engines, Irregular, Power in. 400 

Howto Deaden Noise of. 457 

Joints, How to Head. 460 

Power, Necessity of Oiling all Parts. 460 

Steamboat, First Ascended the Hudson. }"" 

First on the Mississippi. 432 

Steamship Route, Most Dangerous in the World. "00 

Steamships, How Many Tons One Consumes on a Voyage. 468 

Steel, Howto Etch on. 463 

Howto Caseharden. 458 

Pens, When Invented. 1"5 

Plate, To Color Blue. 458 

Value of Manufactured.459 

Stew, Irish, How to Make.373 

St. Helena.294 

St. Petersburg..291 

Stocks, Bonds and Investments. 175-178 

Stone, Expansion of by Heat. 471 

Hardness of Various Kinds of. 470 

Qualities of Good Building.470 

Strength of.470 

To Arrest Decay in. 460 

Stoppage in Transit. 224 

Storms, Velocity of. 155 

Strawberry and Apple Soufle, How to Cook.372 






































































































































































































































































INDEX. 


XV 


PAGE 

Summer Drinks, How to Make. .365 

Sun, Light of the. 468 

Remarkable Calculations Regarding the. 423 

Temple of the.456 

Swallows, Speed of.457 

Swan, Age Attained by... 455 

Eggs, How Long it Takes to Hatch. 455 

Swine, Age Attained by.455 

Various Medicines for. 133 

Synonyms, List of Twelve Thousand. 473-478 


Table Interest Rates, Limitations, Etc., for the United States and Canada 60 

Table Ware, White Metal. 463 

Tables, Weights and Measures .189-190 

Tammany Society. 88 

Tanks, How to Measure Round.467 

Tanning, Information on.455 


289 

365 

366 
456 
211 

377 

440 

155 

456 

456 

456 
289 
-163 
455 
292 
455 

82 

455 

457 
455 
465 
465 
463 
219 
211 


Taxation. 

Tea, How to Make Good 

Iced, A la Russe. 

Temperature at Which It is Drank .. 

Telectroscope, Telegraph, Telephone, Telescope. 

Telegraph Wires, How Often They Require Renewal, Cost of, and what 

Old Wire is Worth. 

Telephone, History of the. 

Telescopes, When Invented. 

Temperature, Increase of, the Deeper We go into the Earth. 

Of the Sea. 

Of Celestial Space. 

The Art of Beauty and Dress.162. 

Loftiest Inhabited Spot on the Globe..... 

Oldest City in the World. 

Thrush, Age Attained by. 

Ticket, Political. . . 

Tigers, Age Attained by. . 

Timber, Tests for. . 

Charred in Herculaneum. .. . 

Line on the Alps. . 

Line on the Andes. . . 

Timbers, Heavy . 

Time, Difference in When it is Noon at Washington . . 

Tin. 

Titlark, Age Attained by. 455 

Tomato Toast, How to Make. 373 

Tools, How to Keep. 470 

Howto Mark. 470 

How to Sharpen . 468 

Tortoise, Age Attained by. 455 

Township,Diagram of. 183 

Trade Dollar . 82 

Trade Mark, Law of, in the United States. 266-367 

Transcaucasia, Description of. 291 

Transmission of Power. 455 

Treason. 82 

Tree, A Church Builtfrom a Single.. . 466 

Trees, Big, of Califonia. 44 

That Sink in Water . 466 

Tripoli, Description of .292 

Trusts, Form, Deed of Trust for Benefit of a Married Woman . 222 

Tunis, Description of. 292 

Turkestan, Description of. 291 

Turkey, Description of . . 292 

Turkey Eggs, How Long it Takes to Hatch.455 

Twenty Thousand Things Worth Knowing . 454 

Type, Sizes of Various, Showing How Many Lines of Each it Takes to 

Make an Inch. 455 

Typewriter. 212 

u 

Uncle Sam. 82 

Union Stock Yards of Chicago.624 

Account Sales, Form of.531 

Aggregate Operations of Union Stock Yards Bank..529 

Amount of Money Regularly Employed in Paying Different Rail¬ 
roads, Freight and Other Charges.529 

Artesian Wells.526 

“ Back out” of a Trade, Damaging. 530 

Bank a Valuable Agent in Collecting Drafts.629 

Bullsand Bears.528 

Buyers. . 528 

Car-loads Live Stock That can be Taken Daily... 526 

Cattle, Facts About.633-634 

Charges. .533 

Chronological Report.535 

Commissions Firms in Chicago Live Stock Market.528 

Commission Men .527-528 

Corps of Assistants.626 

Daily Routine. 530 

Department for Dead Animals. 526 

Duplicate Weighman’s Ticket .630 

Eastern and Western Live Stock Freight Collections. 527 

Exchange Building. 627 

Feed Troughs.526 

Form of Seller’s Order on the Union Stock Yards Company for 

Delivery of Stock to Purchaser.531 

Freight and Other Charges . 527 

Grades of Hogs and Sheep. 530 

Hogs Packed in a Year. 535 

Hogs Slaughtered in a Year.635 

How the Yards are Divided, Divisions, Blocks, Pens, Numbers.526 

Hydrants for Use in Case or Fire.526 

Live Stock Commission Men . 527 

No Speculation among Legitimate Commission Men.528 

Offices of the Commission Men. 627 

Orginization and Growth..525 

Pavements... 626 

Pay-Roll.526 

Pens for Hogs, Covered. 526 



Union Stock Yards—Continued. page 

Police Force. 523 

Prices, Average in Chicago Market for Six Years. 635 

Prices, Highest and Lowest for Sixteen Years. 535 

Receipts, and their Sale. 528 

Shipment of Live Hogs. 535 

Shipping Departments. 526 

Shutes for Loading and Unloading. 526 

Speculators. 539 

Superintendent, and Yardmaster. .... 626 

Switch and Side Tracks. 526 

The Company. 527 

Texas Cattle. 526-527 

Underdrainage, Streets and Alleys. 526 

Water Troughs in the Various Pens. 526 

Weighing Stock. 530 

Weighman’s Ticket to the Commission Firm, Form of.530 

When the Yards are Open and Closed.526 

United States Bonds . 178 

United States, The—General—Full Descriptive and Statistical Matter 

Relative to the. 296 

United States, The—Special—The following special description of Ala¬ 
bama will suffice to show with what detail the matter relative 
thereto is written, and will show in a general way what can be 
found under the headings of the various States and Territories, 
though but one line is used in the index to show on what pages 
they can be found. 

Alabama—Derivation and Meaning of the Name—When Settled 
and by Whom—When Admitted to the Union—When Seceded 
—Capital of Confederacy—When State Re-entered the Union- 
Number of Counties—When Elections are Held—Number of 
Senators and Representatives—Sessions of Legislature—Terms 
of Senators—Terms of Legislators—Number Electoral Votes— 
Number of Congressmen—Who are Excluded from Voting- 
Member of Colleges—School System—School Age—Legal Inter¬ 
est-Penalty of Usury—Number of Slaves in 1860—Greatest 
Length and Width of State—Description of State, topograph¬ 
ically—Miles of Sea Coast— Harbors — Miles of Navigable 
Waterways—Quality of Soil—Timber—Mines—Staple Products 
Crops—Average Value of Farm and Forest Lands—Climate- 
Heat, Snow and Frost—Rainfall—Chief Cities—Leading Indus¬ 
tries and Number of Same. 304 

Alaska. 304 

Arizona. 304 

Arkansas. 305 

California. 306 

Colorado. 307 

Connecticut. 307 

Dakota. 308 

Delaware. 309 

Florida... 309 

Georgia. 310 

Idaho.. 

Illinois. 311 

Indiana. 311 

Indian Territory. 312 

Iowa. 313 

Kansas. 313 

Kentucky. 301 

Louisiana. 314 

Maine. 314 

Maryland. 315 

Massachusetts. 316 

Michigan. 316 

Minnesota. 317 

Mississippi. 317 

Missouri. 3 I 8 

Montana . 319 

Nebraska. 319 

Nevada. 320 

New Hampshire.300 

New Jersey. 320 

New Mexico.321 

New Nork. . 321 

North Carolina. 303 

Ohio. 322 

Oregon. 322 

Pennsylvania. 323 

Rhode Island. 324 

South Carolina.303 

Tennessee . 302 

Texas. 324 

Utah. 325 

Vermont. 301 

Virginia. 303 

Washington, D. C.327 

Washington.325 

West Virginia. 304 

Wisconsin.326 

Wyoming. 327 

Useful Hints and Receipts. 457 


Valve, Valve Gear.212 

Vaseline, How Purified. 463 

Vassar College, History of. 446 

Vegetables, How to Cook- 

Artichokes.392 

Asparagus...392-393 

Beans. 393 

Broccoli.393 

Cabbage. 393 

Cauliflower. 393 

Celery, To Prepare. 393 

Cucumbers, To Prepare.393 

Egg Plant . ... 393 

Mushrooms.393 

Onions, To Pickle.393 

Parsnips.*. .393-394 

Peas. .. .394 

Potatoes .394 

Tomatoes......... 39 






























































































































































































































XVI 


INDEX. 


Vegetables—How to Cook. PAGE 

Turnips. 394 

Vegetable Marrow. 394 

Vegetables, See Also “Meats and Vegetables.” 

Velocities of Various Bodies. . . . 424 

Venison, How to Cook . 376 

Vessel, Correct meaning of “Tonnage” of a. 458 

Vessels, Power Required to Start. 455 

Various Kinds of. 212 

Vinegar, Cider, Howto make. Various Methods. 118 

Vocabulary, Mechanical and Scientific Terms.198-212 

Mercantile and Legal Terms.283 -289 

Political Terms. 72-83 

w 

Waffles, How to Make. 367-370 

Wages in England in 1685 . 437 

Wall Streetand the New York Stock Exchange. 547 

Account of a Profitable Transaction. 558 

Black Friday. 566 

Bourse, or Open Board.650 

Break in the Market. 559 

Brokers and their Offices. 565-566 

Broker’s Record of Transactions. 556 

Building, The. 550 

Business of the Old Brokers, Character of Some. 549 

Button-wood Tree, the Old. 548 

Call of Stocks in Stock Exchange. 556 

Clique, Corner, in Stocks. 554-555 

Commissions, Rules Regarding. 657 

Crowd, in Stocks. . 554 

Death of Members, Assessment Fee, Gratuity Fund. 552-553 

Dealing in Puts and Calls. 560 

Differences, How Settled on Stock Board. 556 

Duties of the President and Secretary. 552 

Floor Diagram. 551 

Form of a Call. 559 

Form of a Put. 558 

Form of a Straddle. 559 

Government Loans in Wall Street. 562 

Government Assisted by Wall Street. 563 

How Reports of Purchases and Sales are Obtained. 564 

How Stocks are Listed and Forgeries Obviated. 561 

Howto Speculate . 556-560 

Language of Brokers. . . .553-554 

List, in Stocks.555 

Margin.557 

Method and Government. 550-551 

Mining Enterprises.563 

Miscellaneous Speculations.563-564 

Number, Each Member of New York Stock Exchange Has a.. .. 656 

Operator, in Stocks. 554 

Origin or the Name. 547 

Petroleum. 564 

Point, Pool, Lambs, in Stocks.554 

PreseDbStock Exchange. 549 

Purchase of Shares, Broker’s Notice of.658 

Routine, Daily.555-556 

Rules Governing Dishonest Practices. 652 

Sales, How Made. 549 

Secret Meetings. 549 

Securities, Dealings in. 649 

Speculation, War of 1812 Gave First Genuine Impulse to. 549 

Standing Committees. 551 

Suggestions and Statements for the Uninformed. 557 

Use of the Ticker in Reporting Sales and Quotations.564-565 

Where Conferences are Held. 563 

Walnut, Relative Hardness of. 454 

War, The Great Civil, History of. Showing Number of Men Drafted, 

Important Battles, Etc.158-163 

Songs, Famous. 435 

Warehouse Receipts, Form of Elevator. 500 

Warts, Howto Remove.461-462 

Washington Monument. 327 

Watch, The First. 155 

Water, Expansive Power of. 469 

Enormous Power of. 456 

Ices, Howto Make.376-377 

Life in.456 

Pipes.458, 469 

Power. 456 

Supply, The London.470 

Test for Acid in. 459 


Water—Continued. PAGE 

Test for Alkali in. 459 

Test for Carbonic Acid in. 459 

Test for Hard or Soft. 459 

Test for Iron in. 459 

Test for Lime in... 459 

Test for Magnesia in. 459 

To Purify. 460 

Wheels. 460 

Water Falls, Noted- 

Awe in Bavaria. 455 

Montmorenci. 455 

Niagara. 455 

Stoppage of Niagara.471 

Stubbach in the Alps. 455 

Yosemite. 465 

Waterloo, The Battle of.438 

Waves, Motion of the.468 

Wealth of the United States per Capita.435 

Weight of a Merchantable Ball of Cotton. 520 

and Measures, Various. 189-190,155,468 

Of a Cubic Foot of Stone, Earth, Metal, Etc. 426 

Of a Cubic foot of Solid Gold or Silver.468 

West Indies, The. 297 

Whale, Age Attained by .:. 455 

Wheel, Largest in the World. 470 

Whetstone, Artificial. 457 

White House, What it Costs to Run it. 422 

White Metal, How to Make.468 

Whitewash, a Fire-proof. 460 

Wills, Statements and Suggestions. 261-252 

Codicil and Nuncupative. 252 

Disposing of Both Real and Personal Estate, General Form of 252-263 
Personal Property of Deceased Left Undisposed of. Order in 

which it is Shared by Kin. 252 

Executors and Admistrators, Offices of. 253-254 

Wilmot Proviso. 83 

Wire Ropes. 456 

Wires, Telegraph. 277 

Wolf, Age Attained by.455 

Period of Gestation in. 455 

Women’s Rights. 83 

Wonderful Buildings, Monuments and Towers. 456-467,467 

Ancient Roman Aqueducts. 456 

Architectural Ruins in Thebes. 456 

Colosseum at Rome.456 

Enormous Statues..456 

Egyptian Pyramids.456 

Pompey’s Pillar. 456 

Solomon’s Temple.456 

Statue of Peter the Great.456 

Temple of Diana.,.... 456 

Temple of Memphis. 456 

Temple of the Sun .456 

Temple of Ypsambul.456 

Tower of Babel. 456 

Washington Monument.327 

White House, Washington. 327 

Wonders of Science. .472 

Wood, Artificial, To Make.466 

Engraving, The First. 155 

Enormous Force of when Wetted . 467 

How to Stain. 466 

Wooden Rails. 88 

Woods, Relative Hardness of.454 

Toughness of Various. 457 

Worcestershire Sauce, Receipt for Making. 462 

Workmanship, Wonders of Minute. 471 

Workshop Hints. 460 

Wren, Age Attained by.......... ... 455 


Yankee, Vankee Doodle. 83 

Yeast, The Best Kind to Use. 367 

Yellowstone Park, Description of the. 432 

Ypsambul, Temple of. 456 


Zanzibar, Description of. 294 

Zinc. 212 


We are indebted to the owner of the Copyright of Secrets of Success in Business, copyright 1883 by G. L. Howe and 0. M. Powers, for permission 
to use the articles in this book on various subjects that are on pages 27 to 83, 144 to 152, 164 to 215,220 to 255, 283 to 289, 356 to 364,395 to 414 and 479 to 566 
inclusive. 

OGILVIE & GILLETT COMPANY. 


V 




































































































































































































HERE is no aasy road to succbss :—I thank End far it, * * * * 

A trained man will make his life tell, Without training, you are 
left an a SEa af luck, where thousands go down, while one meBts 
with success, 

JAMES A, GARFIELE. 























































































>HE subject of the importance of 
good writing is as broad as its use. 
Reaching out in every direction, and 
pervading every corner of civilized 
society, from the humblest up to 
the highest employments, it is a ser¬ 
vant of man, second only in import¬ 
ance to that of speech itself. In 
the world of business its value is seen, 
from the simplest record or memoran¬ 
dum, up to the parchment which conveys 
a kingdom. Without it, the wheels of 
commerce could not move a single hour. 
At night it has recorded the transactions 
of the Bank of England during the day; 
of London; of the whole world. 

Through the art of writing, the deeds 
of men live after them, and we may sur¬ 
round ourselves with the companionship of philosophers, 
scientists, historians, discoverers and poets; and their discov¬ 
eries, and reasonings and imaginings become ours. In the 
amenities of social life, through the medium of the pen, 
heart speaks to heart, though ocean rolls between. 
Thoughts of tenderness and affection live when we are 
gone, and words and deeds of kindness are not preserved 
by monuments alone. What fountains of grief or joy have 
been opened in the hearts of those who have read the rec 
ords of the pen! The pen has recorded the rapturous emo¬ 
tions of love reciprocated. The pen has written the 
message of sadness which has covered life's pilgrimage with 
gloom. The pen has traced the record of noble and useful 
lives, spent in humanity’s cause. The songs of the poet, 



the beautiful tints of his imagination, the flights of the 
orator in the realms of fancy, and the facts of history, 
would all perish as the dew of morning, without this noble 
art of writing. 

As a means of livelihood, there is perhaps no other 
department of education which affords such universal and 
profitable employment, as writing. From the mere copy¬ 
ist, up to the practical accountant, and onward into that 
department of penmanship designated as a fine art, the 
remuneration is always very ample, considering the time 
and effort required in its acquisition. 

Teachers, editors, farmers, doctors and all persons 
should possess a practical and substantial knowledge of 
writing, and should be ready with the pen. Business men 
must of course be ready writers, and hence, in a treatise on 
business, designed for the education and advancement of 
the youth of the country, it seems eminently fitting to 
first make the way clear to a plain, practical handwriting. 

Neatness and accuracy should characterize the hand-writ¬ 
ing of every one. Botch-work and bungling are inexcusa¬ 
ble, as well in writing as in the transaction of business. 
No person has a right to cause a tinge of shame to their 
correspondent, by sending a letter addressed in a stupid 
and awkward manner, nor to consume the time of another 
in deciphering the illegible hooks and scrawls of a message. 
Every one should have the ambition to write respectably as 
well as to appear respectable on any occasion. 


MATERIALS USED IN' WRITING. 


Having a suitable desk or table, arranged with refer¬ 
ence to light, in order to learn to write, it is necessary 
to be provided with proper materials. Writing mate- 




















































28 


BUSINESS WRITING. 


rials are so abundant and so cheap in these times that 
no excuse is afforded fc. r using an inferior or worthless 
quality. The materials consist of Pens , Ink and 
Paper. 

PENS. 

Steel pens are considered tne best. Gold pens have 
the advantage of always producing the same quality of 
writing, while steel pens, new o* old, produce finer or 
courser lines. Notwithstanding th’s advantage in favor 
of the gold pen, steel pens adhere to the paper, and 
produce a better line. The pen should be adapted to 
the hand of the writer. Some persons require a coarse 
pen, and some fine. Elastic pens in the hand of one 
writer may produce the best results, while a less flexi¬ 
ble pen may suit the hand of others best. Pens are 
manufactured of almost an infinite grade and quality, 
in order to suit the requirements of all. About the 
only rule that can be given in selecting pens, is to 
write a few lines, or a page, with each of the pens on 
trial, and then compare the writing. If it be shaded 
too heavily, select a less flexible pen, if the hair lines 
are too delicate, select a coarser pen. 

INK. 

Black ink is always preferable. That which is free 
from sediment and flows well, should be selected. Use 
an inkstand with broad base as being less liable to 
upset. With persons in learning to write it is perhaps 
best to have a quality of ink which is perfectly black 
when put on the paper, in order that they may see the 
results of their labor at once. Business men and 
accountants prefer a fluid ink, however, which, 
although not black at first, continues to grow black, 
and becomes a very bright and durable black, notwith¬ 
standing the action of light and heat. Avoid the use 
of fancy colored inks, especially the more gaudy, such 
as blue, red or green, in writing all documents which 
you desire to command attention and respect. 

PAPER. 

There are almost as many grades of paper to be 
found in the stationery stores, as there are of pens. 
For practicing penmanship, nothing is more suitable 
than foolscap, which may be easily sewed into book- 
form, with cover of some different color, and thus 
serves every requirement. The paper should have a 
medium surface, neither rough and coarse, or too fine 
and glazed. Have a few extra sheets beside the writ¬ 
ing book, for the purpose of practicing the movement 
exercises and testing the pens. Be provided at all 


times with a large-sized blotter, and when writing, 
keep this under the hand. Do not attempt to write 
with a single sheet of paper on a bare table or desk; 
there should be many sheets of paper underneath, in 
order to make an elastic surface. 

STUDY WITH PRACTICE. 

Aimless, indifferent, or careless practice, never made 
a good writer, and never will. In order to succeed in 
this, as in other things, there must be will and deter¬ 
mination to succeed, and then persevering and studious 
eftc"t. Study the models until their forms are fixed 
in the mind. 



No one can execute that which he does not clearly 
conceive. The artist must first see the picture on the 
white canvas, before he can paint ; t, and the sculptor 
must be able to see in the rough ana uninviting stone, 
the outlines of the beautiful image which he is to 
carve. In writing, a clear idea of the formation of 
the different letters, and their various proportions, 
must become familiar by proper study, examination 
and analysis. Study precedes practice. It is, of 
course, not necessary, nor even well, to undertake the 
mastery of all the forms in writing, by study, until 
some have been executed. It is best that each form 
should, as it is taken up, be first measured and ana¬ 
lyzed and then practiced at once. 



It is the act which crowns the thought. After 
study, careful and earnest practice can hardly fail to 
make a good writer of any one. Some persons secure 
a good style of penmanship with less labor than others, 
and attain to the elegant, and beautiful formation. 
But it is only fair to presume that no greater diversity 
of talent exists in this direction than in the study of 
other things. All do not learn arithmetic or history 
with like ease, but no one will assert that all who will, 
may not learn arithmetic or history. And so, all v'ho 
will put forth the proper exertion in study and prac¬ 
tice may learn to write a good business style, while 
many of the number will attain to the elegant. The 
conditions of practice in writing are, Position of the 
Body , Position of the Hand and Pen, and Move¬ 
ment. 




































9 



BUSINESS WRITING 


SHADING 


POSITION 


BODY 


As a beautifier of the handwriting, by causing a 
diversity of light and shade among the letters, shading 
has its value; but in the practical handwriting for 
business purposes, it should, as a rule, be classed with 
flourishing, and left out. Requiring time and effort, 
to bring down the shades on letters, business men, 
clerks and telegraph operators find a uniform and regu¬ 
lar style of writing, without shade, 
the best, even though it may not be 
as artistic. 


Fitting squarely fronting the desk, with feet placed 
V j firmly on the floor, and both arms on the desk, is, as a 
rule, the best position for practice in writing, or cor¬ 
respondence. The right side, may, however, be placed 
to the desk, with the right arm, only, 
resting thereon, and some persons 
prefer this position. Avoid crossing 
the feet, sitting on the edge of the 
chair, or assuming any 
careless attitude. The body 

should be erect, but slight- ■•fffiw* 

& i: 
iy inclined forward, in ygK 

order that the eye may fol- Aa. J | 

low the pen closely. This / f M| 

position will never cause / 

curvature of the spine 

The body should , 

never be allowed to A 

settle down into & 

cramped and unheal- ^ 

thy position with the 1 

face almost on the 

com- (C 


UNIFORMITY 


A most necessary ele- 
T? ment in all good penman- 

i ship * s un ii° rm ify- In the 

I I ^ slope of the letters and 
words which form a writ- 
I Wm \ ten page there must be no 

mO \ disagreement. With the 

Hr a %d.bL letters leaning about 
m ™ ni various directions, 

"if ^writing is presented 

■ ■ . 

| s VKalr^q m its most ridicu- 

f i \ (P\ ^ ous ph ase * Uni- 
IfBliti / VI/ fbrmity in the size 
/ °I letters, throughout the 
BjBgp / written page; how greatly it 
IlfP 1 ' / conduces to neatness and 
beauty. All letters resting 
Jp on the line, and being of uni¬ 

form hight, adds another 
condition towards good penmanship. 
This essential element of uniformity 
may be watched and guarded closely and 
cultivated by any learner in his own 
practice. 


iiuimunillliilliill 


ITTIMI 111111111 " 11 


Tllll'i'l'ii'l" 1 "" 1 ""' 1 * 


paper 

pressing the lungs V il|HH| 19 B 

and the digestive organs they 
injured, and if the 
stomach lose its tone, the eye- 
sight is impaired, there is such 
a close sympathy between these organs of the 
body. The practice of writing should be, and 
properly is, a healthful exercise, and injurious 
effects result only from improper positions of 
the body, at variance with good writing as 
well as good health. 

When wearied by sitting and the effort at 
■writing, lay aside 


are soon 


SLANT OF WRITING 


paper and pen, arise trom 
the chair, and take exercise and rest by walking ft 
about the room or in the open air. Then 
back refreshed, and vigorous, for the 
practice of writing. \ 

In general, the light should fall on the paper 
from the left side, thus enabling a writer to clearly see 
the ruled lines, and render the labor of writing easier 
and more rapid. If one writes left-handed, of course 
he will sit so as to get his light from the right side, or 
over the right shoulder. 


actly to the same slant. Writing which is nearest 
) J perpendicular is most legible, and hence is preferable 
for business purposes. The printed page of perpen¬ 
dicular type; how legible it is. But for ease in execu¬ 
tion, writing should slant. It follows then that writ¬ 
ing should be made as perpendicular as is consistent At 
with ease of execution. The slant of writing should .J 
not be less than sixty degrees from the horizontal. A 


come 













































































































30 


BUSINESS WHITING. 









-^Position §f Body While Standing.! 




T he practical book-keeper finds it advantageous to do 
his writing while standing; in fact, where large 
books are in use, and entries are to be transferred from 
one to another, the work of the 
book-keeper can hardly be per¬ 
formed otherwise than in a 
standing position, free to move 
about his office. Cumbrous 
books necessitate a different 
position at the desk, from that 
of the correspondent, or the 
learner. Since large books must 
lie squarely on the desk, the 
writer, in order to have the 
proper position thereto, must 
place his left side to the desk. 

The body thus has the same 
relative position, as if squarely 
fronting the desk with the paper 
or book placed diagonally. In 
other words, the writer, while 
engaged in writing in large, 
heavy books, must adjust him¬ 
self to the position of the books. 

Should the correspondent or bill 
clerk perform his work while 
standing, he would assume the 
same as the sitting position— 
squarely fronting the desk. 

LEGIBILITY. 

Children, in learning to write, 
are apt to sacrifice all other 
good qualities of beauty, regu¬ 
larity and grace, for the quality 
of legibility, or plainness. 

With some older persons this 
legibility is considered of very 
little consequence, and is ob¬ 
scured by all manner of mean¬ 
ingless flourishes, in which the 
writer takes pride. In the esti¬ 
mation of the business man, 
writing is injured by shades and 
flourishes. The demand of this 
practical time is a plain, regular 
style that can be written rapidly, and read at a glance. 


FINISH. 

By a careless habit, which many persons allow them¬ 
selves to fall into, they omit to attend to the little 
things in writing. Good penmanship consists in atten¬ 
tion to small details, each letter and word correctly 
formed, makes the beautiful page. By inattention to 
the finish of one letter, or part of a letter of a word, 

oftentimes the word is mistaken 
for another, and the entire mean¬ 
ing changed. Particular atten¬ 
tion should be devoted to the 
finish of some of the small let¬ 
ters, such as the dotting of the 


i, or crossing of the t. Blend¬ 
ing the lines which form a loop, 
often causes the letter to be¬ 
come a stem, similar to the t or 
cl, or an e to become an i. In 
many of the capital letters, the 
want of attention to the finish 
of the letter converts it into 
another or destroys its identity, 
such, for instance, as the small 
cross on the capital F, which, 
if left off, makes the letter a T. 
The W often becomes an M, or 
vice versa , and the I a J. Mis¬ 
takes in this regard are more 
the result of carelessness and 
inattention than anything else. 
By careful practice a person 
will acquire a settled habit of 
giving a perfection to each let¬ 
ter and word, and then it is no 
longer a task, but is performed 
naturally and almost involun¬ 
tarily, while the difference in the 
appearance of the written page, 
as well as the exactness and cer¬ 
tainty of the meaning conveyed, 
may be incalculably great. 

While practicing penmanship, 
or while endeavoring to correct 
a careless habit in writing, the 
mind must be upon the work 
in hand, and not be allowed to 
wander into fields of thought or 
imagination; by thus confinine’ 
the attention, any defect or 
imperfection in the formation 
of letters may be soon mastered or corrected. 

































































































































































































BUSINESS WRITING. 


31 


) 



«<-«- 


3 - < 






-w- 


Position of the Hand and Pen. 

T he right arm should rest on the muscles just below 
the elbow, and wrist should be elevated so as to move 
free from paper and desk. Turn the hand so that 
the wrist will be level, or so that the back of the hand 
will face the ceiling. The third and fourth fingers 
turned slightly underneath the hand will form its sup¬ 
port, and the pen, these fingers and the muscles of the 
arm near the elbow form the only points of rest or con¬ 
tact on desk or paper. The pen should point over the 
shoulder, and should be so held that it may pass the 
root of the nail on the second finger, and about oppo¬ 



site the knuckle of the hand. An unnatural or cramped 
position of the hand, like such a position of the body, 
is opposed to good Avriting, and after many years of 
observation and study, all teachers concur in the one 
position above described, as being the most natural, 
easy and graceful for the writer, and as affording the 
most freedom and strength of movement. 

Avoid getting the hand in an awkward or tiresome 
position, rolling it over to one side, or drawing the 
fore finger up into a crooked shape. Hold the pen 
firmly but lightly, not with a grip as if it were about 
to escape from service. Do not say, “I can’t” hold 
the pen correctly. Habits are strong, but will may be 
stronger, and if you hold the pen correctly in spite of 
old habits, for a few lessons, all will then be easy, and 



the pen wifi take its position at each writing exercise, 
with no effort whatever. Everything being in readi¬ 
ness, and the proper position assumed, the writer must 
now obtain complete control of hand and pen, by prac¬ 
tice in movement. 

RAPIDITY. 

One of the essentials of a practical business style of 
writing must be rapidity of execution, in order to be 
of any avail in the necessities and press of a business 
position. The demand of the merchant is, that his 
clerk shall not only write well, but with rapidity, and 
the volume of letters to be answered, bills to be made 
out, or items to be entered on the books of account, 
compel the clerk to move the pen with dexterity and 
rapidity, as well as skill. While there is great diver¬ 
sity among persons as to the rapidity as well as quality 
of their penmanship, some being naturally more alert 
and active than others, yet by securing the proper posi¬ 



tion of the hand, arm and body, favorable to ease and 
freedom of execution, then following this with careful 
practice in movement, until all the varied motions nec¬ 
essary in writing are thoroughly mastered, the person 
may, with suitable effort, acquire the quality of rapidity 
in writing, gradually increasing the speed until the 
desired rate is accomplished. 

BEAUTY. 

In the handwriting, as in other things, beauty is 
largely a matter of taste and education. To the man of 
business, the most beautiful handwriting is that which 
is written with ease, and expresses plainly and neatly the 
thought of the writer. To the professional or artistic 
taste, while such a hand may be regarded as “a good 
business hand,” it would not be considered as beautiful, 
because it conforms to no rule as to proportion, shade, 
and spacing. In the practical art of writing, it is not 
very unfair to measure its beauty largely by its utility 


f 



































































iNGEii movement, 
or writing by the 
use of the fingers 
as the motive 
power, is entire¬ 
ly inadequate to 
the requirements 
of business. The 
fingers soon be¬ 
come tired, the 
hand becomes cramped, the writing shows a labored 
effort, and lacks freedom and ease so essential to good 
business penmanship. In the office or counting-room, 
where the clerk or correspondent must write from 
morning' till night, the finger movement of course 
cannot be used. 

What is designated by writing teachers as the Whole 
Arm, or Free Arm Movement, in which the arm is 
lifted free from the desk and completes the letter with 
a dash or a swoop, is necessary in ornamental penman¬ 
ship and flourishing, but has no place in a practical style 
of business writing. The man of business would 
hardly stop, in the midst of his writing, to raise the 
arm, and execute an “off-hand capital,” while cus¬ 
tomers are waiting. 

But adapted to the practical purposes of business is 
the muscular movement , in which the arm moves freely 
on the muscles below the elbow, and in cases of precise 




writing, or in the more extended letters, such as f, is 
assisted by a slight movement of the Angel’s. The 
third and fourth fingers may remain stationary on the 
paper, and be moved from time to time, or between 
words, where careful and accurate writing is desired, 
but in more rapid, free and flowing penmanship, the 
fingers should slide over the paper. 

MOVEMENT EXERCISES. 

Having everything in readiness, the student may 
begin his practice on movement exercises, the object 
of which is to obtain control of the pen and train 
the muscles. Circular motion, as in the capital O, 
reversed as in the capital W, vertical movement as in 
f, long s and capital J, and the lateral motion as in 
small letters, must each be practiced in order to be 
able to move the pen in any direction, up, down, or 
sidewise. 

The simplest exercise m movement. Try to follow 
around in the same line as nearly as possible. Do not 
shade. 


The same exercise, only with ovals drawn out and and slight shade added to each down stroke 



Sides of ovals should be even, forming as nearly a straight line as possible. Reverse the movement as in 
third form. 



\ 






























































































BUSINESS WRITING. 



The following three exercises embrace the essential elements in capital letters, and should at lirst be made 
large for purposes of movement : 

Capital O, down strokes parallel. 



Capital stem. Down stroke a compound curve. Shade low. Finish with a dash. 



Capital loop. Curves parallel. First curve highest. 



H aving succeeded to some extent with these exercises, the learner may next undertake the vertical movement. 

In order to obtain the lateral movement, which enables one to write long words without lifting the pen, and 
move easily and gracefully across the page, exercises like the following should be practiced* 

Down strokes straight. Even and resting on line. 

In all movement exercises the third and fourth lingers should slide on the paper, and the finger movement 
should be carefully avoided. The different movements having been practiced, they may now be combined in 
various forms 




Lateral and rolling movement 
combined. Vertical movement 
and rolling movement combined. 

Movement exercises may be multiplied almost indefinitely by studying the forms used in writing and their 
combinations. Repeating many of the small letters, such as m, u, e, r, s, a, d, h and c, also capitals D, J, P, 
etc., forms an excellent exercise for the learner. 

PRINCIPLES IN WRITING. 




The principles must be first carefully studied, and separated into the primary lines which compose them and 
the form of each principle well understood. The student may then form a seale like the one following, by 


In order to enable the learner to examine, analyze and criticise his writing, the following principles are 
rriven as his standards of measurements and form. By combining them in various ways the essential part of all 
letters in the alphabet may be formed. 














































Two spaces high 


Down stroke straight 


A rule in writing may be laid down, that all small letters should commence on the blue line, and end one 
space high. 


dividing the distance between the blue lines on the paper into four equal spaces, with a lightly ruled line. The 
letters of the small alphabet should then be placed in the scale and the hight of each letter fixed in the mind. 


U- 


Notice that the contracted letters, or those which occupy only one space, as a, m, n, o, s, v, w and e, and that 
part of d, g, h, q and y, found in the first space, are all well rounded and developed. These letters and parts 
of letters, found in the first space, form the essential part of all writing, and therefore deserve especial care. 
Also notice that the loop letters, above the line, such as b, f, h, k and 1, extend two and one-half spaces above 
the blue line, while the loop below the line, such as g, f, j, q, y and z, extend one and one-half spaces below 
the blue line, thus two and one-half and one and one-half making the four spaces of the scale, and the upper 
loops on one line will just meet the lower loops of the line above, but never conflict, to the destruction of neat 
body writing. Notice the type of the printer. The extensions above the shorter letters are quite insignificant, 
and are only used to save the letter from resembling some other letter of the alphabet. They never conflict, 
and how legible they are. 


The Types. A Resemblance. An Absurdity. 

Besides, to make long loops, requires more time, and more power with the pen, while shorter loops are in 
every way easier to acquire, quicker, and better. Telegraph operators, some of whom are among our best 
business penmen, make all extended letters very short, while accountants, and business men, favor the style of 
short loops, well developed letters, and small capitals. 

Apply the principles. Observe regularity. Muscular movement. 


Down strokes straight. Up strokes curved. 


Principle No. 1. Well formed loop. 


These exercises should be practiced with the muscular movement, until they can be made with regularity 
and ease. 


4th principle. Let 3d and 4th fingers slide. Notice the top. 


O closed at top. ' No retracing. 



























































Notice form. In w, last part narrow. Make without raising the pen. 

/2f'/l''7rzr2/7rzr2r/r 

Extend two spaces above the line, and one below. 



Retracing is an error. The only exception to this is in d, t, p and x, where it becomes necessary. 



Upper loops have their crossing at the hight of one space, while lower loops cross at the blue line. 



Place the capital letters on the scale, analyze them according to principles 6, 7 and 8, and notice their 
relative proportions. 



In order to practice capital letters to advantage, as well as to study them, collect in a group or family all 
those letters which have some one form or principle as an essential part. Take first the 6th principle, or oval, 
and we group the letters as follows: 



/ 


























































The letters in which the capital stem, or 7th principle, forms a leading part, may be grouped as follows: 



In the H and K, the capital stem is almost straight on the down stroke, in the F and T it is little more of a 
wave line, and in S and L the line is much of a compound or double curve. 















The capital 1, and also the J, which is a modified I, are sometimes classed among the capital stem letters, 
from the resemblance of the I to this principle in all but the top. 































































BUSINESS WRITING. 


37 


In the capital loop, or 8th principle, another oval may be made within the large turn at the top, but for 
practical purposes the letter is perhaps better without it, and may be simplified even more, as in the N 
below. 




FIGURES. 

Make figures small, neat, and of form exact. Each figure must show for itself, and cannot be known by 
those which precede or follow it, as is the case with letters. The common tendency is to make figures too 
large and coarse. Mind the ovals in figures and have them full and round. The chief excellence of the zero 
lies in its roundness; the 3, 5, 6 or 9, without care in making the ovals, may degenerate into a straight line, or 
simply a meaningless hook, which it would hardly be safe to use in expressing sums of money, ordering goods, 
or the transaction of other business. 


/j, <3 tfcrSjp?# /0 



Having proceeded thus far in the study and practice of writing, and having obtained the proper control of 
the pen through the movement exercises, all that is necessary now in order to secure a good handwriting, is 
continued and well-directed practice. 














































- - -v 

38 


ORNAMENTAL PENMANSHIP. 





harming and fascinating are the graceful and 
harmonious curves produced, when, wielded 
by some trained and skillful hand, the pen 
becomes an instrument of beauty. As by the 
power of speech, men may pass from the com¬ 
mon tone of conversation up to the melodious 
strains of music, or may soar 
oratory into the sublime, until the multitude is 
entranced; so the capabilities of the pen are not 
limited to the common uses of life, but may 
take on forms of beauty in elegant outlines of 
bird, or landscape, or graceful swan or bound¬ 
ing stag. 

Ornamental writing is not a practical art, and has no connec¬ 
tion whatever with the practical business of life. It is in the 
realm of poetry. The imagery of graceful outlines must first be 
seen bj* a poetic imagination. While the great masses may 
acquire a good style of plain, practical penmanship, few have the 
necessary conception of mind, combined with the skill and dex¬ 
terity of hand to become successful ornamental penmen. 

The ornamental pages which follow are given, not as models for 
imitation or practice by the learner, but merely to show the pos¬ 
sibilities of the pen in the hand of a master, and as a fitting 
closing to this, our chapter on penmanship. 

To ail}’ one who may have an artistic quality of mind, and 
delights in beautiful lines and harmonious curves, these pages of 
ornamental penmanship will serve as models for practice and 
imitation, and every attempt at such an exercise as the one on 
this, or the following pages, will give greater strength and 
freedom of movement, and better command of the pen, so that 
it will conduce to an easy, flowing and elegant style of plain 
business writing, while affording a most pleasant and profitable 
employment in the cultivation of the taste. 

Various beautiful designs or pictures may be made with the 
pen, in the hands of one that possesses the skill ot a penman and 
the eve of an artist. 















































































































BUSINESS FORMS. 


s 3E7~X 




A) 1 


USINESS 



- 9 - 


<~£- 



ORMS. 


In the transaction of business, men have 
found it necessary to adopt certain forms or 
written instruments which are passed from 
one party to the other as evidence of the 
transaction, or intention of the parties. 
These are called Business Forms, and are in 
such extensive use that every person should become 
familiar with their form and peculiarities, no matter 
how limited their business experience may chance to 
be, and no one should presume to affix his signature to 
such documents without fully comprehending the 
meaning and responsibility of the act. 

For the sake of convenience and readiness of reference, 
as well as uniformity, accuracy and legibility, most of 


the forms used in business are printed, leaving blank 
spaces for names, amounts, dates, etc., which are filled 
in with pen and ink to suit the' requirements of each 
case. 

These forms are then arranged in tablets or pads, or 
bound into books, and are detached as they are needed. 

It is the design in the few pages following, to so 
acquaint the reader with the various business forms 
and their peculiarities, that he will be able to write 
out a document in correct manner, either with or with¬ 
out the printed blanks, and will at the same time 


understand the legal significance of such acts. 


These forms consist of Bills, Receipts, Due Bills, 
Notes, Orders, Checks, Drafts, and Bills of Exchange. 



BILLS. 







Bill is an itemized 
statement of goods 
bought or sold, or la¬ 
bor or services per¬ 
formed, together with 
the price of each ar¬ 
ticle, the amount of 
the whole, date, etc. 

The heading of a 
bill should consist of 
the name of the city 
or town, state, and 
date, and in many 
cases, especially in 


professional bills, the name and number of the street is 
also placed above the name of the city, but perhaps the 


more general custom is to place the number and street 
under the name of the firm, although this is not theo¬ 
retically so correct. The name of the person or firm to 


whom the goods are sold or for whom the service is 


performed, is placed at the left, and in case of a non¬ 
resident, it is well also to insert the address. 

When a bill is made for labor or services, the name of 
the person rendering such service should be preceded by 
To and followed by Dr., while in case of goods sold, it 
is now quite customary to use the words “Bought of.” 

The custom is now common, of placing the advertise¬ 
ment beneath the name, thus causing the bill head to 
bear the business card of the person or firm issuing it. 

Among merchants it is customary to have printed on 
the bill head the terms of sale and discounts allowed, 
together with rules in regard to rebates, etc. 














































































































BUSINESS FORMS. 



FORM OF A BILL FOR SERVICES. 




'he dates on the left of the bill are used to show 
when each service was performed, but in case the 
bill is rendered immediately after the labor has 
been completed, no date is then necessaiy here, 
the date at the head of the bill will suffice. If 
labor is charged for by the day or hour, the number of 
days or hours and the price of each must be put down. 
When the bill consists of one item only, it should be 
placed in the total column, but when several items, 
their sum only should be extended into this column, as 
in the above bill. When the bill is paid, it should be 
receipted by writing Received Payment, and signing the 
name, by the maker of the bill, and is then passed over 
and belongs to the party paying it, and should be care¬ 
fully preserved as his receipt. 

In making out a bill of any kind, it is always best to 
observe those conditions which give perspicuity to the 
writing. Any paper that is neatly drawn has a certain 
prestige as compared with such as are rendered barely 
intelligible, either from bad or careless writing, or have 
their sense killed by brevity. Every item should 
appear full and plain, and if there be occasion for 
expressing numbers and prices in the body of the bill, 
as already indicated, these ought to be so written in, as 
to be easily read and understood. Sufficient room must 



be taken to write the matter in so that no part of it may 
be mistaken. 

If indeed it be necessary to economize space in the 
body of the bill in order to set down all that is desired, 
the writing must of course be smaller and the lines 
closer together. In a bill of goods, which is made 
similar in form to the above, the price of articles that 
are enumerated in a single line is sometimes written 
immediately above each article in small figures, then 
the several amounts are added together and set down in 
the column in which the sums of items are shown. 

To avoid much crowding of matter in small space, 
it is usual among most business men to have the form 
of the bill head printed upon paper of different sizes, 
large as well as small. Generally the same form is 
printed on longer sheets, without any increase of 
width. 

Much time is absorbed every day in most departments 
of active business, by reason of careless or inaccurate 
making out of bills. The sending back and forth to 
have bills corrected or explained, often affords an excuse 
for delay in the payment of a bill, and sometimes pro¬ 
duces unpleasant friction between business men as well 
as the disadvantages which arise from lack of prompt 
settlement. 















































BUSINESS FORMS. 


FORM OF A MERCHANT’S BILL. 

All Claims for Damage or Shortage must be made within 5 days from the receipt of the Goods. 



Folio . ?li . 

Salesman-- . 







«t> 


WHOLESALE GROCERS, 


Terms: Cash. 

Discounts: Two per cent if pail at our office strictly within 10 days. 









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When a bill has been paid by note, or otherwise than 
by cash, it should be so stated on the bill. As in the 
above bill one-half is paid by note and cash given for 
the balance. Instead of allowing the note to draw 
interest, the merchant usually prefers to include the 
interest in the face of the note, and then have the note 
written without interest. In this case the interest 
must be charged in with the goods as in the above 
bill. Wholesale merchants and jobbers send a bill with 
each purchase. Retail merchants usually render a bill on 
the first of each month for the past month’s purchases. 



When bills have been rendered for goods sold from 
time to time during the month, it is customary where 
settlements are made monthly, to render at the close of 
the month, what is called a Statement. This is a synop¬ 
sis of all of the bills rendered during the month, show¬ 
ing' only the total amounts of the several bills, together 
with the dates, etc., but not specifying the various 
articles sold. This synopsis of the monthly account 
enables the merchant to check over the various pur¬ 
chases and readily ascertain the correctness thereof 
before settlement. 




























































’iien money is paid for the settlement of debt, 
or to apply on a debt or claim, for the pay- 
ment of rent, or for payment advanced on a 
contract, a receipt should always be taken. 
Never fail to take a receipt unless yon have 
some other evidence of payment so that a re¬ 
ceipt becomes unnecessary. Parties may die, witnesses 
move away, and memory fail, and then, in settling up 


the estate, you may be put to trouble and loss unless 
armed with a receipt. 

As a rule, every one having business with others, 
whereby money or its equivalent is passed, should 
require a receipt, which ought to be quickly given, as 
a matter of course. Do not ask any one it he will 
have a receipt for value; render it at once without 
words. 




FORM OF A RECEIPT. 





A receipt written with pencil is legal, but a prudent 
and careful business man would hardly give a receipt 
in pencil. Never fail to have a receipt properly dated, 
as it is frequently of great importance to know when a 
payment was made. The receipt should state clearly 
and fully what the payment was made for; if on a con¬ 
tract or note, specify what contract, or note; if for 
rent, state for what premises, and from what date to 
what date the rent is paid. 


FOR PAYMENT ON A CONTRACT. 

$500. Pittsburgh, Nov. 18, 1884. 

Received of Watson D. Brown, Five Hundred Dollars, 
being- the first installment paid on a contract to build for him 
a brick dwelling house at No. 938 Vine street. 

Colburn & Dewey. 



FOR MONEY TO APPEY ON ACCOUNT. 

$100. Omaha, Neb., Jan. 10, 1884. 

Received of John W. Smith, One Hundred Dollars, to 
apply on account. H. M. Winslow & Co. 

IN FULL OF ALL DEMANDS. 

$38.65. Detroit, Mich., Jan. 16, 1884. 

Received of Peter Hind, Thirty-Eight and 65-100 Dollars, 
in fall of all demands. J. W. Hunter. 

FOR RENT. 

$25. Columbus, Ohio, May 1, 1884. 

Received of H. D. South worth, Twenty-Five Dollars, for 
rent of dwelling No. 187 Elm street, from May 1st to June 
1st, 1883. James S. Goodrich. 

TO APPLY ON A NOTE. 

$150. Richmond, Va., June 1st, 1884. 

Received of Wm. L. Irwin, One Hundred and Fifty Dol¬ 
lars, to apply on his note for $600, due August 3d, 1883. 

James Duncan. 



































































































BUSINESS FORMS. 


43 


RECEIPT FOR STOCK TO WINTER. 


Parker, Ill., Nov. 26, 1883. 

Received from Jackson Wood, ten head of horned cattle, 
namely: four cows and six young oxen, together with three 
horses, and five swine, which I promise to keep through the 
winter and feed with good hay, com, etc., and return in good 
condition, on the fifteenth day of April next, casualties 
excepted, he paying me eight dollars each for the cattle and 
horses, and one dollar and fifty cents each for the swine. 
Witness my hand. John Schroder. 

RECEIPT TO GUARDIAN FOR PAYMENT ON ACCOUNT OF HIS 

WARD. 

1120. Milwaukee, Wis., May 31, 1884. 

Received from John Bell, guardian of Harriet Landon, one 
of the minor children and heirs of Joel Landon, deceased, One 
Hundred and Twenty Dollars, in full for board and tuition of 
said Harriet Landon, from March 1 , 1884, to date. 

Benjamin Simmons. 

TO EXECUTOR FOR PAYMENT OF A REQUEST. 

82,000. Montgomery, Ala., Dec. 24, 1883. 

Received of Edwin Boomer, executor of the last will and 
testament of Warren Sizer, deceased, the sum of Two Thousand 
Dollars, in full of a legacy bequeathed me by said last will and 
testament. Samuel Kane. 

FOR A NOTE. 

8275. Providence, R. I., May 25, 1884. 

Received of Geo. D. Woodworth, his note at thirty days, for 
Two Hundred and Seventy-Five Dollars, in full of account. 

S. D. Long & Co. 

FOR INSTRUCTION IN MUSIC. 

Lake Zurich, Ill., July 18, 1884. 
Received of Charles Barber, the sum of Ten Dollars, in 
full of all demands on account of instruction in music. 

M. E. Winter. 


AGENT’S RECEIPT TO HOUSE OWNER FOR PAYMENT ON 
ACCOUNT OF REPAIRS. 

Chicago, March 26, 1884. 

Received of Ogden Whitcomb, Fifty Dollars, for painting 
and calcimining house at Hyde Park, and commissions for 
superintending same. Blank D. Bar. 

FOR MONEY PAID ON AN INSURANCE POLICY. 

Chicago, July 25, 1884. 

Received of August Fischer, the sum of Three Dollars and 
Seventy-Five Cents, in full on insurance premium in A. G. 
Insurance Co., No. 10,549. Charles Ray. 

PART PAYMENT ON INTEREST NOTE—BORROWED MONEY. 

Springfield, O., July 19, 1884. 

Received Nineteen Dollars of the Twenty Five Dollars due 
on Anthony White’s note of Five Hundred Dollars, to order H. 
Banker ; said 825 being due Jan. 19, ’84, balance, $6, to be 
paid Jan. 20. Charles Greenough. 

FOR PAYMENT OF PURCHASE MONEY. 

Know all Men by these Presents: 

That I, Albert Piper, of Geneva, hereby acknowledge the 
receipt from Abner Pick, of Batavia, of Six Hundred Dollars, 
being the last payment, and in full, of twelve thousand dollars, 
by said Abner Pick paid as the consideration of the purchase 

of a certain tract and parcel of land situate in-etc., (as 

in the agreement, bond or conveyance described). 

That the entire sum of the six hundred dollars aforesaid, and 
every part thereof, I do, by these presents, for me, my heirs, 
executors, and administrators, acquit and discharge said Abner 
Pick, his heirs, executors, and administrators forever. 

In witness, etc. Albert Piper. 

ANOTHER. 

Received this fifth day of November, of the within named 
Abner Pick, the sum of Six Hundred Dollars, being the full 
consideration and purchase money within mentioned remain¬ 
ing to be paid me. 

Witness: George Whitney. Albert Piper. 





LAW GOVERNING RECEIPTS. 





■*< 


receipt is not certain proof of payment. It may be 
inoperative from mistake or fraud, and is open to 
explanation or contradiction. In this respect releases 
differ from receipts. A release cannot be contradicted by evi¬ 
dence, except on account of fraud, but if the words are 
ambiguous, the law permits the introduction of evidence that 
the meaning may be determined. 

An entry in the books of the creditor showing a payment is 
not a receipt. 

A release is in the nature of a contract, and must be taken 
to mean what it has set down in writing, unless for rea¬ 
sons already indicated. A receipt that contains any writing 
to the effect of an agreement as to the use to be made of the 
sum paid—as if it be paid beforehand on the score of future 
transactions—is legal, and not to be modified by parol evi¬ 
dence. 

Where a receipt is taken for a note received in payment 
of an account, it will not always constitute a defense to an 
action on the account, unless it should be proven that the 
creditor consented to take the note in payment, and assume 
the risk of its being paid. 


A receipt for the consideration money in a deed of real 
property is generally conclusive as against the seller and his 
privies. 

Where a payment is made in a particular kind of money or 
a promissory note of another person, it is frequently so 
specified in the receipt. In most states, it is presumed that 
negotiable paper is received on the rule or condition that it 
shall not work a discharge of the demand unless it shall prove 
good and satisfactory. If such paper given in payment turns 
out to be dishonored, the creditor is entitled to return it, 
and demand to be paid again. If the receipt does not specify 
an absolute acceptance, it is subject to explanation, and 
the creditor may contradict it by proof, and show that the 
money, note, or check given as payment, was afterward found 
to be counterfeit, or check on a bank that was insolvent 
though not known to be so by the parties. 

A receipt “ in full of all demands ” means what it says; it 
settles all demands or accounts on both sides. 

An attorney’s receipt that was given for securities he was to 
collect and account for, has been held as presumptive evidence 
of the genuineness and soundness of the securities. 












































m 44 


BUSINESS yORMS. 






The merchant, having a deposit in the bank, and 
being supplied with a book of blank checks, writes out 
a check for the payment of his obligations. The 
person receiving this check may transfer it by indorse¬ 
ment to another (sec Indorsements), and thus it may 
pass through several hands, and discharge several debts, 


before it finds its way to the bank on which it is drawn, 
and is then charged up to the merchant and canceled. 

The person who writes the check is called the drawer, 
the one to whom it is made payable is called the payee, 
and the person who writes his name on the back of it is 
called the indorser. 


onvenience and safety, as well as other 
considerations, induce most business men and 
firms doing a considerable cash business, to 
p an account at the bank, and near the close of 
each day’s business, deposit the bulk of the cash 
receipts for the day, reserving a sufficient sum on 
hand to meet the immediate needs of evening or morn¬ 


ing. This extensive use of the bank as a place of 
deposit, has brought into equally extensive use the 
Bank Check as a method of payment, until it would 
now be exceedingly difficult if not impossible to 
transact the business in the great centers of trade, if 
all payments were required to be made in currency and 
coin, handled and counted. 


FORM OF A BANK CHECK. 





































































































































business forms. 


45 


In filling out a check the amount should be expressed 
in figures at the margin and also in words in the body of 
the check, as a guard against errors. If the words 
expressing the amount do not fill up the blank space 
entirely, a dash or heavy wave line should be used to fill 
in, thus preventing any dishonest person from raising or 
changing the amount of the check. 

Should the person receiving a check not desire the 
money, he may present it at the bank, and have it 
“Certified.” Bv this act of certifying, the bank prom¬ 
ises or obligates itself to pay the check, whenever pre¬ 
sented. 

After the checks have been canceled by the bank they 
are, at stated intervals, usually once a month, returned 
to the draw r er. These canceled checks are then called 


vouchers, or evidences of payment, and should be care¬ 
fully preserved by the depositor as his receipts. Hence 
many business men prefer to pay by check, than by cur¬ 
rency or coin, and are in such cases not so particular 
about a receipt. All checks should be numbered for 
convenience in describing them, and the numbers should 
continue in consecutive order, as long as the form 
remains unchanged or until the signature is altered. In 
business, bank checks are always spoken of and treated 
as cash, the presumption being that the drawer has 
money on deposit to meet his check when presented. 

CROSSED CHECKS. 

In England, where there is no bank note of a less 
value than £5 ($25), a great use is made of checks; 


FORM OF A CERTIFIED CHECK. 



and it is no unusual thing among the small tradesmen 
to meet checks which have been in circulation some 
months. This being a recognized fact, the banks pay 
without difficulty or question all ordinary checks pre¬ 
sented at their counters, made payable to “cash,” or 
“bearer,” or to a person. In the case of such checks, 
identification is, at least in the large towns, never 
asked for. 

This facility of having checks cashed, evidently re¬ 
quired a modification. A check for a large amount 
might easily be stolen or lost. Hence arose the system 
of crossed checks, which has proved of great value and 
convenience, and which may be thus briefly explained: 

Supposing that A wishes to send B a check for $1000, 
and is doubtful of the honesty of his messenger. He 
knows that B banks with, say, the Merchants’ Na¬ 
tional, of Boston. He makes out the check as usual, 


and then writes across it Merchants’ National Bank, of 
Boston. 


No. 1. 

PQ 

Boston, March 4, 1884. 

First 

E—^ 

National Bank, 

Pay to the order 

E-h 

of Charles Browning, 

O 7 

One Thou 

CJD 

sand Dollars. 

$1000 

pp 

w 

S 

Wm. Anderson. 


Under the English system, A’s bank will only pay 
this check when presented by or through the Merchants’ 
National Bank. 

The ordinary way is to cross a check so that it may 
be paid through any bank. This is done by writing 
- & Co. instead of the name of a particular bank. 












































BUSINESS FORMS. 


The advantage of the system will be at once evident. 
A stolen check, if crossed, is of no use to the thief. 
Thieves, at least of the kind who would steal a check, 
have no bank account, and if they had, it would be 
all the same, for the check known to have been lost or 
stolen would be at once traced to the depositor. 

The system has received the sanction of various Acts 
of Parliament, intended to protect banks refusing to 
pay a crossed check over their counters, when presented 
even by the person to whom it is made payable. 



Frauds in checks by forgeries and alterations, often 
depend upon poor styles of checks, poor paper used, 


and awkward tilling out. 


CERTIFICATE OF DEPOSIT. 

Should a person depositing money in a bank not 
desire to draw it out by check, he may receive from the 
bank a Certificate of Deposit, showing date, name of 
depositor, and amount of deposit in the following form: 


FORM OF A CERTIFICATE OF DEPOSIT. 



,«g> 


v 


4^5 

•f <r 


LAW GOVERNING BANK CHECKS. * 


—si 


VC 


Si¬ 


ft 


» £> ■ ♦ C < 


C hecks are to be presented for payment without unreason¬ 
able delay. 

There is no payment by giving a check unless the check 

is paid. 

The party on whom a check is drawn is obliged to honor it 
if he has funds belonging to the drawer in hand. Until 
dishonored it must be regarded as payment. 

The drawer of a check has no occasion to complain of the 
person (holder), to whom he has given a check, for not exer¬ 
cising diligence in presenting it at the bank, because, if the 
bank fails after he could have got his money on the check, the 
loss is sustained by the holder. 

If the bank before he presents his check pay out all the 
money of the drawer, on other checks, he may then look to the 
drawer. 

A bank must know the writing of its depositors. If it pays 
a check that is forged, it is liable for the loss. 

If a check be drawn when the drawer neither has funds in 
the bank, nor has made any arrangement by which he has a 
right to draw the check, the drawing of it is a fraud. 



A check not drawn within the state where the bank is situ¬ 
ated, is subject to the law governing bills of exchange,—the 
holder of it must protest in writing, usually through a notary, 
against all parties liable for any loss or damage by the non¬ 
payment of it. 

Joint depositors must join in a check, and if any of the num¬ 
ber absconds, the remainder may draw the money by permis¬ 
sion of a court of equity. 

The drawer of a check is not bound with and for another, 
as is the drawer of a bill, but a principal debtor, like a maker 
of a note. 

An ordinary check is made payable to a certain person or 
bearer; this is to guard against loss or theft, since no payment 
will be made unless the payee writes his name on the check. 

If a check is paid by a bank before receiving notice of the 
death of a drawer, the bank is not blamable or responsible. If 
a check is given in prospect of death, it must be presented and 
paid while the donor is alive, because his death countermands 
his check. Otherwise, the holder of a check would present it 
for acceptance to the legal representatives of the deceased. 


















































































o2£ 

Phen an account or claim has been adjusted, and 
jS the amount due from one party to the other 
definitely agreed upon, an acknowledgment of 
^ this indebtedness may be made in writing, to 
prevent further controversy, and this written 
acknowledgment 'of indebtedness is called a 
Due Bill. If a due bill is payable in merchandise or 


property, it should state the exact quantity and 
quality, for if nothing is said as to how payable, it is 
presumed to be payable in money. The date also should 
be given. 

The words or order may be inserted in the due bill 
immediately after the name, and would thus make it 
negotiable by indorsement, the same as a note. 


FORM OF A DUE BILL. 



This form of paper differs from a promissory note, 
which latter usually contains a promise to pay, at a 
time specified therein, a sum of money to a certain per¬ 
son, or to his order, for value received. 

PAYABLE IN MERCHANDISE. 

180. Omaha, Neb., Jan. 10,1884. 

Due A. S. Worsdell, or order, Eighty Dollars, payable in 
merchandise at my store. James IIume. 

PAYABLE IN WHEAT. 

Monmouth, Ill., May 10, 1884. 

Due Henry Seymour, or order, One Thousand Dollars, pay¬ 
able in No. 1 Spring Wheat, at the market price when deliv¬ 
ered. Edward A. Hudson. 



i. o. u. 

Another form of acknowledgment of a debt is used, 
and is known by the abbreviations I. O. U. It is dif¬ 
ferent from a promissory note, being merely evidence 
of a debt as a result of a contract previously made. A 
miniature form of such an obligation is as follows: 


$30. Bay City, Mich., March 12, 1884 

John Smith, Esq., 

I. O. U. Thirty Dollars. 

James Hood 



- k 


































































































48 


BUSINESS FORMS. 



| c > ; ;P‘£ , ‘ T> g’ C ■ i> a ' ^ r i, ^y 


A"ij ' C^0 0 pC^ | Jl^" 1 ig , r T* A ' ^cL. , r?^ ' ^<^3fO°iy^0 0 <3 y ^^ 0 ojflf0^g | CtvT^'U ' ^0 0 ^ i ^O r ' 1 g’ r ltO ' '~' l i g r lr A " 




■a 


x would be impossible 
to carry on the enter¬ 
prises and business of 
the w o r 1 d witho u t 
credit. Credit, or 
mutual faith, lies not 
only at the foundation 
of business, but also 
of our government 
and institutions, and 
it is only when, by 
over enthusiasm, spec¬ 
ulation, and the ex¬ 
treme use of credit, 
that the people have their faith shaken, and panic and 
disaster ensue. 

This credit, which forms a portion of the capital of 
almost every business man, does not always consist of 
book accounts, but may take on the tangible form of a 
written promise to pay, and is then called a promissory 
note. 

The extended and varied use of this form of credit is 
beyond all power to estimate or control. It repre¬ 
sents all forms of service, all articles of merchandise, 
and especially all great works and interests, as manu¬ 
factories, ships, railroads, public and private contracts, 
as well as public debt. A housekeeper’s passbook is 
balanced by a note at three or six months, while the 
retailer buys goods of the wholesale merchant and 
settles with his note; the jobber receives notes from 
the wholesale merchant, and the former gives notes 
to the manufacturer or producer; notes are given for 
raw material by the manufacturer, while the factor is 
already under acceptance to the grower, and the notes 
of the latter are given to the bank long before his crops 
are gathered. The sugar from Havana or our own 

O C 

shores, has notes in sets predicated on it before it is 
rolled in hogsheads from the vessel to our wharves, 


and it continues to accumulate notes as it passes through 
on its way from the refiner to the grocer. After it has 
gone into the mouths of consumers, its notes are still 
afloat, not settled, in the market. The millions of notes 
thus carried on the market, serve to represent untold 
millions of dollars of value, no matter what the form, 
nor what the condition. Notes may be for services yet 
to be performed, goods to be delivered, or even for some 
form of life as yet unborn. 

This form of credit is spread out all over the region 
ot active business, and serves between man and man as 
currency. It passes current like the notes of a bank 
that does not suspend. It differs from bank bills only 
in this, that it is transferred by indorsement, and ma¬ 
tures at a stated subsequent time, while the indorsers 
are liable to the owner in case of non-payment by the 
maker. It is a species of currency forced upon the 
sphere of active life from actual necessity, and its use 
in good faith has been of incalculable advantage to the 
civilized world. For example, a man of sound mind, 
of known integrity, and strong will, may be credited 
and intrusted with a large sum of money, for which 
he simply gives his promissory note, even without 
security. His creditor has confidence in him because 
he is the possessor of reason and common sense, and has 
a disposition, coupled with a will to meet all obligations, 
or force an undertaking to success. " 

A promissory note is a written or printed promise to 
pay a certain sum of money at a specified time, or on 
demand, to a person therein named, or his order or 
assigns, or to the bearer. 

The person signing the note is called the maker, and 
the person to whom it is made payable is called the 
payee. The person who writes his name across the back 
of the paper is-called an indorser. Notes are said to be 
negotiable when they ar^ transferable from one person 
to another by indorsement, and when indorsed it is 
in some respects similar to a bill of exchange. 















































































A form of a Negotiable Note is here shown, by which 
may be seen at a glance the difference between that and 
a Note not Negotiable, as appears below. The first is 
written “pay to the order of H. W. E.” (otherwise 
“pay to H. W. E. or bearer”), while the other reads 
“ pay to John D. Henderson.” The negotiable note is 
payable to the person holding it at the time of maturity, 
but the one not negotiable is payable to the particular 
person in whose favor it is drawn. 


A Produce Note is one written to the purpose of a 
delivery at a certain time and place, or on demand, cer¬ 
tain named articles of value, at current rates, and to a 
limited amount. The maker of such a note must be 
prepared to prove that he was ready at the time and 
place expressed therein, and continued ready, to deliver 
the articles; otherwise, he may have to pay their value 
in money. A produce note may be assigned. 

A note that is given over and above the principal 


NOTE NOT NEGOTIABLE. 









t >/ / 







/ 



100 









itself, is called a Collateral Note. It is additional to 
something else, and given as security. 

A promissory note that is written in the customary 
form, with the addition of a power of attorney to con¬ 
fess judgment for the amount specified, is called a 
Judgment Note. 


In the settlement of a defendant’s estate, a sealed 
note must be paid before one without a seal. A judg¬ 
ment note has a seal, and is executed in presence of at¬ 
testing witnesses. When a judgment note becomes due 
and stands unpaid, a suit may be brought on it, and 
judgment obtained at once, upon which execution may 







































































50 


BUSINESS FORMS. 


DEMAND NOTE. 




0X.. *J2L~JL, 7?'L:-. _ / 6, /ss^. 








M,- £L~ 


issue. It usually contains many stipulations as to the 
time of confessing the judgment, against appeal, and 
other remedies for setting the judgment aside, etc. 

When a promissory note is written payable on de¬ 
mand, it is called a Demand Note, as shown by the form. 
Such a note, not known to have been dishonored, is 
regarded overdue after a reasonable time, and, in deter¬ 
mining what is a reasonable time, the circumstances of 
a case must be considered. In some states the period 


within which the note shall not be overdue, is fixed by 
statute. 

When there are two or more makers to a promissory 
note, it is called a Joint and Several Note. The makers 
may be liable thereon jointly, or jointly and severally 
—each one separately—according to the tenor of the 
note. (See form.) A Joint Note reads “we promise 
to pay,” etc., value received, and is signed by two or 
more persons. Or it may be written, “ we promise to 


JOINT AND SEVERAL NOTE. 



pay,” and signed John Smith, principal, and William 
Jones, security. By the terms principal, and security, 
are shown the relation of the makers to each other; 
these terms having no other effect. A note beginning, 
“I promise,” and signed by one partner for his copart¬ 
ners, is a joint note for all. 


Notes arc usually drawn with the words “value re¬ 
ceived” written in after the amount; and sometimes 
are used to begin with, as “Value received, I promise 
to pay,” etc. The phrase should be written in every 
note, but is not necessary. If not written it is pre¬ 
sumed by the law, or may be supplied by proof. 



























































BUSINESS FORMS. 


51 




LAW GOVERNING PROMISSORY NOTES. 


-«rB- 


-c> ^e^V- 



A note is payable at all events, not dependent on any con- 
^ tingency, nor payable from any special fund. And it is 
payable in money only. 

No particular form is necessary to promissory notes. A 
promise to pay the money, or be responsible for it, is quite 
sufficient. 

A promissory note is never made under seal. It is not com¬ 
plete until it is delivered. If any contingency that affects the 
promise itself appear on its face, it is not negotiable. 

In drawing the note, the payee must be designated, uuless 
the note be made payable to bearer. It may read “I promise 
to pay to my own order,” and then it would not be effective 
until signed and indorsed by the promisor. 

If a note is not dated the time is computed from the day a 
knowledge of it is first gained. If there be any difference 
between the amount in figures and that written in words, the 
words control. A note does not bear interest until after it 
matures, unless so written. 

One who cannot write should have a witness when he makes 
his mark. 

Bank notes are a kind of promissory note, and issuing from 
an institution that is regulated by law, they do, by common 
consent, and for ordinary business purposes, serve as money. 
Bank notes or bills are good for the payment of debts, if not 
objected to by the person to whom they are offered, and on 
the ground that they are only promissory notes, and not legal 
tender. 

The necessary consideration of a note or negotiable paper is 
that which confers some benefit upon the person who makes a 
promise or upon a third party at his instance or request; or 
some disadvantage or loss sustained by the one in whose behalf 
the promise is made. A note as a present is void for lack of 
consideration. 

A note is void if procured from the maker while he was in a 
state of intoxication. If a note be given on Sunday, or if it be 
founded on fraud, it is void, unless in the hands of a bona fide 
holder, purchasing before maturity and without notice. One 
who has notice that a note is vitiated by fraud or upon legal 
grounds, and yet takes the note, he places himself in the 
same perilous position of the person he got it from. 

A note is not negotiable when it is made payable to a cer¬ 
tain person only. It may be transferred by assignment. 

In most states a note that is not negotiable may be trans¬ 
ferred by assignment, and the set-offs and defenses existing 
between the original parties go with it. 

Payment must be demanded upon the last day of grace. 
If that day falls on Sunday or a legal holiday, the demand 
must be made the day before. Presentment of a note must 
be made by the holder or his authorized agent. A written 
demand sent through the post-office will not suffice. If no 
time is specified, a note is payable at once. 


If a note be payable at a certain place, it must be presented 
at such place on the day it is due, in order to charge an 
indorser. Payment must be demanded during business hours 
at the place of business of the maker or at his house at sea¬ 
sonable hours, if no place is designated. In case of joint 
makers, the note must be presented to each one. No pre¬ 
sentation is necessary if the maker has absconded; and in 
case of his death, it should be presented to the executor or 
administrator; or, if no such officer has been appointed, at 
the house of the deceased. 

The maker of a note must pay it at maturity, or any time 
after, unless he has some defense in law or is barred by the 
statute of limitations. 

A note that has matured, if not paid by three o’clock, 
should be put into the hands of a notary for protest, as that 
will be evidence that the note was duly presented for pay¬ 
ment, and payment was refused. 

Notice of non-payment, written or verbal, but well authen¬ 
ticated, should be given to the indorser of a note to hold him 
liable. Demand, protest, or notice, is not required to fix the 
liability of the maker of a note. If a note has teen duly 
presented and payment refused, the notice should designate 
the fact in words, and should contain such description as 
would show its identity. 

If a note be guaranteed by a party, such guaranty is equal 
to a promise to pay it, and the party is not entitled to notice; 
if not paid by the maker or debtor, it will be paid by the 
guarantor. In case of a guaranty of collectability, however, 
it is required that the holder shall use diligence without 
success. 

Where a note is sent to a bank for collection, and the bank 
places the note in the hands of a suitable sub-agent or notary 
for presentment or demand, the bank is not liable for the 
default of such sub-agent or notary. In such case the sub¬ 
agent or notary becomes the agent of the holder of the note. 

A note that reads “ I promise to pay,” and is signed by two 
or more persons, it is joint and several. The holder can sue 
either signer, or all jointly. If it reads, “We promise to 
pay,” without words to the effect of a several responsibility, it 
is a joint and several note, and all must be joined in case of 
a suit. 

A note that has been accidentally destroyed may be recov¬ 
ered upon adequate proof. If a note is lost or destroyed, 
notice must be given, and payment must be demanded the 
same as if the note was still secure in form. 

In case of the loss of a negotiable note, equity alone will 
grant relief where the premises are not covered by statutory 
provisions; and the claimant must file a bill in chancery to 
enforce payment, indemnity being offered to the debtor. 

A note given by a minor is voidable at his election, and of no 
effect until ratified by him when he arrives at full age. 


























































If n Order is a written request from one person or firm 
M to another, for the delivery of a sum of money or 
1 articles of merchandise. These orders are usually 
drawn by one merchant on another, or by persons in 
the same town or neighborhood, and are a kind of 
informal draft, not intended to be transferred by in¬ 


dorsement, nor circulate as do the several forms of 
negotiable paper. 

The person or firm on whom an order is drawn, must 
in filling it, know that it is genuine, and the order 
itself should then be carefully preserved as a voucher, 
in case disagreements should ever arise. 


ORDER FOR MERCHANDISE. 



FOR MONEY. 

Bloomington, Ill., June 19, 1884. 

Mr. G. C. Duncan: 

Please pay John Sanford, or order, Five Dollars, 
and charge to my account. 

Daniel Henderson. 

FOR GOODS STORED. 

Chicago, May 18, 1884. 

Empire Warehouse Co.: 

Please allow the bearer, Leonard Jones, to remove 
ten cases of Dry Goods, stored by us in your warehouse. 

" Marshall Field & Co. 

FOR MERCHANDISE NOT EXCEEDING A SPECIFIED AMOUNT. 

St. Louis, May 27, 1884. 

Messrs. J. M. Rice & Co.: 

Please deliver to the bearer, Geo. Bartlett, such 
goods as he may select from your store, not exceeding One 
Hundred Dollars, and charge the same to my account. 

James A. Hawley. 


TO A BROKER FOR MINING STOCK. 

Boston, April 1,1884. 

Harrison & Hart, Stock Brokers: 

Please buy for my account and risk, ten shares 
stock in W. C. Copper Mining Co. 

John Wright. 

IN FULL OF ACCOUNT. 

Ogdensburg, N. Y., May 25, 1884. 

Messrs. Roe & Doe: 

Please pay to John Jones, or bearer, Seventy- 
Five Dollars from your store, and hold this as your receipt in 
full of my account. 

James Merit. 

FOR LUMBER. 

Marshall, Ill., May 16, 1884. 

Mr. Edwin Booth: > 

Please pay Valentine King Fifty Dollars in lum¬ 
ber from your yard, and charge to my account. 

J. Streeter. 
























































Uhe oldest class of coni 
pi mercial paper is the 
Bill of Exchange, 
which was originally a 
security invented among 
merchants in different 
countries for the more 
safe and easy remittance of money 
from one to the other, and has 
since spread itself into almost all 
pecuniary transactions. It may 
be defined as an open letter of re¬ 
quest from one man to another, 
desiring him to pay a sum named 
therein to himself, or to a third 
person on his account; and by this 
method a man at the most distant 

part of the world may have money remitted to him 
from any state or trading country. 

Bills of Exchange are used not only in remitting 
money from place to place, but also in collecting* debts 
in distant cities and places. Thus the wholesale mer¬ 
chant draws a draft on his customer, payable to himself 
or to the bank, and forwards it to the bank in the town 
where his customer resides, for collection. The ship¬ 
per draws a draft on the commission merchant, to whom 
he has consigned his live stock or produce, and discounts 
the draft in bank, thus receiving the money for his 
shipment before it reaches its destination. And the 
merchant, when pressed to meet payments, even draws 
a draft on his neighbor, with the understanding that he, 
the drawer, shall take up the paper at maturity, and by 
this use of his neighbor’s borrowed credit is able to 
raise the necessary funds to meet maturing obligations. 

The terms Draft and Bill of Exchange are almost 
synonymous, the real difference being that drafts aie 
drawn on persons residing in the same state 01 country 
as the drawer, while bills of exchange are drawn on 
persons residing in a distant country, and were origi¬ 
nally drawn in sets of three, and forwarded by different 
routes, so that in case one or two bills were lost in 
transmitting, the third would reach its destination and 
be paid. But with the modern and improved facility 
for transmitting commercial paper from place to place, 




the risk of losing in the mail has 
become so inconsiderable that the 
practice of drawing three bills has 
been largely discontinued. And 
the term bill of exchange has also 
been largely displaced by the more 
brief and ready term draft, which 
is now generally applied in busi¬ 
ness usage to the inland and foreign 
paper alike. 

The person who writes the draft 
or bill of exchange is called the 
drawer, the person on whom it is 
drawn is called the drawee, and the 
person to whom payment is order¬ 
ed to be made is called the payee. 
The address of the drawee is usu¬ 
ally necessary in order that he may be found, and pay¬ 
ment or acceptance demanded. 

The presumption or theory upon which drafts or bills 
of exchange rest, is that the drawer has funds in the 
possession of the drawee sufficient to pay the draft, and 
a bill ought, therefore, to be so drawn as to imply an 
order to pay the amount specified. 

Drafts which are drawn “at sight” are called Sight 
drafts, and are payable when presented, or when the 
drawee sees the draft. Thus, in the form given, when 
James H. Raymond, or whoever may be the holder, 
shows the draft to A. J. White & Co., it is then due 
and payable, and if payment is refused it is said to be 
dishonored, and is returned to the drawer, James Rol¬ 
lins. Drafts which are not payable at sight are called 
Time drafts, and are usually written “at ten days’ 
sight,” or “ten days after sight,” or “ten days after 
date.” In the form of a time draft given, tire words 
“at thirty days’ sight,” mean thirty days after the draft 
shall have been presented to the drawee, John Thomp¬ 
son. If the drawee, John Thompson, is willing to pay 
the draft, he writes across the face of it, usually in red 
ink, when presented to him, the words “Accepted 
August 11th, 1884, John Thompson.” This writing is 
called an acceptance, and the paper will then be due 
thirty-three days after this acceptance. 

During this time, this piece of negotiable paper may 



4 























































































BUSINESS FORMS. 


be indorsed over and pass through half a dozen houses, 
paying hundreds of dollars of debts before finding its 
way to John Thompson’s place of business for payment 
at maturity. 

The words “with exchange at par in New York or 



Chicago,” are inserted in the draft for the purpose of 
covering the difference between the current funds of 
New Orleans and New York, or the cost of transmitting 
the money from the former to the latter city, either by 
means of drafts or by express. Thus, in the form given, 


FORM OF A SIGHT DRAFT. 



the face of the draft, $150, is due Marshall Field & Co., 
in Chicago, and whatever expense may be necessary in 
transmitting the money, or its equivalent, to Chicago, 
should lie borne by the drawee, John Thompson, and 
this is exacted by the words “with exchange,” etc. 


The person on whom a draft is drawn must know that 
the signature of the drawer is genuine, and also that 
the amount as written in the draft has not been altered 
or “raised,” for if he accepts a draft which has been 
forged or raised, he is liable on his acceptance in case the 


1 

FORM OF AN ACCEPTANCE. 



paper should afterward be sold to a person who is not 
aware of the forgery. The drawee may claim a reasona¬ 
ble time, usually a few hours, when a draft is presented to 
him for acceptance, in which to examine his accounts 
and ascertain whether lie is indebted to the drawer. 



The use of the draft in business transactions is much 
more convenient than money, which in some respects 
it represents. Let the following example illustrate: 
Suppose that A, of Chicago, sells and ships to B, of New 
J ork, 1000 bbls. of flour. He has the flour insured, 
















































































BUSINESS FORMS. 


55 


procures a bill of lading from the railroad company, 
and then draws a draft on B, of New York, payable to 
the order of the bank where A transacts his business. 
The draft and bill of lading are then pinned together, 
and with these A steps into his bank, where he obtains 
the money on his draft on the security of the bill of 
lading. By this means A has actually received pay¬ 
ment for the flour before it has left Chicago. The bank 
charges a compensation for advancing the money, and 
afterward forwards the draft to New York for collec¬ 
tion from B. 

It is plain that all parties are accommodated and ben¬ 
efited by this transaction, although not a dollar has 
passed between B and A. A has received his pay for 


the flour much sooner than he could have possibly done 
were it necessary to wait until the flour had reached 
New York, and then until returns could have been re¬ 
ceived from B, while the compensation charged by the 
bank is much less than the express charged on the 
money from New York to Chicago, together with loss 
of time, delay and risk attending such transmission. 

When three bills of exchange of the same tenor are 
drawn, they are numbered one, two and three, and are 
called a Set of Exchange. Each bill provides that it is 
payable in case the other two fail to reach their desti¬ 
nation. The words “second and third unpaid,” mean 
that in case the bills numbered two and three are un¬ 
paid, pay this the first, or if the first and third are not 


A SET OF EXCHANGE. 


X 

■ I Exchange for £1000. New York, Jan. 25, 1884 
< 

a 
! • 

( 

-l 
i 

• l 

! ) 




Thirty days after sight of this First of Exchange, , 1 
(,Second and Third unpaid), pay to the order of v 
James S. Seymour, One Thousand Pounds Sterl¬ 
ing, value received, and charge to account of 
To Charles Lawson, William C. Morse. 

^ Liverpool, England. No. 1670. ^ 


l s> a (§ 

Exchange for £1000. New York, Jan. 25, 1884. 

Thirty days after sight of this Second of Ex¬ 
change, (First and Third unpaid), pay to the order 
of James S. Seymour, One Thousand Pounds Sterl¬ 
ing, value received, and charge to account of 
To Charles Lawson, William C. Morse. 

Liverpool, England. Mo. 1670. 






? 


'I 

< 


Exchange for £1000, New York, Jan. 25,1884. 

Thirty days after sight of this Third of Ex¬ 
change , (First and Second unpaid),pay to the order 
of James S. Seymour, One Thousand Pounds 
Sterling, value received, and charge to account of 
To Charles Lawson, William C. Morse. 

Liverpool, England. No. 1670 . , 




•I 

V 

) 

it 

i 

i 

V 


paid, pay this the second bill, and if the first and second 
are not paid, pay this the third. These bills are then 
forwarded to their destination by different routes, or 
by different steamers, and in case the vessel bearing the 
• first bill is lost, either the second or third will reach 
its destination and be honored. 

But it is possible that two of these bills may thus 
be lost in the passage, and to provide against even 
such a remote contingency, the third bill is sent, and 
will probably reach its destination safely. 

It may therefore be seen that it would be among the 
impossibilities to do the immense business which is now 
carried on in the commercial world between merchants 
of different states and countries were it not for the use 
of this instrument called a draft or bill of exchange. 


By the use of the bill of exchange the trouble, haz¬ 
ard, expense and loss of time, which would amount in 
many cases to weeks and even months, of sending large 
sums of coins from one country to another, are nearly 
avoided, and would be entirely avoided were the exports 
and imports or sales and purchases exactly equal in value 
between the countries having commercial intercourse 
with each other. Not only so, but since a bill of ex¬ 
change is payable in the coin or currency of the country 
where the drawee resides the inconvenience of changing 
funds from the currency of one country to that of another 
is also avoided. Thus, a draft drawn on a party residing 
in England is payable in pounds, as the pound is the unit 
of money there, or if the payee resides in France, it 
would be payable in francs, as a franc is the unit there. 









































BUSINESS FORMS. 




- 1 £) 

“V-< 


s-S 


-if LAW GOVERNING DRAFTS AND BILLS OF EXCHANGE.^ 


(S^- 


V 



£^) 



|T s in the case of a promissory note, no particular form is 
JA necessary to a draft or bill of exchange. Most of the rules 
which apply to notes, bear the same relation to bills of 
exchange. 

At any time before a bill becomes due, the holder may pre¬ 
sent it to the drawee for acceptance, which must, in case of an 
inland bill, be by writing on the instrument; but in case of a 
foreign one, it may be either written or verbal, but it is to be 
regretted that anything short of the usual, regular, and proper 
mode of acceptance in writing should, under any circumstances, 
be considered an acceptance. 

After acceptance, if a bill be not paid on arriving at 
maturity, the holder has a right of action against any, or 
either, of the parties whose names appear thereon antecedently 
to his; but such right is subject to the condition that he shall 
have presented it to the drawee on the day it became due, and 
that he gave reasonable notice of its dishonor or non-payment; 
that is, under ordinary circumstances, notice on the following 
day, or, to persons not residing in the same town, by the post 
of that day, or in case of a foreign bill, by the next ordinary 
post or conveyance, to all the parties whom he intends to 
charge, or at least to him whose name was last placed on the 
bill, in order that the latter may give the like notice to the 
party next before him; and so in succession, each party being 
allowed in turn a similar time for the purpose. 

An original payee can only resort to the drawer. If the 
drawee refuse acceptance,—the law will imply a refusal, unless 
he aceepts at once, or within twenty-four hours after the bill 
is left with him for that purpose,—the drawer and indorsers 
are liable to make immediate payment, though the bill has 
not arrived at maturity; but notice of the non-acceptance 
must be given, as before stated in reference to the case of 
non-payment. After this notice, the holder may hold it, and 
present it for payment when it comes to maturity, without 
waiving his right of recourse against the other parties, 

A bill need not be presented for acceptance, unless it be 
drawn payable at a specified time after sight or after demand. 

Where the ceremony of presentment for acceptance is (except 
in the cases last mentioned) omitted, the bill must be presented 
for payment; and the same law of proceeding against the 
drawer and indorsers will then apply, as already stated in ref¬ 
erence to the case where an accepted bill is presented for 
payment. 

The most common form of a bill of exchange is for the 
drawer to address it to the intended payer or acceptor, who 
accepts it at once. It then becomes subject to all the inci¬ 
dents above mentioned in the case of an accepted bill. 

It is always safest to protest a bill after its acceptance is 
refused. 

After a bill has been protested for want of acceptance or 
payment, it may be accepted supra protest by a party not on 
the bill, to save the honor of the drawer or a particular indorser. 


Two or more persons may become acceptors supra protest for 
the honor of different individuals. An acceptor supra protest 
is bound to pay the bill if it is not paid by the drawee. 

Any material alteration of a bill of exchange vitiates the 
bill, and it cannot be legally enforced against any of the parties, 
unless the alteration be made before the bill be accepted, and 
also before it has passed out of the hands of the drawer. 

Thus, if a bill be left for acceptance by the drawer, and the 
drawee alter the note, either time, or amount of the bill, and 
then accept it, the alteration does not affect the validity of the 
bill, but if it be left for acceptance by a third party, and the 
drawee then alters and accepts the bill, the bill is vitiated. 

Any alteration in the date, sum, time, name of drawee or 
payee, or appointing a new place of payment, is a material 
alteration. But any alteration made with the view of correct¬ 
ing a mistake does not vitiate a bill, provided it be made with 
the concurrence of all the parties. 

If a drawee accepts a bill, and before he gives the bill out of 
his possession, corrects his acceptance, he cannot be compelled 
to pay it. 

A bill given for an illegal consideration cannot be enforced 
by the drawer, but it may be enforced by an innocent holder, 
who had no knowledge of the illegal consideration, and who 
received the bill before it was due. 

The principal illegal considerations are those arising from 
usury, gambling, and smuggling. 

A person under twenty-one years of age, whether acceptor, 
drawer, or indorser, of a bill of exchange, cannot be sued at 
law, and compelled to pay, but if he draw a bill and transfer 
it to the third person, the third party may sue and collect of 
the acceptor. 

If a banker or other person should receive a bill by post, 
they would not be required to present it until the next day. 

The holder of a bill payable on demand has the whole of the 
banking hours of the next day after he receives such bill, 
within which to present it. 

A finder of negotiable paper is under obligations to make 
reasonable efforts to discover the owner, and cannot use the 
property found until he has failed in his efforts. If he con¬ 
ceals the fact of finding, and appropriates the thing found to 
his own use, he may be charged with larceny or theft. 

Where it is evident that words are wanting in a bill, such as 
are deemed necessary may be inserted afterward, and if any 
question is raised over them, the jury will decide it. Misspelled 
words will not lessen the force of the bill. 

If a draft is drawn on two persons who are partners, it 
should be presented to each, as in this instance one cannot 
bind the other; but if drawn on the firm, it may be accepted 
by either one of the members. 

If the drawee of a draft fails or refuses to pay it in accord¬ 
ance with its terms, the holder can come upon the drawer for 
payment. 

















































JOURISTS in foreign lands, and Americans 
jfe traveling abroad, on business, have been 
the means of calling into existence in this 
country Letters of Credit. To carry the 
necessary amount of money tor one or 
more years’ journey would not only be 
very inconvenient to the tourist, but un¬ 
safe, and in every new country with a diflerent coinage 
this money would need to be exchanged for current 
funds, at a broker’s office, another inconvenience and 
an expense. 

Bills of exchange are not suited to the traveler’s 
needs, as he must be identified at any bank where he 
desires to cash a bill of exchange, and in a strange 
land this is troublesome, if not impossible. Not only 
so, but he must draw all the money called for by the 
bill of exchange at one time. Thus, a traveler from 
America, having a bill of exchange on Paris for 5,000 
francs must draw the amount when he ailives in 1 aiis, 
and then, if he expects to visit Berlin, he may buy a 
bill on Berlin. But this entails an extra expense for 
And even if our American banks could sell 



exchange. 


the traveler a separate bill of exchange on London, 
another on Paris, another on Berlin, Rome, Constan¬ 
tinople, and all the principal cities of the Orient, this 
might prove an inconvenience to the traveler, as it 
would limit his expenditures in each city, if it did not 
decide tne length of his stay. And it would be about 
impossible to provide against this on a long journey, by 
any forecast or calculation. 

The Letter of Credit as adopted by our banks at the 
present time, obviates all these difficulties, and places 
the funds of the traveler as much at his disposal, 
wherever he may be, as though he were at home near 
his own bank. 

The method of managing the finances on a foreign 
trip is about as follows: Having decided upon the 
amount of money necessary for the journey, the would- 
be tourist steps into any bank where Letters of Credit 
are sold, either in his own town or in the large cities, 
and purchases a Letter of Credit similar to the form on 
the following page, payable in pounds, in London, and 
addressed to a number of banks and bankers in all 
parts of the world, whose names will appear on the 
back of the letter. 

The bank here then immediately notifies the London 
bank that such a letter has been issued, and for the 
issue of the letter the banks usually charge a small fee. 

Armed with this document, he proceeds to London, 
and there finding his funds becoming short, he goes to 
the City Bank, or to any other bank, as well, and 
draws a draft on the City Bank of London, payable to 
himself and signed by himself, for whatever sum he 
may need, just as a depositor draws a check. The 
bank compares the handwriting and signature of the 
draft with the signature at the bottom of the Letter 
of Credit, and if genuine the amount is indorsed on 








































































































1 


I 




A 


dwwi w /e^ (?/im a ot-eds/ m '^ /^ou c&deOwd Jt>i $m Mm a 

founds Sterling, 


Five Hundred¬ 


th ?e/w/ es/m/ Je y/keade£ /<? ^tmdJ/la^medith m dmm ad ieaaeUt/, 

Jam e/ tJed Jttei. o 


iem 
a 


r 


f m 





JmH /a J 


/a£e — e£aJ <m 

e £etem me r/a/e an£ iuem 
wi/J e/ae JmH. 

£e j/m£ ; 

'e^aed/m^ /jfat _ riL,n _ -^ewi 



£&/£/ JJanJ 

a £ud eUat£. 


v we rn aaae d/i 




him 




/ 


<o 

we Jawe 


e 


■eo 







































CIRCULAR LETTERS OF CREDIT. 



the back of the Letter of Credit, and the money is 
paid over, after deducting a commission of two per 
cent. In Paris, Rome, Constantinople, India or Aus¬ 
tralia, whenever the tourist needs funds, he repeats 
tlie above operation, of drawing on the City Bank of 
London, and the money is paid over to him, less the 
commission and five per cent interest for the time 
required in collecting the draft in London. 

The drafts as they are drawn, are sent at once to 
the City Bank of London for collection, and are then 


CIRCULAR NOTES. 

These are drafts drawn by an American bank on a 
London bank and issued to the tourist in amounts of 
£5 or £10 for convenience. They will be cashed in 
any part of the world by banks and also by merchants, 
and are hence coming to be extensively used by trav¬ 
elers instead of Letters of Credit, and by many pre¬ 
ferred. Having secured the requisite number of these 
small drafts, the tourist carries them with him as he 
would money, and whenever he desires to dispose of 



Scene in London. Thames River, Thames Embankment, Houses of Parliament, Westminster Abbey, and S. V/. R. R. Bridge and Depot. 



changed to the account of the hirst National bank ot 
© 

Chicago. When the last draft is drawn by the tourist, 
wherever he may then be, the Letter ot Credit is 
returned with it. Should the traveler complete his 
journey and return home without drawing the entire 
amount of the Letter of Credit, he may present it at 
the bank where it was purchased and receive the 
unpaid remainder. 


one, he simply indorses his name on the back of it, 
and produces from his pocket a small certificate from 
the American bank bearing his signature, to show that 
the indorsement is good. 

A draft on London will pass as money in all the 
civilized countries of the world, less charges and inter¬ 
est for the time required in forwarding the draft to 
London for collection. 


































































































MISCELLANEOUS. 


TABLE OF INTEREST RATES FOR THE UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

Penalties for Usury; Statute of Limitations on Debts, Notes Judgments and Sealed Instruments. 


Penalties for Usury; 

STATES 

Legal 

Rate per 

AND 

Rate 

Contract 

TERRITORIES. 

Per Cent. 

Per Cent. 

Alabama. 

8 

8 

Arizona . 

10 

Any 

Arkansas. 

6 

10 

California.. 

7 

Any 

Colorado. 

10 

Any 

Connecticut. 

6 

A.»«y 

Dakota.. 

7 

12 

Delaware. 

6 

6 

Dist. of Columbia.. 

6 

10 

Florida. 

8 

Any 

Geoi-gia. 

7 

8 

Idaho . 

10 

18 

Illinois. 

6 

8 

Indiana.<•. 

6 

8 

Iowa. 

6 

10 

Kansas.. 

7 

10 

Kentucky. 

6 

8 

Louisiana. 

5 

8 

Maine. 

6 

Any 

Maryland. 

6 

6 

Massachusetts. 

6 

Any 

Michigan. 

7 

10 

Minnesota. 

7 

10 

Mississippi. 

6 

10 

Missouri. 

6 

10 

Montana.. 

10 

Any 

Nebraska. 

7 

10" 

Nevada. 

10 

Any 

New Hampshire. 

6 

6 

New Jersey. 

6 

6 

New Mexico. 

6 

12 

New York. 

6 

6 

North Carolina. 

6 

8 

Ohio.. 

6 

8 

Oregon. 

8 

10 

Pennsylvania. 

6 

6 

Rhode Island. 

6 

Any 

South Carolina. 

7 

7 

Tennessee. 

6 

6 

Texas. 

8 

12 

Utah. 

10 

Any 

Vermont. 

6 

6 

Virginia.. 

6 

6 

Washington Ter. 

10 

Any 

West Virginia. 

6 

6 

Wisconsin. 

7 

10 

Wyoming Ter. 

12 

Any 

Canada. 

6 

Any 

New Brunswick. 

6 

Any 

J \ Nova Scotia. 

6 

Any 


Penalties foe Ustrur. 


Forfeiture entire Ins’t... 


Forfeiture principal and. 
interest. 


Forfeiture of Interest... 

Forfeiture Principal. 

Forfeiture entire Ins’t.. 


Forfeiture excess. 

Forfeits times ain’t paid; 
fine $300 or 6 mos. im¬ 
prisonment, or both. 
Forfeiture excess Ins’t.. 
Forfeiture excess Ins’t.. 

Forfeiture entire Ins’t... 


Forfeiture double excess.. 

Forfeiture entire Ins’t.., 
Excess above 8, after ma¬ 
turity. forfeits entire 
interest. 


Forfeiture of excess. 


Forfeiture of excess 
over 7 per cent. 
Forfeiture entire debt. 


if 


Forfeiture entire Ins’t... 

Lender forfeits entire in¬ 
terest, borrower pay 10 
perct. to school fund. 


Forfeiture entire Ins’t. 


Forfeiture of 3 times the 
excess and costs. 

Forfeiture entire Ins’t.., 

Forfeiture of excess. 

Voids contract and is a 
misdemeanor. 

Forfeiture entire inter¬ 
est, party paying may 
recover double ain’t pd. 

Forfeiture of excess. 

Forfeiture oi-iginal sum 
and costs. 


Forfeiture of all interest.. 
Forfeiture of excess, fine 
and imprisonment. 
Forfeiture of all Ins’t.... 


Forfeiture of excess.. 
Forfeiture of all Ins’t. 

Forfeiture of excess.. 
Forfeiture of all Ins’t 


Statute of 
LIMITATIONS. 

Open 

Acct’s. 

Notes. 

J udg- 

rnents. 

Sealed 

Instru¬ 

ments. 

3 

6 

20 

10 

2 

4 

5 

4 

3 

5 

10 

10 

2 

4 

5 

5 

3 

n 

3 

6 

6 

3 

3 

6 

17 

6 

6 

20 

20 

3 

6 

20 

20 

3 

6 

12 

12 

4 

5 

20 

20 

4 

6 

7 

20 

4 

5 

5 

6 

5 

10 

20 

20 

6 

10 

20 

20 

5 

10 

20 

20 

3 

5 

5 

15 

2 

5 

15 

15 

3 

. 5 

10 

10 

6 

6 

20 

20 

3 

3 

12 

12 

6 

20 

12 

12 

6 

6 

10 

10 

7 

6 

10 

20 

3 

6 

7 

7 

5 

10 

20 

20 

2 

6 

6 

6 

4 

5 

10 

5 

2 

4 

5 

5 

6 

6 

20 

20 

6 

6 

20 

6 

6 

6 

20 

20 

3 

3 

11 

10 

6 

15 

15 

15 

6 

6 

10 

10 

6 

6 

20 

20 

6 

6 

20 

20 

6 

6 

20 

20 

6 

6 

10 

10 

2 

4 

10 

10 

2 

4 

5 

5 

6 

6 

8 

8 

2 

5 

20 

20 

3 

6 

6 

6 

3 to 5 

6 

10 

20 

6 

6 

20 

20 

4 

5 

21 

5 

lto5 

6 

6 

20 

6 

6 

20 

20 

6 

6 

20 

20 


REMARKS. 



Judgments ofotherstateslimitedto20years. Exemp¬ 
tions—Personal property $1000, Homestead $2000. 

Exemptions—From $1000 to $5000. 

Judgments required to be renewed every three years. 
Exemptions—$200 to $2500. 

On judgments for money loaned 7 per cent only. Ex¬ 
emptions—From $1000 toJSOOO. 

If debts are contracted within the state the statute of 
limitations extends six years. Exemptions—$300 to 
$ 2000 . 

Exemptions—$200 to $500. 

Exemptions—$1500. 

Exemptions—$75 to $275. 

Exemptions—$300 to $100. 

Exemptions—$1000 to $2000. 

E xemption s—$1600. 

Exemptions—$100 to $5000. 


Exemptions—$100 to $1000. 

Judgments must be renewed, if not executed, within 
live years. Exemptions—$600. 

On notes, if partial payment has been made, date of 
limitation begins from last paj'ment. Exemptions— 
County, 40 acres; city, l / 2 acre with buildings regard¬ 
less of value. 

On open accounts, limitation extends but two years for 
non-residents of the state. Exemptions—$300 to $400. 
Exemptions—$500 to $1500. 

Judgments may berenewedat any time before expira- 
tion. Exemptions—None in cities; country, home- 
stead, $2000. 

If notes are witnessed, 20 years. Exemptions—$500. 
Exemptions—$100. 

Notes witnessed, 20 years. Exemptions—$300 to $800. 
Executions on judgments not entered within 2 years 
must be renewed. Exempt ions—$150 to $1500. 
Judgment liens expiie after 5 years if not attached. 
Exemptions—$500 to $1000, besides homestead of 80 
acres in county, and one lot to l / 2 acre in cities. 
Exemptions—$250 to $500. Residence in city, $2000; 
county, 80 acres. 

Exemptions—$300. Homestead in country, 160 acres; 
in cities, homestead in value from $1500 to $3000. 

Exemptions—$800 to $2500. 

Action on foreign judgments must be commenced with¬ 
in 5 years. Exemptions—Personal property, $500; 
country, 160 acres; cities, two lots. 

Merchants’, or store accounts, one year only after last 

E urchase. Exemptions—$200 to $500; homestead, to 
ead of family, $5000. 

Actions on judgments must be brought within 2 years. 
Exemptions—$100 to $400. Interest in homestead, to 
wife, during life, $500. 

Exemptions—Personality, $200; homestead, under 
statutory notice, $1000. 

Exemptions—To head of family residing on property, 
if claimed, $1000. 

Corporations barred defense in actions for usury. Ex¬ 
emption s—$250; homestead, if recorded, $1000. 
Executions must be renewed within one year and one 
day from date of issue. Exemptions—Personalit y, 
$500; homestead, $1000. 

Exemptions—$500 to $1000. 

Exemptions—$100 to $700. 

E xemptions—$300. 

No higher rate than 6 per cent interest can be collected 
by law. Exemptions—$200 to $500. 

Exemptions—Personality, $500; homestead, $1000. 
Exemptions—$250; homestead, $1000. 

Exemptions—Furniture and farming implements and 
200 acres. In cities, real estate, $5000. 

Exemptions—Personality, $200 to $400; homestead, 
$1000, and $250 additional to each member of family. 
Exemptions—Personality, $250; homestead, $500. 
Exemptions—Personality, $200; homestead exemp- 
tion, real or personal property, $2000. 

Exemptions—Personality, $150 to $500; homestead 
occupied by family, $1000. 

Exemptions—Personality, $50 to $200; homestead, if 
recorded before creation of debt, $1000. 

Exemptions—Personality, $200 to $250, printing mate¬ 
rials, $1500; homestead, country, 40 acres; town or 
city, K of an acre. 

Exemptions—$500 to $800, and wearing apparel for every 
person. Homestead, actually occupied, in country, 
160 acres; town or city lots, $1500. 

Exemptions—$60 to $100. 

Exemptions—Household effects, $60; homestead, $600. 
Exemptions,-Wearing apparel and bedding for family, 
tools, on? stove and one cow. 


Note.—T he legal rate of interest for England and France is 5 per cent. Ireland 6 per cent. When the rate of interest is not specified, the legal rate 
is always understood and so allowed by the courts. Debts of all kinds draw interest from the time they become due, but not before unless specified. 

































































































































HOW TO INDORSE NOTES, DRAFTS AND CHECKS, AND THE REASON FOR SUCH INDORSEMENTS. 

PROTEST AND NOTICE. 




T ast beyond appreciation, is the volume of 
business transacted each day by means of 
checks, notes, drafts and other forms of 
commercial paper. And as the actual coin 
or currency involved, bears a small proportion to the 
amount of value passed from hand to hand daily, in 
business, so the aggregate value of the checks, notes 
and other negotiable paper, themselves bear a small 
proportion to the whole indebtedness canceled by means 
of these indispensable instruments to modern com¬ 
merce. A single check, note or draft, may, and often 
does, by being passed over from one person to another, 
discharge five or ten times its equivalent of indebted¬ 
ness. 

The transferring of the title to commercial paper is 
thus a great vehicle for the furtherance of business 
transactions, and on account of its importance to the 
commercial world, the law recognizes it and has thrown 
about it a peculiar sanction and protection. 

Centuries ago when commerce was in its infancy and 
commercial paper in its formative state, this quality of 
negotiability or transferability did not exist, but the 
payee of a note or draft was supposed to hold it until 
it became due and was paid. But as the necessities of 
commerce grew, it became desirable to pass the title of 
notes and drafts like other species of property, and 



this was done by writing the transfer or assignment on 
the back of the instrument, and this writing was 
called an Indorsement. 

The subject of Indorsements may at first thought 
seem to be of comparatively small importance, but 
when viewed in all its various phases and bearings it 
assumes an importance only second to the paper itself. 

An indorsement is anything written on the back of 
an instrument pertaining to the instrument. Thus a 
name written on the back of a note, check or draft is 
an indorsement. The person who writes his name 
thereon is called an indorser, and the person for whose 
benefit the name is there written, and to whom the 
paper is transferred, is called an indorsee. 

As there is no limit to the number of times which 
the paper may be transferred, so there is no limit to 
the number of indorsements which may be placed 
thereon, and if the back of the paper is entirely cov¬ 
ered with indorsements, an additional piece of paper 
may be pasted thereto for the purpose of receiving 
more indorsements. Indorsements may be made upon 
the face of the paper as well as upon the back, and the 
custom of indorsing on the back only arose from the 
fact that the back is always clean and more suitable 
for receiving indorsements. When a note or check is 
held in proper position for reading, the left end will 




























































62 


INDORSEMENTS. 



be the upper end 
when reversed for the 
purpose of indorse¬ 
ment, and the first 
indorsement should 
be made near the up¬ 
per end so as to leave 
room for any future 
indorsements which 
may be desired. 

An indorsement, as 
a rule, not only 
transfers the title to 
the instrument in¬ 
dorsed, but also gives 
additional security 
for its payment, as it 
is an implied contract 
on the part of the in¬ 
dorser that the signa¬ 
tures of all the previ¬ 
ous parties are gen¬ 
uine, and also that his 
title to the instru¬ 
ment is perfect, and 
that if the check or 
note is not paid at 
maturity, he will 
take it up after pay¬ 
ment has been de¬ 
manded and refused, 
and due notice has 
been given. 

Simply writing the 
name is called an in¬ 
dorsement in blank 
and transfers the 
ownership of the pa¬ 
per to bearer, and the 
paper may then be 
passed from hand to 
hand without in¬ 
dorsement. In case a check or note so indorsed be 
lost or stolen, the owner incurs the risk of the finder 
disposing of it for value to a bona fide purchaser, who 
could collect it. It is not safe to send paper so 
indorsed through the mails, or to indorse paper in 
blank any considerable length of time before it is to 
be transferred to the indorsee. 

When it is desired to make a check, note or draft 
payable to a particular person, above the name 




fauWnv ifewmiiqs, or order. 



(Aw-fvcc^a 'jiVv. Co., 



FOR DEPOSIT 

to the credit of the 
Book-keeper Pub.Co. 


should be written “ Pay to-or order,” and such is 

called an indorsement in full, or a special indorsement. 
After a special indorsement, none but the indorsee, or 
persons to whom he may order payment to be made, 
can demand payment on the instrument. Paper which 
is to be sent through the mails should be indorsed 
payable to the order of the person to whom it is sent, 
so that in case it is lost the finder can make no use of 
it. In the example on this page, Abm. Wilkins, 









































INDORSEMENTS. 


63 


who is supposed to receive the check from Smith 
indorsed specially to Wm. Jennings. 

When a note is left at the hank for collection it 
should be indorsed thus • 



passed to the bank, but remains in the indorser, while 
the bank is only authorized to collect, and in case the 
bank fails while the paper is still in its possession the 
owner could reclaim the note and save it from going 
into the hands of the assignee as assets of the bank. 

When an indorsement is made subject to some con¬ 
dition without the fulfillment of which the indorsement 
i£ void, such is called a conditional indorsement. Thus, 
“ Pay to Amos Brown or order upon the delivery by 
him of a Warranty Deed to lot 28 in block 14, Haine’s 
subdivision to the city of Cincinnati,” signed by the 
indorser, would be a conditional indorsement. This 
class of indorsements are rare in business. 

An indorser may release himself from liability on 
his indorsement by writing under his name, “ Without 
recourse,” or similar words, which indicate his inten¬ 
tion to thus release himself, but the indorsee would 
seldom be willing that the indorser should thus indorse 
unless by special agreement and under peculiar circum¬ 
stances. 

“ Pay to John Smith only” when signed by the 
indorser, would limit the career of the note, check or 
draft as negotiable paper, to the indorsee, John Smith, 
or would prevent the instrument from being further 
transferred. The words “for my use, or “for my 
account,” when included in the indorsement, signify 
that the ownership of the instrument is not transferred 
but merely an authority to collect, and in this respect 
is similar to the indorsement “ For Collection.” 

The indorser of a check may, in the indorsement, 
direct how the payment is to be applied, whether on a 
note or otherwise, as, for instance, the check on 
the preceding page, is indorsed by William Jennings 
“ for one year’s subscription.” Now when the publish¬ 
ing company indorses the check for the purpose ot 
receiving value on it the indorsement becomes a receipt 
to Jennings for subscription. 


In indorsing a check or note, sign your name just as 
it is written on the face; if “ J. Smith,” write “ J. 
Smith,” or if “ Jas. C. Smith,” write “ Jas. C. Smith.” 
If this is not your usual method of signing, or if the 
name is incorrectly spelled, indorse both ways, first the 
wrong and then the right. 

When it is not desired to draw the money on a check 
but to deposit it in the bank, the following form is 
largely used: 

FOR DEPOSIT 

IN THE 

Commercial National Bank, 

FOR CREDIT OF 

MARKLEY, ALLING & CO. 

The handling of numerous checks makes such a 
lengthy indorsement quite a laborious task, and hence 
large firms have a stamp prepared by which the letters 
are stamped upon the back of the paper with ink which 
is not easily erased. The bank soon comes to know 
the stamp as the signature of the house, and the writ¬ 
ten signature is not necessary. This printed signature 
would not, however, be considered good outside of the 
city where the firm is located, nor would it be consid¬ 
ered good where the transactions of the firm were 
limited in number. The object of indorsing “ For 
Deposit,” as above explained, is to prevent fraud or 
collusion on the part of the employes of the deposit¬ 
ing firm. For instance, the messenger, upon going to 
the bank to deposit, coidd easily abstract a check from 
among the others, and by telling the bank officials a 
plausible story, that one of the partners wanted to get 
the currency for this check for his private use, could, 
if the checks were indorsed in blank, draw the money 
thereon, and by “ doctoring” the pass book, cover his 
default for weeks, until the amount would reach large 
proportions. 

The statutes of the various states have modified the 
common law in regard to indorsements. For instance, 
in some states, when a draft or note is discounted at 
the bank, the law requires the bank to first exhaust its 
remedy against the maker before it can proceed against 
the indorsers. But as a large portion of the notes and 
drafts discounted in our banks, is taken upon the credit 
of the discounter, while the maker or acceptor is 
unknown to the bank, perhaps living in a distant city, 
it is evident that if the bank were compelled to look 
to the maker for payment, such paper could not be 


























64 


INDORSEMENTS. 


readily discounted. To avoid this embarrassment which 
the statute imposes, the following indorsement is used. 









For value received, .... hereby guaranty the pay¬ 
ment of the within note at maturity, or at any time 
thereafter, with interest at eight per cent per annum, 
until paid, and agree to pay all costs or expenses paid 
or incurred in collecting the same. 







The name is written both above and below the 
printed guaranty, in order to establish the fact ot an 
intention on the part of the indorser to guaranty the 
payment, or, so that it could not be alleged that the 
bank stamped the words of guaranty above the signa¬ 
ture without authority from the indorser. But by 
thus having the signatures at an appropriate distance 
apart, the object of the double indorsement becomes 
apparent. The first indorsement may be regarded as a 
transfer of the title of the paper to the bank, while the 
second is a guaranty of its payment. 



ells of Exchange are distinguished as either 
foreign or inland. They are called foreign 
when drawn in one state or country upon a 
person residing in another. The states of the 
American Union are foreign countries so far as 
bills of exchange are concerned, for the reason that the 
laws of the different states concerning negotiable paper 
are not uniform. Inland bills of exchange are those 
which are drawn on a person residing in the same state 
or country as the drawer. 

When a foreign bill of exchange is dishonored, that is, 
when payment or acceptance is refused, it is not only 
customary but necessary, in order to hold the drawer 
or indorsers, that the paper should be properly pro¬ 
tested, and notice given in due form to the parties to 
be charged. 


their way extensively into bank transactions in the ordi¬ 
nary course of business, the protest has become a cogent 
and effectual method of exposing the breaches of punct¬ 
uality which occur in payment of commercial paper at 
the bank, and the merchant or business man who allows 
his note to “go to protest,” is advertised as incum¬ 
bered, embarrassed, or financially disgraced. 

Protest and notice must be made by a notary public, 
except in certain cases where the law provides that 
should there be no notary in the place, a protest may 
be made by any respectable merchant, attested by wit¬ 
nesses, and will then have the same effect as though 
made by a notary public. 

A notary was anciently a scribe, who made writings 
of all descriptions, both public and private, but with us 
he is a public officer appointed by the governor, and 



The object in protesting foreign paper is to afford 
satisfactory evidence of its dishonor, for the benefit of 
the parties to the paper, who, from residence abroad, 
in a foreign country, or another state, might experi¬ 
ence great difficulty in obtaining reliable and sufficient 
evidence of the fact, and perhaps be at last compelled 
to rely upon the representation of the holder alone. 

Courts always give due respect and consideration to 
such an official act as a protest under the seal of a 
foreign notary. Although not necessary in the case of 
inland bills, the practice of protesting negotiable paper 
has yet been extended largely to inland bills of ex¬ 
change and promissory notes, and as these have found 


properly provided with a notarial seal. 

In case of non-payment or non-acceptance of a foreign 
bill by the drawee, protest must be made forthwith by 
a notary, under the formality prescribed by the law of 
that place, and proper notice given to indorsers. This 
protest must be made on the day on which the instru¬ 
ment becomes payable; that is, on the third or last day 
of grace, though it may not be drawn up and completed 
in legal form until afterwards. 

After protest, the next step is to give proper notices 
to all such persons as the holder of the bill designs to 
hold responsible. The holder may notify all the 
parties prior to himself, so as to avoid hazard of some 































































INDORSEMENTS. 


65 


CERTIFICATE OF PROTEST. 


. County, 


► ss. 


Be it Known, That on this.day of.. 

in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and. 


I....Notary Public, duly commissioned and sworn, and residing in the 

..in said County and State, at the request of. 


went with the original.which is above attached, to the office of. 

and demanded....thereon, which was refused. 

Whereupon I, the said Notary, at the request aforesaid, did PROTEST, and by these presents do Solemnly Protest, 

as well against the.of said.the indorsers thereof, as all others whom it 

may or doth concern, for exchange, re-exchange, and all costs, charges, damages, and interest already incurred by reason of the 

non-.of the said. 

And I, the said Notary, do hereby certify, that, on the same day and year above written, due notice of the foregoing Protest 

was put in the Post Office at.as follows: 

Notice for. 

“ for. : ..;.. 

“ for..... 

Each of the above named places being the reputed place of residence of the person to whom this Notice was directed. 
In Testimony Whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and affixed my official seal, the day and year first above written. 

. Notary Public . 

Fees.—N oting for Protest, . . 25cents; Protest, .... 75 cents; Noting Protest, . . . 25 cents; Notices, . . . -; 

Certificate and Seal, . . 25 cents; Postage, .... -; Vol. . . -; Page, . . -; $ . 


of the parties being discharged by the omission of the 
notice, blit if he is satisfied with the responsibility of 
his immediate indorser, there is no necessity for giving 
notice to others, and if this indorser desires to hold 
those prior to him, it is his business to take care of 
himself, and see that the party responsible to him is 
duly notified. Notice must always be sent with dili¬ 
gence, for if it is not given within the prescribed 
time, the remedy of the holder on these parties is lost. 

Notice may be either verbal or written, but it is gen¬ 
erally written, and must be precise, either to describe 
accurately the instrument by giving the name of the 
drawer, indorsers, payee, amount, and also of the fact 
that presentment and demand for acceptance or pay¬ 
ment has been refused. 

If the notice of dishonor is given in writing, it may 
be left at the residence or place of business of the per¬ 
son to be notified. If the party resides at a distance, 
the notice may be given by letter. Should his residence, 
place of business, or present post office address be un¬ 
known, the notice is to be sent where he is known to 
have formerly resided. If all of these be unknown, and 
after the exercise of due diligence, then want of notice 
will lie excused. 


NOTICE OF PROTEST OF NOTE. 


jitatc at %llinois f " 


County of. . 

« 

► SS. 

J 

. 188 

Sir, 


A . 

. for $ . 

Dated . 

Payable . 

Signed by . 


Indorsed by . 



Being this day due and unpaid, and by me Protested for 
non-payment, T hereby notify you that the payment thereof 
has been duly demanded, and that the holders look to you for 
payment, damages, interest, and costs. 

Done at the request of. ... 

. Notary Public. 


To 



































































































INDOE SEMENTS. 








jr first indorser is liable to all subsequent indorsers. 

II An indorsement is subject to the law of place where 
the indorsement is made. 

A An indorser of a check is on the same footing as on 
all other forms of negotiable paper. 

A presumption of law is, that indorsements and transfers 
have been made before the paper became due. 

Where there are joint payees of a bill or note, all must join 
in an indorsement, unless they are partners. 

All parties to negotiable paper, whether maker, drawer, 
indorser, or acceptor, have a defense as against fraud. 

A finder of a bill or note, lost by the owner, acquires no 
rights thereby as against maker, drawer, acceptor, or indorser. 

An indorser has certain conditional responsibilities, but he 
can qualify them in writing his indorsement if he chooses. 

If the letter containing a protest of non-payment be put 
into the post office, any miscarriage does not affect the party 
giving notice. 

A negotiator may guaranty the payment of a note at 
maturity, and the purchaser will have the advantages of an 
indorsement without its disadvantages. 

In case a holder begins a suit against an indorser, the begin¬ 
ner cannot be allowed to strike out the name of any one who 
has indorsed before the defendant. 

If an indorsement be stricken out through mistake of a 
holder, he may restore it. If he strikes it out on purpose, the 
indorser is released from all obligation. 

A purchaser of a bill or note may prudently insist on a 
waiver of demand,protest, and notice, at the time of the trans¬ 
fer ; especially when the indorser lives at a distance. 

A person receiving a note under a blank indorsement, or 
when drawn payable to bearer, he is on first view the holder, 
and entitled to recover the amount due on the note. 

A payee who parts with a note for value by indorsement, 
has no further interest in it other than its payment at maturity 
by the maker, so as to save him harmless. 

Where a person puts his name on the back of an instru¬ 
ment on demand or on time, at the time of its inception, he 
is liable, not as indorser, but as original promisor. 

A person that transfers by delivery and not by indorsement, 
a bill of exchange or promissory note made payable to bearer, 
does not render himself liable on the bill or note to the person 
who receives it. 

An indorser of a note is entitled to notice when it is due, in 
order to hold him for payment. If an indorser chooses he 
may waive notice before maturity of the paper by writing, “ I 
waive notice.” 

A holder’s right of action arises at once when a bill is dis¬ 
honored. The drawee’s refusal to accept involves the breaking 
of the contract, since, by the act of drawing and indorsing, 
the drawer and indorser guaranty acceptance. 

An indorser must be notified, whether a drawer is entitled 



to notice or not. Even if the other parties are guilty of 
fraud, that would not deprive the indorser of his right to 
proper notice, unless he is guilty of fraud himself. 

Paper that is indorsed solely for the accommodation of 
another is called accommodation paper. If the maker, 
drawer, indorser, or acceptor is compelled to pay such paper, 
he may recover the amount, together with costs, from the 
accommodated party. 

Notice of the dishonor of a bill must be given, even if the 
drawee be dead. The holder will not be excused from giving 
notice, on account of the death of the drawer or indorser. In 
such cases he must use due diligence, if necessary, in giving 
notice to the surviving representatives. 

A lost bill or note must be described with certainty, or a 
copy of it must be shown. When a demand is made on a 
lost note, a bond of indemnity must be executed and tendered 
to the party on whom demand is made; otherwise the remedy 
on drawer or indorser will be lost. 

A bill or note is not finally discharged when paid by an 
indorser, except in respect to subsequent indorsers. It is not 
extinguished until paid by the maker in case of a note, or 
acceptor hi case of a bill. Hence an indorser, who takes up a 
dishonored note or bill, may put it again in circulation; 
whereas, if paid by or on behalf of maker or acceptor, it is no 
longer negotiable. » 

A check drawn payable to Richard Roe, or bearer, may be 
transferred to any other person by handing it over as if it were 
a bank bill. If the word order, instead of bearer, were writ¬ 
ten, the one who is to receive pay must put his name on the 
back in order to transfer it to another. Then the payee 
becomes indorser, and the person receiving it from him 
indorsee. The check may be indorsed thereafter by many 
parties, as in the case of a bill of exchange or promissory 
note. 

A maker or acceptor of a note or bill, before paying it, 
should know that the indorsements are genuine. If indorsed 
in blank, to know that the payee’s indorsement is genuine. 
The holder cannot acquire any title through a forged paper, no 
matter how many indorsers there are. The holders title 
arises through the first indorser, and hence the maker or 
acceptor is protected in making payment, as if the paper were 
payable to a certain person or order. 

A negotiable note that is properly transferred to an inno¬ 
cent holder for value before it is due, may be collected by the 
holder without regard to the rights and equities which existed 
as between the original parties. A negotiable paper that is 
transferred after it has become due is taken by a purchaser at 
his own peril. Though negotiable as before maturity, the 
party takes it subject to every defense existing against it in 
the hands of the holder when it matured. Over due paper is 
considered payable within a reasonable time, on demand, when 
it is transferred. 












































up] desire to accumulate property is oue 
of the noblest that nature has im¬ 
planted in man, and it is through the 
successful results of this desire, we 
are enabled to point with unerring 
certainty to the disembarking line, 
which so surely characterizes the ad¬ 
vanced, educated, refined and civilized 
man from that of the wild savage, 
whose highest desire is to slay and rob his fellow men, 
and proudly exhibit their scalps, or the plunder he has 
acquired, as evidence of his cunning or courage. 

It is through this inborn desire to accumulate that 
man is willing to labor, toil, suffer, and forego 
present gratifications for the hope of future greater 
satisfactions; that has resulted in the building and 
equiping the mighty ships of commerce, whose white, 
spreading canvas dots every sea where commerce may 
be known, or where the interests of God’s creatures 
may best be served. It is through this desire, coupled 
with unremitting toil, that we owe everything of per- 
manentenjoyment, of enlightenment and of prosperity. 

The millions of dollars of paper money which is 
handled every day as the natural fruit of toil and 
saving through the many and diversified transactions 
in the vast, illimitable and ever rapidly developing 
field of commerce, is but the representative of owner¬ 
ship of property. 

If this representative is what it purports on its face 
to be, each and every one who receives it in exchange 
for services or commodities, owns not merely a piece of 
paper, with designs, words and promises printed or 
engraved thereon, but an interest or an undivided whole 
in a farm, a block of buildings or a store well stocked 
with merchandise, which, in his estimation, at least, is 
more desirable to him than the labor or commodity for 


which he has voluntarily made the exchange; but, if 
on the contrary, it is other than what it purports on 
its face to be, he finds that he is the owner of a piece 
of paper whose value is nil. 

There is, at the present writing, 1884, nearly eight 
hundred million dollars of paper currency in the United 
States, consisting of greenbacks and national currency, 
a great portion of which is in actual circulation, and it 
has been estimated by eminent authorities who occupy 
positions of trust in the various departments through 
which the financial machinery of this vast sea of paper 
money is daily circulated, that there is in circulation 
nearly one-fifth of this amount in counterfeit money, 
or about one hundred and sixty million dollars; and 
not one dollar of this counterfeit money owes its circu¬ 
lation to any excellence of the work in its manufacture, 
but wholly to the general ignorance of those who handle 
it, as to what is required to constitute a genuine bill. 
The time will come when the United States will redeem 
all of its issue of paper money, when those who are 
holding any of this counterfeit money will have to 
stand the loss to the extent of the sum in their posses¬ 
sion. 

To all of those who are willing to take a small portion 
of their time each day for a few r weeks in learning just 
what it takes to constitute a genuine bill, there need 
be no necessity of ever losing anything by counter¬ 
feiters, as it is impossible for them to make bills which 
will in any way approach the beauty and exactness of the 
genuine ones. There is not at the present time, nor 
has there ever been in the past, nor will there ever be 
in the future, a counterfeit bill made that cannot be 
detected at sight; and the positive knowledge of how 
to know at all times when a bill is genuine and when 
not is within the reach of all those who may have the 
privilege of reading the following information or in- 














































































68 


DETECTING COUNTERFEIT MONEY. 


fallible rules with a genuine desire to be benefited 
thereby. 

DEVICES AND FRAUDS. 

Various devices are resorted to by a numerous gang 
or body of persons, to get on in the world without 
turning their attention to legitimate and useful em¬ 
ployments. 

This class includes many that are not engaged in the 
practice of counterfeiting and putting forth bad money, 
but who make themselves felt in various ways through 
vain tricks and schemes, which are, to all intents and 
purposes, frauds. 

Business men are generally apt at detecting and 
turning off petty schemes, but they find it best to have 
the means with which they may deal successfully as 
against regular swindlers, forgers and counterfeiters. 

COUNTERFEIT AND GENUINE WORK. 

As indicated above, counterfeit notes are issued and 
put into the channels of circulation in abundance every 
year by those engaged in the 
practice of counterfeiting. 

These notes are often such 
good imitations of the gen¬ 
uine that it is quite difficult 
to discern the difference. 

That he may protect him- 
self, each business man 
should have some definite 
knowledge of a genuine bank¬ 
note. 

The engraving of a gen¬ 
uine bank note, in most all of 
its parts, is done by machinery, and it is more exact 
and perfect. On the contrary, most all parts of coun¬ 
terfeit notes are done by hand. 

Counterfeiters cannot afford to purchase machinery, 
such as is used for the production of genuine notes. 
The cost of such machinery is between $100,000, and 
$150,000, and if it were in wrong hands it would be 
always liable to seizure and confiscation. 

In order to prevent the forgery of bank-notes, a 
great deal of ingenuity and art has been expended on 
their production. The principal features of the manu¬ 
facture are described as a peculiar kind of paper and 
water mark; an elaborate design, printed with a pecul¬ 
iar kind of ink, and certain private marks, known 
only by the bank officials. 

The work of counterfeiters can never equal that of 
the makers of genuine notes, whose skill and facilities 
for producing the highest grade of work known to the 
art, are the best that the world affords. 


Unless one is somewhat learned as to the quality of 
engraving, that he may be able to distinguish a fine 
specimen of the art when he sees it, he is likely to 
become a victim of the counterfeiter’s operations. 

LATHE WORK. 

When the genuineness of a bank-note is doubted, the 
Lathe Work on the note should first be closely scruti¬ 
nized. The several letters of denomination, circles, 
ovals, and shadings between and around the letters in 
the words, etc., are composed of numberless extremely 
fine lines — inclusive of lines straight, curved and net¬ 
work. These are all regular and unbroken, never run¬ 
ning into each other, and may be traced throughout 
with a magnifying glass. 

Without the skill or machinery, by which the gen¬ 
uine is produced, the same quality of work cannot be 
done. Therefore, in a counterfeit, the lines are im¬ 
perfect, giving the paper a dull or hazy aspect, that 

may be all the better appre¬ 
ciated by comparing it with 
the genuine. The lines in- 
the counterfeit will be found 
now and then irregular in 
size, and broken; not uni¬ 
form in course, sometimes 
heavy, sometimes light; no 
two stamps or dies on the 
same note being exactly alike. 

The fine, uniform, shade- 
lines, with which the letters 
on the genuine are embel¬ 
lished, are wrought by a machine that cannot be repro¬ 
duced bv counterfeiters, nor used for other than 
legitimate purposes, by authority. 

GEOMETRICAL LATHE. 

The fine line is the characteristic of the various and 
beautiful figures which are seen on a genuine note. 
This line is produced by what is called the Geometri¬ 
cal Lathe. The patterns made by the geometrical lathe 
are of every variety of form. They are not engraved 
directly upon the bank-note plate, but on pieces of soft 
steel plate, which are afterwards hardened. The im¬ 
pressions are then transferred to a soft steel roller, 
which, in its turn, is also hardened, and the impressions 
remain there, in relief. This roller is then capable of 
transferring the same designs to the bank-note plate, 
by means of the transfer press. 

In counterfeit en,graving, the design is made directly 
upon the plate, and not by transfer, as in the produc- 



DETECTING COUNTERFEIT MONEY. 




















DETECTING COUNTERFEIT MONEY. 


69 


tion of plates for genuine notes. The essential differ¬ 
ence between the two methods of production is, the 
counterfeit is made by hand, and is inexact and imper¬ 
fect, while the genuine is made on geometrical prin¬ 
ciples, and is therefore exact, artistic and beautiful. 

In all the government issues the geometric lathe 
work is liberally used. This should be studied care¬ 
fully, as it constitutes the chief test of genuineness. 

Fine lines, of unerring exactness, never broken, are 
seen on the genuine medallion heads, or shields, upon 
which the designation of the note is sometimes stamped. 
This nicety cannot be given by hand, or with the use 
of imperfect machinery. By close scrutiny 
the lines will be found to break off in 
the pattern, or appear forked, irregular in 
size, and not well defined throughout. 

On most counterfeits the vignettes are not 
well engraved, and the portraits have a dull 
appearance; the letters are usually wanting 
in clearness; the printing is sometimes faulty, 
by which some features of the note are 
obscured. 

RULING ENGINE WORK. 

In Ruling Engine Work, as it is called, 
the fine line is present, also. The engraving 
is produced and transferred in the same way 
as the geometrical lathe work. In this they 
are parallel and not in circles. Those which 
constitute the shading of letters are so fine 
that they form a perfectly even gray shade. 

They may be printed so that the shading 
will appear darker, but the aspect will be 
uniform. The spaces between lines are 
exact, whether the lines be horizontal or 
diagonal. The lines are also made crooked 
or wave-like, not absolutely parallel. Rul¬ 
ing engine work is generally used for shad- 
ins 1 of names of banks, and also for the 
names of town, state, etc. 

VIGNETTES. 

While lathe work and that of the ruling 
engine are invariably machine work, and therefore 
cannot be successfully reproduced by counterfeiters, 
the Vignettes are chiefly the work of the hands. In 
all genuine work they are made by first class artists, 
who are well paid for their services, and who therefore 
have no incentive to exercise their skill for illegitimate 
purposes. 

Sometimes water and sky are done with the ruling 


engine, and when they are, no counterfeiter can suc¬ 
cessfully imitate them. Fine vignettes are seldom seen 
on counterfeit notes. If the lathe and ruling engine 
work be genuine, an ordinary vignette cannot make a 
note counterfeit, and if that be counterfeit, no vignette 
can make the note genuine. 

The vignettes on genuine notes are executed by men 
at the head of their vocation, and are very life-like and 
beautiful. Counterfeit vignettes usually have a sunken 
and lifeless appearance. Genuine vignettes, as seen 
upon government issues, consist of out-door scenes, 
portraits, historical pictures, and allegorical figures. 

They are all exceedingly beautiful, and it is 
not likely that such work will ever be suc¬ 
cessfully imitated. 

SOLID PRINT. 

The lettering, or solid print, in genuine 
work is done by a first-class artist, who 
makes that kind of work his exclusive con¬ 
cern. The name of the engraving company 
is always engraved with great pains and is 
very accurate. It will be seen on the upper 
and lower margin of the note. This, in 
counterfeits, is not quite uniform or even. 
The words “one dollar,” as on the one dol¬ 
lar greenbacks, are to be considered as a 
sample of solid print. 

BANK-NOTE PAPER. 

Bank-notes are printed upon paper com¬ 
posed of linen, the quality of which is not 
always the same, and it varies in thickness. 
Therefore, the paper is not always a sure 
test, but it is important. The manufacture 
of this paper is a profound secret, as carefully 
kept as the combinations to the great 
vaults where the government’s millions lie 
awaiting further river and harbor bills. It 
is made only at the Dalton mill, which dates 
back almost to colonial days. What its 
combinations are nobody knows except those 
intimately connected with its manufacture. The secret 
of the paper-making is jealously guarded, as is also the 
paper itself. From the moment it is made until it gets 
into the treasury vaults it is carefully guarded. It 
goes there in small iron safes, the sheets carefully 
counted, and all precautions against its loss being taken 
both by the government officials and by the express 
companies which carry it. 

























DETECTING COUNTERFEIT MONEY. 



COUNTERFEIT SIGNATURES. 

Sometimes genuine notes are stolen before they are 
signed; then the only thing about them made counter¬ 
feit is the signatures. Those who are familiar with 
the signatures of the officers of the bank where notes 
are purloined, may not be lead into error, as such 
signatures usually appear more or less cramped or 
unsteady; but there is no sure protection against a 
counterfeit of this kind for those who do not have 
special knowledge of the signatures. 

ALTERED BANK-NOTES. 

Bank-notes are altered in two ways, namely: raising 


the denomination, and changing the name of a broken 
to that of a responsible bank. 

First, in altering a note, it is scraped until thin; then 
figures of larger denomination are pasted over. A 
pasted note may be detected by holding it up to the 
light, when the pasted parts will appear darker, as they 
are thicker. 

Second, the denomination of a note is raised by tak¬ 
ing out a low one with an acid, and printing in a higher 
one with a counterfeit stamp. The ink used in genu¬ 
ine bank-note printing is a peculiar kind, and not 
easily to be obtained by counterfeiters; therefore, their 
printing Avill not appear as clear and bright as that of 
the government, which is done with ink of the 



UNITED STATES TREASURY BUILDING, WASHINGTON, D. C. 


finest quality. If the ink is black, it gives a clear and 
glossy impression, without any of that smutty appear¬ 
ance, as is sometimes seen in counterfeit bank-notes. 
It is almost impossible to imitate the green ink that is 
used by the government, and it is nearly as difficult to 
imitate the red and other colors. Counterfeit inks 
look dull and muddy, while genuine inks have a glossy 
appearance. 

In the case of a note altered by the use of acid, it 
may be noticed that the acid, by spreading more than 
was intended by the counterfeiter, has injured parts 


of other letters, and the paper will appear more or less 
stained by the acid. 

COMPARING AND EXAMINING NOTES. 

A counterfeit should be compared with one that is 
genuine, in order to familiarize one’s self with the dis¬ 
tinguishing features which have already been indicated. 

It is best to acquire the habit of giving each note as 
received a searching glance, turning it over to see the 
back, and if there be any defect, it will probably catch 
the eye. If there be the least suspicion, a critical 















































































































































































































































































































DETECTING COUNTERFEIT MONEY. 


examination of all its parts should be made. 

In case of doubt, the lathe work should be carefully 
examined, and it may be compared with a perfectly 
good bill; then examine the shading around the letters, 
and search for any sign of alteration in the title or 
denomination of the note. If there are any medallion 
heads or shields, notice the lines; if there is any red 
letter work, designed to appear on both sides, look at 
the character of the work on the face, then turn the 
note and examine the back. If the printing is not 
exactly alike on both sides, but varies in any part the 
note is counterfeit. Then observe the vignettes and 
portraits, to see whether their style and perfection 
compare well with the work on genuine notes. Then 
examine the solid print and engravers’ names, as well 
as the printing, ink, and paper. By such thorough 
examination, one can hardly be at a loss to determine 
the status of the note. 

Good magnifying glasses are necessary, in most 
instances, to bring out the fine lines on bank-notes. 
Sometimes a microscope of great power is required to 
discern the genuine line. 


PIECING, ETC. 

Counterfeiters sometimes make ten bills of nine by 
what is termed piecing. Thus, a counterfeit note is 
cut into ten pieces by the counterfeiter, and these 



pieces are used in piecing nine genuine bills, from each 
of which a piece has been cut. The nine genuine 
pieces, thus obtained, are then pasted together, and 
with the tenth counterfeit piece added, make a tenth 
bill, which is the gain. 

Piecing bank-bills is not a very successful practice. 
One who possesses such information as here given, can 
readily detect the difference between the counterfeit 
and the genuine. This difference is, however, made 
less apparent by the counterfeiter, who defaces the 
counterfeit part, so as to give the note a worn appear¬ 
ance. 

Counterfeiting is rendered very difficult in conse¬ 
quence of the remarkable excellence of the work on 
the government and national currency, as also from 
the difficulty of imitating the green. But this cur¬ 
rency, if successfully imitated by counterfeiters, will 
repay large outlay and care, as the greenbacks pass 
anywhere in the nation, and a counterfeit may be 
carried to other states or sections as it becomes known 
m any particular locality. National bank currency 
may be counterfeited by preparing a plate, and then 
with simple change in the name of the bank the coun¬ 
terfeit can be adapted to the various towns where banks 
are located. This much is written, not to lessen the 
value of or confidence in the issues of the government, 
but to admonish the public against the dangers of a 
false security. 













































72 


POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 



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-(5) 


United States.^ 

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Vocabulary of Party Names, 
Measures, Terms # Maxims. 



W - bolitionists, Abolition of Slavery. The 

II earnest opponents of the institution of 
Dl slavery were so-called, from their uncom- 
L I promising spirit and persistent efforts in 
X the direction of abolition. The discovery 
and settlement of America gave rise to that foul 
stigma on Christendom, the African slave trade, 
by which millions of the unhappy Africans 
were torn from their native country, and sub¬ 
jected to a miserable servitude. The vessels 
which transported the slaves from Africa to 
America were overcrowded, and the extremest 
suffering, resulting in the death of many, was 
the only order in that inhuman business. (For 
matter concerning the suppression of the slave 
trade and the abolition of slavery throughout 
the British empire, see Slave Trade and Slavery.) 
From the beginning of our national history up 
to the war of 1861-5, negro slavery existed in 
this country. It was opposed prior to 1776 by 
the Quakers, or Society of Friends. Slavery was 
abolished in the northwest territory by the 
ordinance of 1787, in the state of New York by 
gradual emancipation act in 1827, and in the 
territories west of the Mississippi by the Mis¬ 
souri compromise. The traffic in slaves was 
suppressed by law in Great Britain in 1807, and 
likewise by the United States in 1808. The colo¬ 
nization society was organized at Washington 
in 1816, to colonize free white negroes, and a 
colony was established permanently at Cape 
Mesurado. This colony became an independent 
republic in 1S47, under the name of Liberia, with 
Monrovia as its capital. From 1829, William 
Lloyd Garrison, and others, favored abolition 
without regard to colonization. On the first of 
January, 1831, Garrison began publishing The 
Liberator, in Boston. This was followed by the 
New England antislavery society, in 1832, organ¬ 
ized in January, on the basis of immediate 
abolition. In December, 1833, the American 
antislavery society was formed at Philadelphia, 
Beriali Green being president, and Lewis Tap- 
pan and John G. Whittier secretaries of the 
convention. The slavery question thus became 
nationalized, and the abolition party assumed 
the importance of a grand movement. The 
original antislavery society split in 1839, Whit¬ 
tier, Gerrit Smith, and others well-known, leav¬ 
ing the radical Garrisonians, and forming, in 
1840, the American and Foreign antislavery 
society. Mr. Garrison, through his newspapers, 
published successively, and Joshua R. Giddings, 
of Ohio, in congress, raised their voices so that 
the whole country heard them. Mr. Garrison 


was first subjected to most bitter denuncia¬ 
tions, and afterward, in October, 1835, on the 
occasion of a meeting of the Female antislavery 
society in Boston, before which he intended to 
speak, he was seized by a mob and dragged 
through the streets to the city hall, and com¬ 
mitted to jail. Mr. Gai’rison printed on the 
forefront of the Liberator: “My country is the 
world; my countrymen are all mankind.” 
Wendell Phillips, who, mindful of the boldness 
and pluck as displayed by Garrison in the pres¬ 
ence of persecution and cruel abuse, became an 
avowed friend and co-worker with him in 1836. 
Mr. Phillips afterward withdrew from the prac¬ 
tice of law, since he conceived that the consti¬ 
tution of the United States was tainted with 
the spirit of slavery. He therefore denounced 
that document as “ a covenant with death and 
an agreement with hell.” He fought against 
slavery and oppression for upward of thirty 
years. In the fall of 1837, Owen Lovejoy was 
murdered for printing abolition sentiments. 
He resided at Alton, Illinois, where his printing 
office was broken up by a mob of men . chiefly 
from the state of Missouri. One of the princi¬ 
pal features of the abolition movement, was the 
production of “ Uncle Tom’s Cabin,” by Harriet 
Beecher Stowe. The matter first appeared as 
a serial story in the National Era, at Washing¬ 
ton, 1851-2. The moral of that story was forcibly 
drawn as against the awful curse of slavery, and 
the rise of the republican party in 1856 was, in 
fact, due to the genius of Mrs. Stowe, as dis¬ 
played in that work. As a party, the abolition¬ 
ists met at Warsaw, New York, 13 November, 
1839, and placed in nomination for president, 
James G. Birney, of that state, and for vice- 
president, Francis J. LeMoyne, of Pennsylva¬ 
nia. Although these gentlemen declined, they 
were voted for by 7,059 persons, as against 
Harrison, the whig candidate, and Van Buren, 
who had been nominated for re-election by the 
democrats. In the campaign of 1844, the aboli¬ 
tionists, under the name of liberal party, met at 
Buffalo, in August, and again nominated Mr. 
Birney, then of Michigan, and Thomas Morris, 
of Ohio. This ticket for president and vice- 
president, received 62,300 votes, causing the 
defeat of Henry Clay, whig candidate, and the 
election of James K. Polk, democrat. The abo¬ 
litionists subsequently voted with the free-soil'' 
and republican parties. From 1850 to 1860, the 
abolitionists aided fugitive slaves (in spite of 
the fugitive slave law) to escape from the south, 
and piloted them through the northern states to 


Canada. The organization was known as the 
Underground railroad. In the exigencies of the 
war for the union, the fugitive slave laws were 
finally abolished, 28 June, 1864. The complete 
abolition of slavery was accomplished as a result 
of that war (1861-5). For information concern, 
ing the great measures involved in the abolition 
movement, see Ordinance of 1787, Missouri Com- 
promise, Wilmot Proviso, Compromise of 1850, 
and Kansas and Nebraska. 

Albany Regency. A name given to the political 
faction which, from 1820 till 1854, managed the 
democratic party in New York. 

All Talk and No Cider. An expression used 
by disgusted members of the body politic in 
Bucks county, Pennsylvania, where a com¬ 
pany met to test a barrel of cider, presum¬ 
ably during the hard-cider and log-cabin 
campaign. Political topics were discussed with 
so much enthusiasm that the barrel of fluid 
was forgotten until several persons got up to 
retire from the meeting, saying at the same 
time that the concern of the speakers was “ all 
talk and no cider.” 

Amalgamation. A term often used to indicate 
the process of separating gold and silver from 
their ores, or the combinations of mercury with 
other metals. In the United States it is improp¬ 
erly applied to the mixing of races, as the black 
and the white. 

American Association. The name of an asso- 
ciation, as proposed by the continental con¬ 
gress (1774), the members of which should 
agree not to trade -with Great Britain, the 
West Indies, or with parties engaged in the 
slave trade. 

American Party. See Know-nothings. 

American Whigs. First American political 
party. From 1763 to 1775, the tories favored 
passive obedience to the crown, but the wliigs 
made manifest their spirit of independence. 
King George II declared his American subjects 
out of their allegiance, when the latter declared 
their independence of him. The name whig 
then became synonymous with patriot, and 
those who supported the crown were called 
tories. 

Amnesty. An act of oblivion, by which crimes 
and offenses against the government up to a 

/ certain time are so obliterated that they cannot 
again be brought against the guilty parties. 
President Johnson issued a proclamation of 
amnesty, by which the mass of southern citizens 
could receive pardon, 29 May, 1865. 

Anti-federalists. See Federalists. 






















































POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


73 


Antimasonry. The society of free masons was 
organized in the United States during last cen¬ 
tury. William Morgan, of Batavia, New York, 
having, in 1826, written a book against masonry 
—exposing the secrets of the order—he was 
seized and taken to Niagara, in September, and 
nothing further was ever heard of him. The 
antimasons, in September, 1831, nominated 
William W irt, of Maryland, and Amos Ellmaker, 
of Pennsylvania, for president and vice-presi¬ 
dent respectively. These candidates received 
the electoral vote of Vermont. See Morgan. 

Antirentism. An organized opposition to ma¬ 
norial rights of agricultural lands in New York 
state. Tenants had deeds for their farms, but 
paid annual rental in kind in lieu of a principal 
sum, which caused discontent among the ten¬ 
ants after 1790. After 1839 the tenants began a 
reign of terror and refused to pay rent for some 
ten years. In 1846 the antirenters procured the 
insertion of a clause in the new state constitu¬ 
tion, abolishing all feudal tenures and inci¬ 
dents, etc. After 1847 all disturbances ceased on 
account of antirentism. 

Antislavery. Opposition to slavery. 

Apportionment. An apportionment in repre¬ 
sentation; as that made by act of apportion¬ 
ment, passed in congress, February, 1882, by 
which was established a ratio giving 325 mem¬ 
bers to the house of representatives. 

Aristocracy. See Commonwealth. 

Assassination of Presidents. Abraham Lincoln 
was shot through the head by John Wilkes 
Booth, at Ford’s theatre, in Washington, after 
ten o’clock on the 14th of April, 1865, and expired 
at twenty-two minutes past seven o’clock the 
next morning. An attempt upon the life of 
Secretary William H. Seward was made at the 
same time, while he was confined to his bed from 
the effects of a fall from a carriage; this assassin, 
Lewis Payne Powell, inflicted severe wounds by 
striking at the throat of his victim three times, 
then rushed off to save his own life. James A. 
Garfield was shot in the upper part of the arm 
and in the side or back, near the backbone, by 
Charles Guiteau, at the Baltimore and Potomac 
depot, in Washington, at 9:20 am., on the 2d 
July, 1881, and after a painful illness of nearly 
three months, suddenly expired at 10=35 p. m., 
Monday, September 19,1881. See Execution of 
Assassins. 

Autocracy. That form of government in which 
the sovereign exercises uncontrolled power, 
uniting in himself the legislative and executive 
powers of the state. Almost all Eastern nations 
have this form of government. 

Bank of the United States. An institution that 
was incorporated in 1791, but did not go into 
operation till 1794. It was the first one of the 
kind in the country, and established at the sug¬ 
gestion of Alexander Hamilton, secretary of the 
treasury. Its charter was to run twenty years; 
headquarters in the city of Philadelphia. The 
capital of the bank was $10,000,000. Its charter 
expired by limitation in 1811, and the effort to 
recharter was defeated by one vote in the house, 
and by the vote of the vice-president in the 
senate. The second United States bank was 
chartered in 1816, for the same term, with a capi¬ 
tal of $35,000,000. An act of congress in 1832 for 
extending it, was vetoed by President Jackson, 
who ordered the funds kept in the bank to be 
withdrawn from it in September, 1833. This act 
produced much excitement throughout the 
union. The senate passed a resolution of cen¬ 
sure in March, 1834, which was expunged by 
order of the senate in January, 1837. 

Barbecue. See Hard Cider and Log Cabin Cam¬ 
paign. 

Barnacle. One who attaches himself to the body 
politic for mercenary purposes. 

Barnburners. An epithet applied to the anti¬ 
slavery members of the democratic party in 
New York. The same was given by those who 
remembered the old story of the man whose 
barn was infested with rats, and who knew of 


no better way to rid himself of them except by 
burning the barn. The term meant those demo¬ 
crats who desired to abolish all corporations 
because of their dissatisfaction with the corpo¬ 
ration and system of the United States bank. 
(See Bank of the United States.) The barn¬ 
burners met at Utica, 22 June, 1848, and nomi¬ 
nated Mr. Van Buren for president, and Henry 
Dodge, of Wisconsin, for vice-president. See 
Hunkers. 

Black Republican. An epithet used by members 
of the democratic party in Illinois and else¬ 
where, to distinguish a radical republican. The 
abolitionists were often called black aboli¬ 
tionists. _ 

Bloody Shirt. Applied to the politician who is 
disposed to parade acts of violence and murder 
committed under carpet-bag government. 

Blue Laws. An epithet applied to certain sup¬ 
posititious regulations which were imposed 
upon the inhabitants of the states of Massachu¬ 
setts and Connecticut in the seventeenth and 
eighteenth centuries; any law of the puritans, 
who -were so-called from their professing extra¬ 
ordinary purity in worship and conduct. 
Blue-light Federalist. During the war of 1812, 
while the British fleet lay off New London, 
Conn., blue lights were often seen near the 
shore; and it was claimed that these lights were 
used as signals to the enemy by those who had 
opposed the war. The epithet was illy applied, 
as it was never shown that an American burned 
a blue light in such a cause. 

Bolt. To leave a political party suddenly; to 
neglect or refuse to vote for. 

Border Ruffians. Citizens of the border counties 
of Missouri who invaded the territory of Kan¬ 
sas in the interest of slavery were so-called. 
Frequent raids were made by slave state settlers 
in 1856, and Lawrence and Ossawottomie were 
nearly destroyed. John Brown, with thirty 
men, was successful in opposing five hundred 
men who attacked Ossawottomie. He was after¬ 
ward called “ Ossawottomie Brown.” See Kan¬ 
sas and Nebraska. 

Boss, Bossism. The act or practice of a politi¬ 
cian who dictates the distribution of govern¬ 
ment patronage in a community, state, or 
section. 

It is true that he was removed for no better 
reason than to make room for one of Cameron’s 
henchmen, and thereby strengthen the power of 
the Pennsylvania boss. ... It was the natural 
sequel to the president’s indorsement of Cameron 
as the boss of Pennsylvania.—Chicago Tribune, 
June 5, 1882. 

We denounce the system which makes patron¬ 
age and spoils out of public offices; we denounce 
the boss rule which, when tamely endured, makes 
leaders into autocrats and reduces the mass of 
citizenship into political bondage; we demand, 
instead of the insolence, proscription, and tyr¬ 
anny of bossism, the free and conscientious exer¬ 
cise of private judgment in political affairs.— 
Major Merrick, Pennsylvania, June 2,1882. 

Some made a fuss, as others did, 

About the bubble, reputation; 

But at the pinch my price they paid, 

And I’m the boss of legislation. 

—Exchange. 

Bounty. A premium paid by government to the 
producers, exporters, or importers of certain 
commodities, with the view of encouraging the 
prosecution of these branches of industry; also, 
a sum of money given by government to per¬ 
sons enlisting in the army or navy, in order to 
induce them to enter these services. 

Brother Jonathan. Governor Jonathan Trum¬ 
bull, the elder, of Connecticut, was the execu¬ 
tive of the state named at the time General 
Washington w r as in command of the revolution¬ 
ary army, The general placed much confidence 
in the wisdom and sympathy of the old gover¬ 
nor, w T lio was in a position to aid him in supply¬ 
ing the wants of the army. So the term 
originated from a remark of Washington, that 
he must consult “Brother Jonathan.” The 
army was confronting the British before Bos¬ 
ton, and Brother Jonathan, on being consulted 
by the commander, came forward with such aid 
as rendered the army more effective. When 


difficulties afterward arose in the army, it 
became a by-word, “ W e must consult Brother 
Jonathan.” This term has now become charac¬ 
teristic of the whole country, as John Bull has 
for England. 

Bucktails. A term applied to the political oppo¬ 
nents of De Witt Clinton, a publicly active 
citizen of New York, who filled the office of 
mayor in 1815. The bucktails wore in then- hats, 
on certain occasions, a portion of the tail of the 
deer. Hence the name. 

Bugbear. A notion or fancy that is retailed from 
the stump or through a newspaper by a political 
sensationalist, to scare the unsophisticated peo¬ 
ple into the support of a measure or party; a 
scarecrow; a man of straw; a political sensation. 
Bulldoze. To intimidate. The term originated 
in Louisiana, where it was used after the war 
of 1861-5, in connection with the alleged intimi¬ 
dation of negro voters in that state. 

Bullionist. One that prefers coin, instead of 
paper, as money. 

Bummer. A worthless person, without any visi¬ 
ble means of support. In politics, a sort of all- 
talk-and-no-cider fellow. 

Buncome. Speech-making for purposes of politi- 
cal intrigue; mere talk. 

Campaign. The four or five months which inter¬ 
venes between the nomination of candidates 
for president, and the day of election in Novem¬ 
ber. “ Canvass,” to seek for influence or votes; 
also, as used in the United States, to estimate or 
to count votes. 

Carpet-bagger. One of those unprincipled ad¬ 
venturers who sought to profit by plundering 
the defenseless people in some parts of the south. 
After the war of 1861-5 the term was used with 
effect during the period of reconstruction. 

There is another influence equally injurious 
with theirs (ku-klux), and a great deal "more detri¬ 
mental to the fame and character of the republi¬ 
can party. I allude to what are known as the 
“thieving carpet-baggers.”—Horace Greeley, New 
York, June 12,1871. 

Caucus. A meeting of the leaders of a political 
party, to consider and agree upon a plan of 
action for the campaign. 

Census. An enumeration of the people, made 
every ten years in the United States. 
Charleston, Evacuation of. See under the head 
of “ Swamp Angel.” 

Charter Oak. A tree in which the colonial 
charter was secreted, at Hartford, Conn., in 
1688. Blown down in 1856. 

Civil Rights Bill. A measure, having passed the 
senate, April 2, was adopted by the house con¬ 
trary to the president’s veto, by a vote of 122 to 
41. This was for the protection of the freed- 
men, but did not give them the right to vote. 
For this latter purpose the fifteenth amendment 
to the national constitution was adopted by 
congress 26th February, 1869, and having been 
ratified by three-fourths of the states, was 
declared effective 30th March, 1870. 

Civil Service Reform. In accordance with an 
act of congress, passed 3d March, 1871, a board 
of seven commissioners was appointed by 
President Grant to inquire into the matter of 
reforming the civil service. During President 
Hayes’ administration an order was issued to 
the following effect: “No officer should be 
required or permitted to take part in the man¬ 
agement of political organizations, caucuses, 
conventions, or election campaigns. Their 
right to vote and to express their views on pub¬ 
lic questions, either orally or through the press, 
is not denied, provided it does not interfere 
with the discharge of their official duties. No 
assessment for political purposes on officers or 
subordinates should be allowed.” The credit 
for starting the movement in favor of this 
object belongs to President Grant, who recom¬ 
mended it in his second annual message, 5th 
December, 1870. 

Colored Soldiers. Persons of African descent 
were received into service of government by 
authority of congress, 17 July, 1862. In 1864, 



















74 


POLITICAL HISTORY OF TIIE UNITED STATES. 


they were unconditionally accepted as troops, 
and as many as 180,017 were in the United States 
service during the war. 

Commoner. Henry Clay was so-called, as also 
was Thomas Corwin, by admirers. Clay was 
also called the great pacificator, from his con¬ 
ciliatory disposition—he, on two occasions, in 
1820 and in 1850, succeeded in effecting a compro¬ 
mise between the slave states and the aboli¬ 
tionists. 

Commonwealth, or Republic. A form of gov¬ 
ernment in which the people, orat least aportion 
of them, are acknowledged the source of power, 
and have the direct appointment of the officers 
of the legislature and executive. When the 
body of the people is possessed of this supreme 
power, this is called a democracy; when the 
supreme power is lodged in the hands of a part 
of the people, this is called an aristocracy. See 
Excellency. 

. . . The state was willing that he should be 

anything so that he did not intrude within the 
select circle which ruled the commonwealth. By 
the way, Massachusetts never has been a state; it 
has always been a “ commonwealth,” and as such 
entered the union, and retains that official desig¬ 
nation to this time.—Chicago Tribune, November 
10, 1882. 

Community. A scheme of social living estab¬ 
lished by John Humphrey Noyes, at Oneida, in 
the state of New York, in 1S-17. The leading 
principles of the community are: reconciliation 
to God, salvation from sin, recognition of the 
brotherhood and eciuality of man and woman, 
and the community of labor and its fruits. The 
community was poor at first, but It has sur¬ 
vived all vicissitudes, and its landed property 
and buildings are now valued at upward of 
$750,000. 

Compromise of 1850. The feeling between the 
north and south on account of slavery, had 
become so intense that the leading statesmen 
thought it best to effect another compromise 
(see Missouri Compromise). A basis of settle¬ 
ment was proposed by Henry Clay, as chairman 
of a select committee of thirteen that had been 
appointed to consider the whole subject. This 
compromise admitted California as a free state; 
erected Utah and New Mexico into territories, 
leaving the question of slavery to be decided by 
the people thereof when they came to form 
state constitutions; fixed the western boundary 
of Texas, awarding ten million dollars to that 
state for losses during the Mexican war of 
1S46-48; abolished the slave trade in the District 
of Columbia, and changed the fugitive slave 
law in order to render it more effective. The 
several propositions were discussed in congress 
and by the people for upward of four months, 
Mr. Clay having reported them on the 8tli May, 
and the final act was passed through congress 
in September. 

Confederacy. A number of confederated but 
independent states, the central authority of 
which having no power to enforce any of 
its measures upon the individual states, that 
being in the hands of their own governments. 
The Germanic confederation belongs to this 
class. 

Confederate States. A separate government 
formed by the seven southern states which were 
the first to secede from the national union in 
1861. Congress of delegates met, February 4, at 
Montgomery, Ala., where, by joint action of 
South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Louisiana, 
Florida, and Mississippi, (Texas delegates not 
being appointed till later), a provisional con- 
stitution was adopted, and, on February 9, 
Jefferson Davis, of Mississippi, was elected as 
president, and Alexander II. Stephens, of Geor¬ 
gia, as vice-president. On May 6 the Confed¬ 
erate congress passed an act recognizing a state 
of war with the United States. Virginia, North 
Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas, May 6, 1861, 
passed ordinances of secession. Davis and 
Stephens were elected to their offices under the 
permanent constitution, November 6,1361. 


Confederation, Articles of. The articles as 
adopted, 15 November, 1777, by the second conti¬ 
nental congress, and which formed the basis of 
the federal union in America. This confedera¬ 
tion was ratified on the first of March, 1781, 
when the last one of the original states signed 
the compact. 

Congress, an American. A meeting of delegates 
from the colonial assemblies, held at Albany, 
New York, 19 June, 1754, to conciliate the Iro¬ 
quois and form a closer alliance of the colonies. 
A plan drawn up by Dr. Franklin was adopted 
by the convention. It was opposed by the 
English lords of trade, who thought it too lib¬ 
eral for the colonies, and the assemblies rejected 
it because it seemed not truly American. 

Congress, Colonial. The first congress held in 
America. It was composed of delegates from 
nine of the colonies, who met in New York, 
October 7, 1765, and published a declaration of 
their rights and grievances, insisting particu¬ 
larly on the right of exclusively taxing them¬ 
selves, and complaining loudly of the Stamp 
act, which see. See also Continental Congresses. 

Congressman. A member of the legislative 
branch of the United States government,— 
strictly, a member of the house of representa¬ 
tives. 

Congress of the United States. The senate and 
house of representatives. 

Connecticut Reserve. A large district of land 
x-etained by Connecticut when the land3 com¬ 
prising the northwest territory were ceded to 
the Unitod colonies (American confederacy). 
The district is described as the northeast pai't 
of Ohio, 120 miles from east to west, and 52 from 
north to south, comprising seven counties, and 
affording four million acres. Called also Western 
Reserve. See Northwest Territory. 

Conservative. One whose aim is to preserve 
from innovation or radical change the existing 
institutions of the country, both civil and 
ecclesiastical. 

Constitution. The established form of govern¬ 
ment in any country, state, or community, 
whether that be a body of written laws or be 
founded on prescriptive usage. In regax-d to 
political principles, constitutions are (1) demo¬ 
cratic, as in the United States, where the sov¬ 
ereign power is vested in the people; (2) aristo¬ 
cratic, when the government is chiefly or 
entirely in the hands of certain privileged 
classes; (3; monarchical, when in the hands of 
one person; (4) of a mixed character, as in 
Britain, where the sovereign power is dis¬ 
tributed over the king, lox - ds, and commons. 

Constitutional Union Party. A name adopted in 
1860 by the remaining elements of the whig 
party. May 9,1860, a convention met and nomi¬ 
nated John Bell, of Tennessee, for president, 
and Edward Everett, for vice-president. The 
Bell-Everett ticket carried Kentucky, Tennes¬ 
see, and Virginia, but received a very light vote 
in the north. This was the last vestige of the 
whig party. 

Continental. A term that was used before the 
American declaration. It lxad special applica¬ 
tion to the colonies as a whole. In colonial 
times a meeting of delegates from the various 
colonies formed a continental congress. When 
Ethan Allen was asked by what authority he 
demanded the surrender of Ticonderago, he 
replied- “In the name of the great Jehovah 
and of the Continental congress! ” 

Continental Congresses. The first Continental 
congress, consisting of fifty-five delegates, from 
all the colonies except Georgia, met at Phila¬ 
delphia, on the 5th September, 1774. This body, 
on behalf of the people, as subjects of the 
British power, framed a declaration of rights, 
and drew xxp an addi-ess to the king, another to 
the people of Gi-eat Britain, and a third to the 
colonies. The colonists demanded their rights, 
particularly in relation to a just share in the 
regulation of their own domestic affairs, and in 


imposing their own taxes; the right of a speedy 
trial by jury in the locality in which the offense 
should be committed, and the right to hold pub¬ 
lic meetings and petition as against ax-bitrary 
x-ule. The second Continental congress met at 
Philadelphia, 10 May, 1775, and adopted the 
appellation of the United Colonies. A petition 
was prepared and sent to England asking for a 
redress of giievances. The thirteen colonies 
were, therefore, organized into a federal union, 
and congress deliberately assumed the general 
direction of affaix-s. A declaration was drawn 
up, justifying the course of resistance to British 
oppression; a loan of money was authorized; 
the troops were formed into a continental army, 
and George Washington, a member of the con- 
gi-ess from Virginia, was placed in command. 
The Americans had hitherto been contending, 
not for independence, but for constitutional 
liberty. See Declaration of Independence. 

Contraband. In 1861, while General B. F. Butler 
was in command of Forti-ess Monroe, a num¬ 
ber of slaves, having estaped from their mas¬ 
ter, were brought before him. Each was 
examined and then set at work for the benefit 
of the government. When they were applied 
for by confederate officers on behalf of the 
owner (Colonel MallQry), the general replied 
that he should detain the negroes as contraband 
of war. 

Convention. A meeting or assembly of individ¬ 
uals. This term is more pai-ticularly applied to 
a formal meeting, or an assembly of delegates 
or repi-esentatives for the transaction of impor¬ 
tant business, civil or ecclesiastical. 

Convention of 1787. The body of delegates from 
the original states, which met at Philadelphia, 
25 May, 1787, to revise and perfect the fundamen¬ 
tal laws of the confederacy. At that time the 
necessity of a more efficient general government 
was extensively felt, and after a session of about 
four months the convention agreed on the fed¬ 
eral constitution. That instrument was trans¬ 
mitted by congi-ess to the several states, in 
neai-ly its present fox-rn, and was, in 1788, ratified 
by eleven of them (afterward by the other two) 
and became the constitution of the United 
States. See Ordinance of 1787. 

Coodies. A political body in the state of New 
York, in 1814, of which “ Abimeleck Coody ” 
(Gulian C. Verplanck) was the leading spirit. 
He was a writer of articles, and endeavox-ed to 
mold public sentiment in favor of the war then 
being waged against Great Britain (1812-14—the 
second war for independence). He attacked 
De Witt Clinton, and was answered by a sharp 
writer, who chai-ged with all but a vocabulai-y 
of sarcastic terms, among which one character¬ 
izing the Coodies as the “ spawn of federalism 
and jacobinism.” 

Coon. The popular emblem of the wliigs in the 
campaign of 1844, when Henry Clay and Theo. 
Frelinghuysen were candidates for president 
and vice-president. Mr. Van Buren had been 
called “the sly fox of Ivinderhook.” In conse¬ 
quence of his previous candidacies, Mr. Clay had 
been spoken of as “that same old coon.” The 
whigs wei-e charged with hunting after “ that 
same old coon.” Hence the raccoon as an 
emblem. “ A gone coon,” said of one whose 
case is hopeless. 

Copperhead. Northera sympathizers with the 
confederates were so-called, during the civil 
war of 1861-5. 

Corn Right. A right to one hundred acres of 
land, that was acquix-ed in early times by those 
who planted an acre or more of corn. In Vir¬ 
ginia the privilege to so obtain land was called 
Corn-right. 

Corporal’s Guard. The men in congress who 
supported President Tyler after he had been 
renounced by the whigs, in 181L 

Ci-adle of Liberty. Faneuil hall, in Boston. The 
orators of the revolution raised their voices 
there against British oppression. 
































POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


75 


Credit Mobilier. In France, a general society 
established in 1852, upon the principle of limited 
liability, under the sanction of the government. 
The capital was fixed at 00,000,000 francs, divided 
into shares of 500 francs each. Objects of the 
society: To aid the progress of public works, 
and promote the development of national indus¬ 
try, making railways, managing gas companies, 
and, in fact, becoming a kind of universal trad¬ 
ing association, for the buying up of the shares 
and bonds of existing trading societies and 
companies, for the purpose of consolidating 
them into one common stock, and for the trans¬ 
action of general banking and brokerage opera¬ 
tions. The funds for the carrying out of these 
diverse operations are, (1) the capital of the 
company, and (2) the deposits received from the 
society by the public. In the United States, 
congress passed an act chartering the Union 
Pacific railway, in 1862. In a speech, delivered 
in September, 1872, at Indianapolis, Mr. Greeley, 
as a presidential candidate, made statements 
substantially as follows: Congress resolved to 
aid the enterprise generously, and granted the 
right of way through the public lands, with the 
right to take materials from any part of the 
public domain. Then a large grant was made in 
aid of the road, and bonds of the government 
calling for $25,000 a mile were loaned to the com¬ 
pany, and the first mortgage on the railroad 
taken therefor; thus the building of the road 
was provided for with public funds. In a few 
years, this enterprise having passed into the 
hands of scheming men, some being members 
of congress, another step was taken, and con¬ 
gress was prevailed upon to authorize a new 
loan of $25,000 a mile. A second mortgage of 
equal amount was taken on the road, and so the 
security of the first mortgage was destroyed. 
In a little while a private company was some¬ 
where chartered, entitled the Credit Mobilier of 
America, and that private company, or ring, 
was composed of a number of active members 
of the Union Pacific railroad company, some of 
them members of congress. No list of this 
Credit Mobilier was ever published, or can be 
obtained. But these gentlemen proceeded to 
make contracts virtually with themselves, i. e., 
the same men as officers of the Union Pacific rail¬ 
road contracted with themselves as officers of 
the Credit Mobilier of America to construct the 
road at enormous prices, which absorbed both 
the bonds loaned by the government and the 
private loan of the company; this contracting 
with themselves to pas' themselves twice the 
fair cost of entirely building and equipping the 
road, and after building the road with the pro¬ 
ceeds of the money loaned by the government, 
they proceeded to divide among themselves the 
other bonds, equal to the amount which con¬ 
gress had made mortgage on the entire road. 
By these means twenty or thirty millions of 
dollars were divided among the parties, and 
after all that money was so divided and they 
were called upon to pay, they divided the bonds 
and built the road with the government bonds, 
which were a second mortgage on that com. 
pany. “Now, you see,” said Mr. Greeley, con¬ 
tinuing, “these gentlemen who engineered 
through congress this project of making the 
road cost double what it should cost, and mak- 
ing half the cost a dividend appropriated among 
themselves, these gentlemen now appear before 
congress for additional advantages.” In Feb¬ 
ruary, 1873, the committee appointed by con¬ 
gress to investigate the corrupt Credit Mobilier 
matter, made a report which amazed the people 
at large, and a long investigation grew out of 
this. As a consequence, Oakes Ames and James 
Brooks of the house were censured, and the 
reputations of several prominent politicians 
were somewhat damaged. 

Covode Investigation. A committee authorized 
by the house of representatives to inquire into 
the chicanery of the Buchanan administration, 
in attempting to foist the Lecompton constitu¬ 


tion upon the people of Kansas. An examina¬ 
tion, after the appointment of the committee, 
5th March, 1860, resulted in developing the truth 
of the charges of corruption. See Lecompton 
Constitution. 

Dark Horse. No doubt that this phrase origi¬ 
nated from the coloring of horses by jockeys in 
order to bring them into a race under different 
names and win the prizes. In politics, the suc¬ 
cessful nominee of a party who is little thought 
of as the nominee. Hayes, and Garfield -were 
“ dark horses.” See Surprise Candidate. 

From whence is to come the “dark horse?” 
Some say it will be Drummond, some say Hyde, 
some say Spring, and others Blaine. The inan 
whom the ring has determined upon to lead the 
republican party is now engaged in the honest 
and peaceful occupation of a fisherman, and his 
name is William P. Frye.—Boston Post, Maine 
politics, 1882. 

Declaration of Independence. The thirteen 
colonies slowly awoke to the idea of independ¬ 
ence. Early in the struggle against Great 
Britain, any such design, though favorably 
entertained by New England, was disavowed 
by the other colonists, and by congress, July, 
1775. The sentiment in favor of separation 
became more marked as the war was trans¬ 
ferred to the south in May and June, 1776, and 
the Virginia convention instructed the dele¬ 
gates of that state in congress to introduce 
a resolution favoring independence. Richard 
Henry Lee presented the resolution, which was 
formally adopted, July 2. Pennsylvania, Mary¬ 
land and New Jersey, before that date, had 
changed from the attitude of disfavor, and 
ordered their delegates to vote for the declara¬ 
tion. By the third of July, the delegates of 
South Carolina, who had opposed the measure, 
came forward and indorsed it. Delaware yielded 
her consent on the fourth of July, and on that 
day, the declaration of independence was 
passed, the New York convention refusing to 
vote, but afterward consented, and it thus 
became “The Unanimous Declaration of the 
Thirteen United States of America.” Jefferson 
was the author of the Declaration of Independ¬ 
ence. 

Demagogue. A politician who attempts to gain 
the people over to his own selfish views by 
employing deceit and falsehood for that pur¬ 
pose ; a charlatan. 

Democracy. See Commonwealth. 

Democratic Party. The theory of the old demo¬ 
cratic-republican party was, popular govern¬ 
ment, with limitation of the powers of the 
general or federal government, in order not to 
restrict the rights of states in the management 
of local interests. In the last decade of the past 
century, the party assumed the name of repub¬ 
lican, by which it was popularly known until 
about 1830, when the more radical portion sep¬ 
arated from the conservative element, and 
assumed the name of national republican. The 
conservatives were called democrats, but that 
term being regarded as equivalent to republi¬ 
cans, they were known as republicans till about 
1830. These parties, until after the election of 
Jackson, in 1828, claimed the name of republi¬ 
can. The friends of Adams were styled the 
administration wing, and those of Jackson, the 
opposition. The Jackson men afterward fixed 
upon the title of democrat, and there has been 
no further variation of the name of the party 
since. The democrats were successful in suc¬ 
cessive presidential elections until that of 1840, 
when the whigs, with General Harrison, came 
into power. President Harrison died in just one 
month after his inauguration, and the adminis¬ 
tration under John Tyler became democratic. 
The administration of James K. Polk was next 
in order, and then the whigs again succeeded in 
1848, when General Taylor was elected. The 
democrats followed with the election of Frank¬ 
lin Pierce, in 1852, and James Buchanan in 1856. 
The attempt to force a pro-slavery constitution 
upon the territory of Kansas, was followed by a 


split in the democratic party. The popular Illi¬ 
nois senator, Stephen A. Douglas, assumed the 
leadership of the northern wing, while the pro¬ 
slavery men that formed the southern wing 
were led by the administration. In 1860 the 
democratic convention, which met at Charles¬ 
ton, April 23, failed to agree upon resolutions 
and candidates. There were fifty-seven inef¬ 
fectual ballots, Mr. Douglas, for president, 
always leading. Many of the delegates with¬ 
drew from this convention and met in another 
hall, adopted resolutions, and adjourned to meet 
in Richmond, on the second Monday in June. 
The regular convention adjourned, May 3, to 
meet at Baltimore, June 18. In the Baltimore 
convention there arose a disagreement on 
account of the admission of delegates from the 
states which had withdrawn from the Charles¬ 
ton convention. The result of it was the with¬ 
drawal of a considerable number of delegates, 
including the chairman of the convention, Caleb 
Cushing, and Benjamin F. Butler. Stephen A. 
Douglas was then nominated for president, and 
Herschel V. Johnson, of Georgia, was afterward 
selected by the executive committee as candi¬ 
date for vice-president. The delegates who 
withdrew from the convention at Baltimore, 
being joined by delegations which had been 
refused admission, assembled at Maryland insti¬ 
tute, June 28, and put in nomination, for presi¬ 
dent, John C. Breckinridge, of Kentucky, and 
Joseph Lane, of Oregon, for vice-president. 
Those who had withdrawn from the Charleston 
convention met at Richmond, June 11, and 
adjourned from time to time until the seceders’ 
convention at Baltimore had nominated Breck¬ 
inridge and Lane, when those nominations 
were indorsed. The democratic party, thus 
divided, while the republican party had become 
a unit against slavery extension and for the 
union, went before the country with small 
chances of success. Mr. Douglas took the stump, 
and in a series of speeches in different sections 
of the country, expounded his views to great 
crowds of his countrymen. He was all but idol¬ 
ized by the free-soil democrats, who rallied to 
his standard with enthusiasm. At the election, 
the popular vote for Mr. Douglas was very 
great, but his electoral vote was small. The 
defeat of Mr Douglas and the democratic party 
by the republicans, with Mr. Lincoln as the suc¬ 
cessful candidate, proved a death-dealing disap¬ 
pointment to Mr Douglas, whose ambition to 
rise to the presidency was earnest, and seconded 
by the ballots of upward of one million three 
hundred and seventy-five thousand of his 
friends. In his dying days he made very ex¬ 
plicit expressions of loyalty to the federal union 
and the government of the United States. He 
died on the 3d of June, 1861, in the forty-ninth 
year of his age. Since the third of March, 1861, 
to the present time (1883), the republicans have 
been in possession of the presidential office. 
See Republican Party. 

Deputation. A number of persons selected in 
order to represent the views of a larger body 
or company on any particular question, to lay 
their case before some person of influence or 
in office, or to act for them in any particular 
affair. 

Don’t give up the ship. Said by Captain Law¬ 
rence, commander of the United States Chesa¬ 
peake, after he was mortally wounded, and was 
being taken below. His vessel was captured by 
the British ship Shannon, after an action thirty 
miles from Boston light, 1st June, 1813. 

Dough-face. An epithet applied to the northern 
apologist for slavery in the south. 

Draft Riots. A draft commenced in New York, 
13 July, 1863, when a great riot broke out, and 
continued for three days, during which time 
the building in which the draft had begun was 
destroyed by fire, houses and stores were plun¬ 
dered, citizens were mistreated, colored persons 
were killed, a colored orphan asylum was 
burned, the inmates scattering in all direc- 


































70 


POLITICAL HISTORY OF TIIE UNITED STATES 


tions for their lives; four hundred lives were 
sacrificed, and property worth $2,000,000 was 
destroyed. 

Dred Scott Decision. A decision given by the 
United States supreme court, March 6, 1857, 
whereby Dred Scott, who had been claimed as a 
slave in a free state, was remanded to slavery. 
Of the seven j udges, two declared for his free¬ 
dom. By this decision the Missouri compro¬ 
mise of 1820 was declared unconstitutional, and 
thereupon arose the popular phrase, “ Negroes 
have no rights that white men are bound to 
respect.” 

Emancipation. The act of setting free those 
persons held as slaves. President Lincoln 
issued his proclamation of emancipation, Jan¬ 
uary 1, 1863. 

Era of Good Feeling. An expression applied to 
the administration of President Monroe (1817- 
’25). The president started, 31 May, 1817, and 
visited the northern states, his journey con. 
tinuing through several months. The people 
received him gladly, and the effect of his pres- 
ence was long felt by all who, in honor of his 
time, bestowed the compliment of those magic 
words: Eba of good feeling. 

Excellency. A title conceded by many to the 
governors of states, foreign ministers, and the 
president of the United States. Not authorized 
by the national constitution, and by very few of 
the state constitutions. (See Commonwealth.) 
The office of governor of the state is held in 
high esteem in Massachusetts. The man who 
reaches that position is assumed to be of noble 
origin. One of the great functions of Harvard is 
to recognize the dignity of “ his excellency,” and 
to confer upon him, with great pomp and honor, 
the degree of “Doctor of Laws.” Every man who 
has been elected governor bears thenceforth in 
Latin a commission as doctor of laws.—Chicago 
Tribune, Nov. 10,1882. 

Executive. The head of the executive depart¬ 
ment of the government; as, the governor of a 
state, or president of the United States. Other- 
wise, the chief magistrate, or the king. 
Execution of Assassins. David E. Harold,George 
A. Atzerott, Lewis Payne Powell, and Mrs. E. 
Surratt, accomplices of Booth in the assassina¬ 
tion of President Lincoln, were hung, 7th July, 
1865. Others were sent up to Dry Tortugas for 
life. Henry Wirz, for cruelty to union prison¬ 
ers at Andersonville, was hung in Washington, 
10 November, 1865. Charles Guiteau; for murder 
of President Garfield, was hung, 30 June, 1882. 
See Assassination of Presidents. 

Faction. A term applied in a bad sense to any 
party in a state or country that offers uncom¬ 
promising opposition to the measures of the 
government, or that endeavors to excite public 
discontent upon unreasonable grounds; one 
wing or division of a party. 

Republican faction fights may this year give the 
democrats a majority in congress and a number 
of governors, but unless this faction fighting con¬ 
tinues for two years longer the result of to-day 
will guarantee nothing for 1884.—New York Herald, 
Nov. 7, 1882. 

Father of his Country. George Washington, 
patriot and first president of the United States, 
was so-called. He was commander-in-chief of 
the American armies—a man of the happiest 
union of good qualities. Born on his father’s 
estate, in Westmoreland county, Va., 22 Febru¬ 
ary, 1732, and after a life of unsullied glory, he 
died, 14 December, 1799. 

Federal Government. A government formed 
by the union of several sovereign states, each 
state giving up a portion of its power to the 
central authority, and yet retaining its powers 
of self-govornment. The government of the 
United States is a federal government. 
Federalist. The name of a political party in the 
United States, formed in 1788, the members of 
which claimed to be the peculiar ft rends of the 
constitution and federal government. The 
most distinguished leaders of the federal party 
were Washington, Adams, Hamilton, and Jay, 
and the leading federalist states were Massa¬ 
chusetts and Connecticut, supported generally 


by the other New England states. Opposed to 
this party, were Jefferson, Madison, Monroe, 
Burr, and Gallatin (republicans), who were called 
anti-federalists, and charged with being indif¬ 
ferent or hostile to the constitution and govern¬ 
ment. During the contests of the French revo¬ 
lution the federalists leaned to the side of 
England, the republicans to that of France. 
The dissolution of the federal party was has¬ 
tened by reason of its opposition to the second 
war (1812) for independence- This war came to 
pass principally from the unjust claims of Great 
Britain to the right of searching American ves¬ 
sels for deserters and British seamen. As a 
remedy for the evils which the federalists 
charged over against the government on account 
of the war, a convention was held (commencing 
15th December, 1814) at Hartford, Conn. This 
body recommended certain measures to the leg¬ 
islatures of the eastern states, looking to a liini- 
tation of the power of the federal government 
over the militia of the states. It also proposed 
several amendments to the constitution. But 
the labors of the convention were brought to a 
close by the news of the treaty of peace between 
the United States and Great Britain, signed on 
the 24th, ninth day after the assembling of that 
body. The moral and visible effect of this con- 
vention was felt a little later when in 1820, the 
federal party was completely disbanded. 

Fenian Movement. An organization started in 
the United States in 1858, and attributed to 
James Stephens, who commenced the work of 
fenianism in this country by taking advantage 
of the military organization of the states to 
have Irishmen armed, uniformed, and drilled. 
Before the war of 18C1-5, there was formed a 
secret army of thirty thousand fighting men. 
The fenians fought bravely during that war, and 
toward the close of 1863, they assumed a civil 
constitution and established an Irish republic 
in America after the model of the United States, 
for the purpose of bringing about “ the resurrec- 
tion of Ireland to independent nationhood.” 
This idea is attributed to John O’Mahoney, the 
first president. In January, 1865, the members 
of the fenian society resolved to include Ire¬ 
land, England, and all its dependencies within 
the scope of their operations. Stephens and a 
strong band of organizers transferred their 
activity to Ireland. The first fenian revolu¬ 
tionists were arrested by the British govern¬ 
ment in September of that year. O’Donovan 
Rossa possesses the historic renown of having 
been first arrested. James Stephens, as the head 
center of the movement, was afterward arrested, 
and his escape from custody was affected by the 
aid of fenians. Since 1878, when the land league 
was formed, it is presumed that fenianism 
entered into the working power of the league, 
and is stronger now than the land league proper, 
as represented by Mr. Parnell. The first national 
congress of the fenian brotherhood was held in 
Chicago, 3d Nov., 1863, when about 15,000 fenians 
were represented. 

Fifty-four Forty or Fight. An expression used 
during the northwestern boundary dispute that 
arose soon after President Polk’s inauguration. 
The Oregon question, as it is called, was first 
noticed in a public manner by President Tyler 
in his message to congress, 5tli December, 1842. 
The territory of the nation known as the Oregon 
territory, lying on the Pacific ocean, north of 
the forty-second degree of latitude, was claimed 
in part by Great Britain. In 1843, a bill was 
carried through the senate by a majority of one, 
for taking possession of the whole of the dis¬ 
puted territory, but the house refused to concur 
in this measure. In his message of 1843, the 
president (Tyler) asserted the claim on behalf 
of the United States, in regard to that territory, 
to the parallel of 54 deg. 40 min. north latitude, 
and James K. Polk was elected, in 1844, as one 
disposed to insist upon the 54 deg. 40 min. par¬ 
allel as the boundary of Oregon. It was under¬ 
stood that the United States were to absorb the 


whole of the territory—the whole or none, 
“54-40 or fight.” However; the new president 
felt that it was best to act in the light of previ¬ 
ous efforts at compromise, in consequence of 
which the forty-ninth parallel was to be the 
northern boundary of the territory of the 
nation. Finally (18 June, 1846), all previous 
efforts having failed, an adjustment of the 
northwestern boundary dispute was reached by 
means of a convention, proposed by the British 
minister, which decided upon the forty-ninth 
degree of north latitude. From the standpoint 
of those opposed to compromise, this was “ the 
back-down from 54-40." 

Filibuster. A corruption of the English free¬ 
booter or buccaneers. “ Filibustering,” a cant 
term much used of late years in the legislative 
assemblies of the United States to designate the 
employment of parliamentary tactics to defeat 
a measure, by raising frivolous questions of 
order, calls to the house, motions to adjourn, 
etc., in order to weary out the opposite party 
and to gain time. “Filibusters,” the name 
given to certain adventurers; the most noted 
filibuster was William Walker, who led an expe¬ 
dition against Nicaragua, in 1855, and succeeded 
in maintaining himself in that country for 
nearly two years, but was at length expelled by 
the union against him of the other Central 
American states. Walker was subsequently 
taken and shot at Truxillo, in Central America, 
in 1800, when engaged on another filibustering 
expedition. 

Financial Panics. The financial history of the 
country was marked by distress in 1814, when 
United States treasury notes were seventeen 
per cent below par. The situation was aggra¬ 
vated by the peace party, whose leaders per¬ 
suaded the Boston banks to require that the 
notes on southern banks, then in theft - posses¬ 
sion, be redeemed. In 1819, the financial difli. 
culties were very serious: paper money had run 
down to 59 per cent, there had been excess of 
importation, American staples had declined in 
foreign countries, cotton and breadstuff's were 
down 50 percent, and there was general business 
depression. In 1821 the distress was great west 
of the Alleglianies, tanners were unable to pay 
their debts due to government at west land 
offices. Congress granted relief by permitting 
portions of land to be surrendered, and the 
money paid over to be applied on the remainder 
to secure it. In 1837, a crash came on the heels 
of a suspension of the New York banks; many 
other banks went down, corporations shut up 
their works, business houses failed, the products 
of the farm declined, and credit gave way for 
want of confidence. This crisis was due to 
excessive speculation, large importations, and 
business depression for want of capital. Cali¬ 
fornia felt the strain of depression in February, 
1855. August 24, 1857, the Ohio Life Insurance 
and Trust company failed, many banks soon 
suspended payments, all owing to land and 
“railroad ” speculation. September 19, 1873, the 
firm of Jay Cook & Co., of Philadelphia, failed, 
from which a general financial panic came to 
pass, destroying confidence, throwing working 
people out of employment, producing stagna¬ 
tion and misery. The causes assigned in this 
case were various, including reckless specula¬ 
tion and increasing extravagance of the people, 
too liberal importations, careless contracts, etc. 
Many people lost all their eartlriy possessions, 
and joined the army of tramps, and the dull 
tread of that army, little reduced in numbers, is 
still heard in the land. 

Fire-eaters. An epithet much used in the north 
before the war of 1861, and applied to the advo¬ 
cates of strict southern views. “Southern 
extremists.” 

Freedman’s Bureau. A bureau that congress, 
3d March, 1865, established for meeting the press¬ 
ing needs of the freedmen, and helping them to 
secure some of the blessings of education. 
General O. O. Howard was at the head of this 





























POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 



commission. The freedman’s bank, having 
been established after the war for the use of the 
emancipated, became, through reckless man¬ 
agement, a failure in 1874. Through investiga¬ 
tions made with regard to the matter, no blame 
could be charged to the commissioner. 

Free Soil Party. A political party which, as an 
immediate result of the agitation of the Wilmot 
proviso, was formed in 1848. The party nomi¬ 
nated Martin Van Buren for president and 
Charles Francis Adams for vice - president. 
These candidates received the support of nearly 
300,000 free-soilers, but the whig party, com¬ 
posed of those who were dissatisfied with the 
conduct of affairs under the so-called democratic 
party, carried the election for Taylor and Fill¬ 
more. In 1852, the free-soil party named John 
P. Hale, of New Hampshire, for president, and 
George W, Julian, of Indiana, for vice-president. 
These candidates received 155,825 votes. The 
wliigs and free-soilers—the latter having nomi¬ 
nated Scott and Graham—were defeated by the 
straight-out democrats, and General Franklin 
Pierce, of New Hampshire, and William R. King, 
of Alabama, were elected to the offices of presi¬ 
dent and vice-president respectively. 

And then the question of tree soil, what shall be 
the fate of that? I presume there are here some 
free-soil men [Yes! yes! all free-soil]—I mean 
those to whom the question of extending or 
restricting slavery outweighs all other considera¬ 
tions.—Horace Greeley, New York, Sept. 27,1848. 
Fugitive Slave Law. A law enacted in 1850 as a 
part of the compromise measures of that period. 
It provided for the return of any slaves who 
might have escaped. This law was odious in the 
eyes of every anti-slavery man and woman of 
the north. 

General Assembly. A representative body in 
which is vested the power to enact laws; as Illi¬ 
nois general assembly. 

Gerrymander. To fix the political divisions of a 
state in such manner that one party may obtain 
an advantage for itself, as against its opponents. 
. . . Denounces the action of the legislature 
in redistricting (gerrymandering) the state solely 
in the interest of the democratic party as an 
attempt to disfranchise 190,000 voters, and as a 
crime against suffrage which should be rebuked at 
the polls at the next election.—Ext. Report Green¬ 
back Convention, Moberly, Mo., May 30, 1882. 
Government. The three branches which consti¬ 
tute the government of the United States. 
These are—legislative, executive, and judicial. 
The following are quotations from the federal 
constitution: 

LEGISLATIVE. 

Article 1, section 1—All legistive powers herein 
granted, shall be vested in a congress of the 
United States, which shall consist of a senate and 
a house of representatives. 

EXECUTIVE. 

Article 2, section 1—The executive power shall 
be vested in a president of the United States of 
America. . . . 

JUDICIAL. 

Article 3, section 1—The judicial power of the 
United States shall be vested in one supreme 
court, and in such inferior courts as the congress 
may, from time to time, ordain and establish. . . 
Grange, or Patrons of Husbandry. An organi¬ 
zation of the agricultural interests. It origi¬ 
nated in Washington, D. C., in 1867, and the first 
grange was established at Harrisburg, Pennsyl¬ 
vania. The grange, as an order, is opposed to 
all the extreme and oppressive schemes of per¬ 
sons or classes acting on the present competitive 
system. With regard to co-operation, the grange 
is favorably disposed, and the national organi¬ 
zation has reported in favor of incorporated 
associations of that class. The grange advises 
buying as far as practicable from the producer 
and manufacturer, and selling to the consumer, 
if possible, and declares emphatically in favor 
of buying and selling for cash. It is a rule of the 
grange to “ neither fear nor court competition.” 
As a political party, the grangers met with the 
laboring men at Cleveland, Ohio, in March, 1875, 
and adopted a platform of principles as express¬ 
ive of the views of the grange party through¬ 
out the country. The order has many branches 



in the various states of the union. Men and 
women stand upon an equal footing as mem¬ 
bers. 

Greenback. A form of paper money, issued by 
the federal government. The act authorizing 
the issue of greenbacks says that they “shall 
also be lawful money and legal tender.” The 
honor of the addition of the term greenback to 
our vocabulary is justly attributable to Salmon 
P Chase, secretary of the treasury, 1861-4. It 
was chiefly his policy that carried the nation 
through the war of that period. “Green- 
backer,” an advocate of greenback or paper 
money. 

When he was nominated by the greenbackers 
this fall, everybody laughed, but those laugh best 
who laugh last—Butler thinks.—Chicago Journal, 
Nov 9, 1882. 

Greenback Republican, or Democrat. A repub. 
lican or a democrat disposed in favor of legal 
tender (government) paper money. 

This increases the republican membership of 
the house to 149, or, counting the six greenback 
republicans, to 155.—Chicago Inter Ocean, June 
3, 1882. 

Gubernatorial. Pertaining to a governor. 

“Hail Columbia.” National ode of America; 
written by Joseph Hopkinson, in the summer of 
1798, for a young actor, named Fox, to render on 
his benefit night. 

Half Breeds. An epithet, used to distinguish 
those of the republican party who were friends 
of Garfield and his administration, followers of 
Blaine, and other prominent men belonging to 
the Garfield faction. Opposed to Stalwarts, 
which see. (See extract under the head of Inde¬ 
pendents.) 

The election to-day is properly to be regarded 
as a pitched battle between the stalwart and the 
half-breed wings of the republican party.—New 
York Herald, Nov. 7, 1882. 

Half Slave and Half Free. Said by Abraham 
Lincoln. See Republican party. 

Hard Cider and Log Cabin Campaign. The 
campaign of 1840, which resulted in the election 
of William Henry Harrison for president, and 
John Tyler, for vice-president, was one of the 
most exciting, jolly, and interesting of any in 
the history of the United States. The demo¬ 
crats nominated Mr. Van Buren for re-election, 
and the abolitionists named James G. Birney 
as their candidate for president. The orators 
and journals of the democratic party ridiculed 
the whig candidate for president (Harrison), and 
called him an old granny. One of the editorial 
fraternity unwittingly wrote; “Give him a log 
cabin and a baiTel of hard cider, and he will be 
content on his farm in Ohio, whose affairs only 
is he capable of managing.” Thereupon the 
whigs took up the cry of hard cider and log 
cabin, and the latter became most appropriate 
and effectual means in joining the issue in favor 
of the whigs. Log cabins were raised and hard 
cider was drunk at the various meetings; a 
paper with the title of Log Cabin was published 
by Horace Greeley, and the music of Harrison 
glee-clubs was echoed and re-echoed from hill to 
dale. At the larger meetings or barbecues, the 
people were fed during the day without charge, 
on which occasions animals were roasted bod. 
ily.. log cabins and barrels of hard cider were 
mounted on wheels and drawn by oxen or horses 
in the processions. It was during this campaign 
that the expression “ Tippecanoe and Tyler too” 
was sounded m song, a stanza of which is here 
given. 

“ What has caused this great commotion-mo¬ 
tion.motion 

Our country through? 

It is the ball a-rolling on 
For Tippecanoe and Tyler too, 

For Tippecanoe and Tyler too; 

And with him we’ll beat little Van; 

Van, Van, Van is a used up man, 

And with them we’ll beat little Van.” 

To this song was added those other well-known 
lines, which are commemorative of the whig 
victory in the state of Maine— 


“ O, have you heard how Maine went, went, 
went? 

It went li—1 bent 
For Governor Kent, 

For Tippecanoe and Tyler too,” etc. 
Hard Pan. In financial affairs, hard money- 
gold and silver—or hard-money basis. “ Com¬ 
ing down to hard pan,” said of a return to specie 
payments. 

Hard-shell Democrats. See Soft-shell Demo¬ 
crats. 

Hickory. See Old Hickory. 

“ Higher Law.” An expression used by William 
H. Seward, in a speech on freedom in the terri¬ 
tories, delivered in the United States senate, 
11 March, 1850. 

“ It is true, indeed, that the national domain is 
ours. . . . But there is a higher law than the 
constitution which regulates our authority over 
the domain, and devotes it to the same noble pur¬ 
poses. The territory (California) is a part, no 
inconsiderable part, of the common heritage of 
mankind, bestowed upon them by the creator of 
the universe. We are his stewards, and must so 
discharge our trust as to secure in the highest 
attainable degree, their happiness.” 

Honorable. Members of both houses of con¬ 
gress, and of state legislatures, are so-called 
from courtesy. The title is extended to heads 
of departments of the government. 

Hotheads. Red-hot partisans. 

Ten days of the time of congress and thousands 
of dollars of public money have been misspent 
and wasted by Bill Springer and his fellow hot. 
heads and demagogues in bolstering up a most 
scandalous attempt to cheat a majority of the 
voters of a congressional district out of represen. 
tation, etc.—Chicago Tribune, June 5, 1882. 

House. See Senate. 

Hunkers. As pertaining to the democratic party 
of New York, in 1847, a separate body of men 
who favored the election of General Lewis Cass 
to the presidency. Opposed to the barnburners, 
who nominated Mr. Van Buren. See Barn¬ 
burners. 

Impeachment of President Johnson. Articles 
of impeachment were agreed upon by the house, 
3d March, 1868, and presented to the senate on the 
5tli. Specifications were based upon the presi¬ 
dent’s removal of Secretary Stanton in violation 
of the tenure of office bill, his expressions in 
public speechesof contempt for congress, declar¬ 
ing the thirty-ninth not a constitutional con- 
gress, and his hindrance of the execution of 
some of its acts. The house of representatives 
lias sole power of impeachment, and the senate 
has sole power to try all impeachments (see art. 
i, secs. 2 and 3, const.) The trial began 23 March, 
and closed 26 May. In the senate the vote 
stood: guilty, 35; not guilty, 19. So the presi¬ 
dent was acquitted. 

Independence, Declaration of. See Declaration 
of Independence. 

Independents. Those who take a stand regard¬ 
less of party, and who are not subject to bias or 
partisan influence. The term is often applied 
to those who break away now and then but do 
not entirely abandon their party. 

In Pennsylvania the independents deliberately 
made up their minds to turn the state over to the 
democrats rather than to see their party used for 
the benefit of one man.—Chicago Journal, Nov. 
9, 1882. 

As in all civil wars, a good many people who 
heartily say, “ A plague on both your houses,” 
are yet forced to take sides, and tlnis we see some 
ludicrous spectacles, such as the independents and 
civil service reformers voting with the half breed 
machine, and marching in effect under the banner 
of Mr. Blaine, who has assumed the leadership of 
the half breed army. 

«••••• 
The independents who unwillingly vote with 
the Blaine machine to defeat the Arthur or Cam- 
eron machine still give no signs that they are 
ready to abandon the republican party.—New 
York Herald, Nov. 7,1882. 

Inflationist. One in favor of increased issues of 
paper currency 

Iron-clad Oath. The oath which those engaged 
in the late war against the federal government 
were required to take, in order to regain their 
rights of citizenship. So-called from its being 
distasteful to them. 






























78 


POLITICAL HISTORY OF TIIE UNITED STATES. 


“Irrepressible Conflict.” Saicl by William H. 
Seward. See Republican party. 

Kansas and Nebraska. After the proposed com- 
promise of 1319, which was adopted in congress 
in 1820, (see Missouri Compromise), the slavery 
question remained in abeyance until 1846, when 
David Wilraot, a representative from Pennsyl¬ 
vania, offered what became known as the Wil- 
mot proviso (which see). This proposition was 
followed by the Compromise of 1850 (which see), 
at which time another temporary settlement 
was effected. January 23,1854, the slavery ques¬ 
tion was reopened in congress by Stephen A. 
Douglas, senator from Illinois, who reported a 
bill (called the Kansas-Nebraska bill) organizing 
territories of Kansas and Nebraska. The effect 
of one of the sections was to repeal the Missouri 
compromise law. The proposed bill caused 
intense feeling in the nation, but was adopted 
by the senate, March 3, and by the house May 
20, being approved by President Pierce, 31 May, 
1854. The doctrine of popular sovereignty, as 
specially advanced by Mr. Douglas, was involved 
in the Ivansas-Nebraska bill. It was the idea of 
the Illinois senator, who afterward received the 
name of “ little giant,” that the people of each 
state or territory should be allowed to govern 
themselves in their own way, and he opposed 
the Lecompton constitution because it did not 
represent the will of the people of Kansas. In 
the presidential campaign of 1860, the “little 
giant ” was nominated as candidate for presi¬ 
dent, and led off under the political doctrine 
he had promulgated, that congress had no power 
either to sanction or forbid slavery in the terri¬ 
tories. The struggle for and against slavery in 
Kansas was terrible, and continued until the 
beginning of the civil war, in 1861, when that 
state came into the union. See Border Ruffians. 

King Cotton, or Cotton is King. A phrase much 
used by southern people up to and a year or two 
after the breaking out of the war of 1861-5. They 
said the north could not do without cotton, and 
that it would eventually triumph. 

Know-nothings. The name of a secret political 
party which originated in 1853. The party, or 
rather society, as stated by the New York Times, 
was first formed by a person of some notoriety, 
who called himself Ned Buntline—the writer of 
sea stories. Ned was once a midshipman in the 
United States navy, but left the service and 
commenced the business of founding a secret 
order, of so exclusive a diameter that none 
were to be admitted as members whose grand¬ 
fathers were not natives of the United States. 
Ned gave instructions to his followers to reply to 
all questions in respect to the movements of the 
new party “ I don’t know.” So they were at first 
called don’t-knows, and then know-nothings, 
by outsiders. The Crusader, a party organ, 
printed the principles of the society as follows: 
Repeal of all naturalization laws; none but 
native Americans for office; a pure American 
common school S3'Stem; war to the hilt on 
Romanism. In the year 1855-6 the slavery ques¬ 
tion had assumed paramount importance, and 
the civil war between the free state men and 
the pro-slaveryites in the territory of Kansas, 
so overshadowed the public mind, that foreign 
citizenship was forgotten, and the know-noth¬ 
ings as a body disappeared. The nearest ap¬ 
proach to know-nothingism or Americanism, in 
1856 (as indicated by the name), was the Ameri¬ 
can party, whose nominees for president and 
vice-president were Millard Fillmore, and 
Andrew J. Donelson of Tennessee. In that 
year there was a general exoitement, and crush 
of political elements, which resulted in the com¬ 
plete annihilation of the American and whig 
parties. Thereupon rose the Republican party, 
which see. 

Kuklux Klan. A secret political organization 
that arose from the prejudices of unreconciled 
persons in some portions of the south. It origi¬ 
nated in the state of Tennessee, presumably, 
early in the year 1808, and soon afterward 


extended its membership and mischievous 
influence over various sections. The alleged 
object of the klan was to redeem the south. 
After its fashion it opposed the enforcement of 
the reconstruction acts, and endeavored to 
maintain the dominion of the white race as 
against triie colored race, the male portion of 
which latter were enfranchised by effect of the 
fifteenth amendment, 30 March, 1870. Within a 
few months of its inception the numbers of the 
various divisions of the klan were increased to 
a total of 500,000 persons. Later on, the political 
aspirations of the klan were given up, and mem¬ 
bers of the order abandoned themselves to 
schemes of outrage and murder. May 31,1870, a 
congressional act was passed, which provided 
for the protection of the lately-enfranchised 
colored men, as against the “ bulldozing ” pro¬ 
pensities of the kuklux. In February following 
a stringent act was passed for a similar purpose, 
and on the third day of May, 1871, a proclama¬ 
tion against the klan was issued by President 
Grant. During the next year (1872) efforts were 
made to expose the klan. A committee was 
appointed by congress to make an investigation 
of the kuklux mystery. Many witnesses were 
examined by this committee, and the facts were 
revealed as pertaining to the existence of the 
kuklux bands and their horrible doings. 
Lecompton Constitution. An instrument that 
was framed in convention at Lecompton for the 
state of Kansas, in September, 1857. It provided 
for the introduction of slavery, and at an elec¬ 
tion in December about 6,500 votes (inclusive of 
many fraudulent ones) were cast for it. The 
free state men refrained from voting, until the 
election, 4th January, 1858, when the Lecompton 
constitution was voted down by 10,000 majority. 
In July a free constitution was adopted at 
Wyandot. 

Legal Tender. See Greenback. 

Legislature. The body or bodies in a state or in 
the United States vested with the power of 
making laws: thus, the governor and general 
assembly constitute the legislature. The presi¬ 
dent, house and senate constitute the national 
legislature. See Government. 

Let the Union Slide. An expression used during 
a debate in congress by General Banks. 

Liberal Republicans, and Democrats. Those 
members of the old parties who participated in 
the new departure movement of 1872, when 
Horace Greeley was nominated for president by 
the liberal republicans at Cincinnati, and the 
democrats at Baltimore. The liberal republican 
nominee for vice-president, B. Gratz Brown, of 
Missoui-i, was also indorsed by the democrats. 
These candidates were defeated at the election 
by the regular republicans, who had renomi¬ 
nated General Grant. 

Liberty Cap. A peaked cap placed on the head 
of the goddess of liberty. “Liberty Pole,” a 
flag-staff surmounted with the symbols of 
liberty. 

Liberty Party. See Abolition of Slavery. 

Little Giant. Stephen A. Douglas, who was of 
small stature, but a great orator. See Kansas 
and Nebraska, and Democratic party. 

Lobby. The individuals who frequent the space 
in a hall of legislation not used by regular mem¬ 
bers. (See Logrolling.) 

Indeed, the lobbyists and logrollers around and 
in congress are accustomed to reckon upon the 
thermometer in the middle of June every other 
summer, much as they reckon on twelve o’clock, 
March 4, in the alternate years.—New York Sun, 
1882. 

Locofoco. A term applied to the ultra democ¬ 
racy or tory party in the United States. Lucifer 
matches were termed locofocos, and the applica¬ 
tion of the word to this particular political 
party arose thus: In 1834, a certain number of 
the extreme democracy met at Tammany hall, 
New York, and there happening a great diversity 
of opinion, the chairman left his seat, and the 
lights were extinguished, with a view to dis¬ 
solve the meeting; but those in favor of ex¬ 


treme measures produced locofoco matches, 
rekindled the lights, continued the meeting, 
and accomplished their object. 

I ask these (free-soilers) what hope they have of 
keeping slavery outof California and New Mexico 
with General Cass president and a locofoco con¬ 
gress ?—Horace Greeley, New York, Sept. 27,1848. 
Logrolling. A custom peculiar to lumber regions. 
In the logging camps of Maine, the several par¬ 
ties help each other at logrolling. In politics, 
the term denotes an exchange of votes between 
parties, in order to carry through extravagant 
measures in which they are interested. 

With all his extravagant notions, General Grant 
smothered a bill of this kind (river and harbor), 
when only one-third of the present amount was 
appropriated; and the respectable press, without 
distinction of party, has been more decided in 
condemnation of this logrolling jobbery, by 
means of which millions are annually squandered 
and stolen, than of any other measure before con¬ 
gress.—New York Sun, May 20,1882. 

Machine. The body of politicians belonging to 
any party, who aim to use the people for selfish 
purposes, instead of serving them in their offices 
as they should. 

He (Gov. Cornell) was singled out for defeat by 
the Arfhur-Conkling machine because he had 
declined to use his official influence in favor of 
Conkling’s re-election to the senate and because 
he had broken away from the machine. . 

The republicans of New York have registered 
their protest against federal and machine inter¬ 
ference with an emphasis that makes it final.— 
Chicago Tribune, Nov. 1882. 

It may be said of this that it is the way bosses 
of election machines always talk. The shrewd 
boss always says “the people” when he means 
the machine, or the cabal of professional politi¬ 
cians who manage the machine.—Chicago Times, 
Nov. 15, 1882. 

Maine Law. A law enacted in 1846 and amended 
in 1851 in the state of Maine, being the first to 
prohibit the sale of intoxicating liquors, and 
becoming celebrated for her legislation on this 
subject through the active efforts of General 
Neal Dow. The Maine law was adopted by other 
states, notably Kansas. Out of 842 cities and 
towns in Illinois, 645 were no-license places in 
18S0. 

Mason and Dixon’s Line. A line 39 degrees, 43 
minutes and 26.S seconds north latitude, estab¬ 
lished in 1764-7, by Charles Mason and Jeremiah 
Dixon, two English mathematicians and astron- 
omers, in oi-der to decide the disputed question 
of boundary between Pennsylvania and Mary¬ 
land. 

Mass Meeting. A general meeting called for 
some special purpose; first talked of during the 
political campaign of 1840, when Harrison was 
elected president. The term now denotes any 
lai-ge meeting without regard to party. 

Message. In the United States, a communication 
by a governor or the president, on state afl'airs, 
to the legislature. 

Mississippi Scheme. In August, 1717, John Law, 
a financier and noted gambler, obtained permis¬ 
sion from France to start the Mississippi com¬ 
pany, a scheme which had for its object the 
paying off the national debt, and the enriching 
of its subscribers. Finally, Law’s establish¬ 
ment was created the Royal baxxk in 1718, and, 
in 1720, he was nominated comptrollei--genei-al 
of finance. By assigning Louisiana to the Bank 
of France, 200,000 shares of £25 each were added 
to the 1,200 shares of £250 each, which latter were 
for its legitimate purposes. Afterward the farm¬ 
ing of tobacco, and the exclusive trade to India 
were conferred, on which 50,000 new shares wei - e 
created, and finally it consisted of 600,000 shares. 
The project became extravagantly popular, and 
every one appeared anxious to convert his gold 
and silver into paper; but the bubble at length 
bui-st, and many thousands of families, once 
wealthy, were reduced to poverty. Law became 
the object of general execration, and was obliged 
to quit France. He wandered about Germany 
during several years, and died in indigence at 
Venice in 1729. See South Sea Bubble. 

Missouri Compromise. So-called from an act of 
congress passed in 1820, and approved by Presi¬ 
dent Monroe, 6th March of that year, by which 


























POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 


79 


Missouri was permitted to enter the union as a 
slave-holding state, with the agreement that 
slavery should be forever prohibited in the terri¬ 
tories of the nation lying north of latitude 36 
degrees 30 minutes. 

Monroe Doctrine. In 1822, during the presidency 
of James Monroe, the Spanish-American colo¬ 
nies having fought their way to independence 
as against Spain, they were recognized as an 
independent power by the United States. In 
his annual message to congress in 1823, the presi¬ 
dent proclaimed the celebrated doctrine of non¬ 
interference, as foliows- - “That as a principle 
the American continents, by the free and inde¬ 
pendent position which they have assumed and 
maintained, are henceforth not to be considered 
as subjects of future colonization by any Euro¬ 
pean power.” This doctrine is attributed to 
Adams, who was secretary of state under 
Monroe. 

Morgan. “ He’s a good enough Morgan,” was said 
by a prominent politician upon being reminded 
that the dead body found in Niagara river would 
not pass for Morgan. The phrase is applied to a 
real or supposed trick or imposition, particu¬ 
larly of a political nature. See Antimasonry. 
Mormons, “Mormon War.” A sect of religious 
fanatics that has arisen within the present gen¬ 
eration, and gained over many converts. Its 
founder was Joseph Smith, an American. Brig¬ 
ham Young succeeded, after the death of Smith, 
to the post of prophet, and retained it until his 
death, at Salt Lake City, 29 August, 1877. In 
February, 1857, an armed body of Mormons dis¬ 
persed the United States district court, in Utah, 
and openly defied the laws of the nation, 
because their territory was not admitted as a 
state. President Buchanan appointed Colonel 
Cumming governor of the territory, and sent 
troops to suppress the rebellion. Young issued 
a manifesto, and determined on I'esistance to 
national authority, but when the governor 
arrived there, in April, 1858, Young concluded to 
surrender, and so the “Mormon war” ended. 
After remaining for a time, the troops, in May, 
1860, left the territory. 

Nation. The country at large. More stress has 
be<=n laid on this term by Americans since the 
war of 1861-5. 

National Greenbackers. The advocates of legal 
tender or government money. 

I demand that that dollar shall be issued by the 
government alone. ... I want that dollar 
stamped upon some convenient and cheap mate¬ 
rial. ... I also desire the dollar to be made of 
such material for the purpose that it shall never 
be exported or desirable to carry out of the coun¬ 
try. . . I desire that the dollar so issued shall 
never be redeemed. . . . For convenience only, 
I propose that the dollar so issued shall be quite 
equal to, or a little better, than the present aver¬ 
age gold dollar of the world, ... so that when 
all the property of the country adjusts itself to it 
as a measure of value it shall remain a fixed stand¬ 
ard forever.—N. Y. Herald report speech of General 
B. F. Butler, 1875. 

Native Americans. The name of a political 
party that had a short existence, from 1814, and 
was founded upon the notions of individuals 
who advocated the rights and privileges of per¬ 
sons bom in the United States, as opposed to 
those of foreigners. It proposed an extension 
of the term of residence required by law pre¬ 
ceding admission to full citizenship from seven 
to twenty.one years. This party gave way 
before the know-nothings and the American 
party that followed in 1853 and 1856 respectively. 
See Know-nothings. 

Naturalization. The act of conferring upon an 
alien the rights and privileges of a native 
inhabitant or citizen. Aliens may become citi¬ 
zens of the United States after residing in the 
nation five years. First naturalization act in 
the colonies was that passed by the assembly of 
Maryland. A law of this kind was passed by 
congress, 24 March, 1790. 

Negro Exodus. A movement from the south to 
the state of Kansas and other northern states, 
commenced in March, 1879, and continued for 


several years; caused no doubt by the hard con¬ 
ditions of living in the south. 

New England Confederation. The union formed 
by the colonies for self-protection as against the 
Indians and French, in 1643. 

Nicknames of States, Cities and People— 
Arkansas—Bear state. 

Atlanta—Gate city. 

Baltimore—Monumental city, from the grand 
monuments. 

Boston—Athens of America. The Hub. 
Brooklyn—City of Churches. 

Buffalo—Queen city of the lakes. 

California—Golden state. 

Canada—Canuck; a Canadian is so-called. Also 
written Cannuck, and K’nuck, a French Can¬ 
adian. 

Chicago—Garden city. 

Cincinnati—Queen city of the west. Pork- 
opolis. 

Cleveland—Forest city. 

Colorado—Centennial state. 

Columbia—Palmetto city; the capital of South 
Carolina is so-called from the arms of the 
state, which contain a palmetto. 

Connecticut—Blue-lav/ state. Nutmeg or Free 
stone. Land of steady habits. 

Delaware—Diamond state. Blue Hen. 

Detroit—City of the straits. 

Florida—Peninsula state. 

Georgia—Empire of the south. Crackers. 

Gulf states—Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Loui¬ 
siana, and Texas. 

Illinois—Prairie or Sucker state. Natives called 
suckers from the habit, in early days, of suck¬ 
ing water from crawfish holes with hollow 
weeds. Southeastern portion called Egypt, 
from fertility of the soil, and alleged mental 
darkness. 

Indiana—Hoosier, a corruption of the term 
husher, applied to rough men from Indiana 
who exhibited a disposition to hush up their 
opponents. Applied by the Kentuckians to 
neighbors in Indiana who respond to a knock 
on the door, “ Who's yere?” 

Indianapolis—Railroad city. 

Iowa—Hawkeye state, from old Hawkeye, an 
Indian chief. 

Jayhawker—A cant name for a lawless or other 
soldier not enlisted. 

Kansas—Jayhawker, or Garden of the west. 
Kentucky—Blue grass, or Dark and bloody 
ground. Corncrackers. 

Keokuk (Iowa)—Gate city, from its position on 
the Mississippi river, a natural center of navi¬ 
gation. 

Louisiana—Pelican state. Creole. 

Louisville—Falls city. 

Lowell (Mass.)—City of spindles. 

Maine—Pine Tree state. 

Massachusetts—Original name, Massachusetts 
Bay. Hence, Bay state. 

Michigan—Wolverine. 

Minnesota—Gopher, or North Star state. 
Mississippi—Bayou state. 

Missouri—Bullion state, from Senator Ben¬ 
ton, who was partial to coin money. He was 
called Old Bullion. Natives are nicknamed 
Pukes. 

Montreal—City of the Mountain and the Rapids. 
Nashville—City of Rocks. 

Nevada—Silver. 

New Brunswick—Blue Noses. 

New Hampshire—Granite state. 

New Haven (Conn.)—City of Elms. 

New Jersey—Jersey Blues. 

New Orleans—Crescent city, because of its shape. 
New York—Gotham, so-called from the alleged 
odd erudition displayed by its inhabitants. A 
descendant of one of the old Dutch families 
was called a Knickerbocker. (New York was 
first settled by the Low Dutch, in 1614.) 

New York (state)—Empire, or Excelsior. Knick- 
erbocker. 

North Carolina—Old North state. Turpentine. 
Tar Heels. 


Nutmeg State—Connecticut, on account of the 
story that wooden nutmegs are manufactured 
there for exportation. 

Ohio—Buckeye state, from the buckeye tree 
which grows there. 

Oregon—Web-foot state. 

Pennsylvania—Keystone state, from its central 
position as regards the other original states. 
Philadelphia—Quaker city. City of Brotherly 
Love. 

Pittsburgh—Iron city. 

Portland (Maine)—Forest city. 

Quebec—Gibraltar of America. 

Rhode Island—Little Rliody. 

San Francisco—City of the Golden Gate. 
Springfield (HI.)—Flower city. 

South Carolina—Palmetto state. 

St. Louis—Mound city, from the mounds found 
there before the city was built. 

Tennessee—Mudheads, the natives of that state 
are so-called. Big Bend state. 

Texas—Lone Star, from the single star in the 
center of the flag of that state. Beetlieads. 
Toronto—City of Colleges. 

Up-country—In New Hampshire, used on the 
coast. 

U tab—Mormon. 

Vermont—Green Mountain state. 

Virginia—Old Dominion. When a colony, the 
king called it “ The Colony and Dominion of 
Virginia.” Mother of States. 

Washington—City of Magnificent Distances. 
West Virginia—Panhandle state. 

Wisconsin—Badger state. 

North. In a political sense, the northern states, 
or those states lying north of Mason and Dixon’s 
and the Missouri compromise line. 

North Americans. Those of the American or 
know-nothing party in the north who were 
opposed to slavery. 

Northwest Territory. The colonies of Virginia, 
New York, Massachusetts, and South Carolina, 
at an early day, acquired claims to lands extend¬ 
ing from the Atlantic to the Pacific. In 1783, 
congress urged upon these colonies the necessity 
of yielding their special claims in favor of the 
United colonies. Virginia accordingly ceded 
her claims to the northwestern territory in 
March, 1784. The claims of New York were like¬ 
wise ceded to the United colonies, and the 
western bounds of that colony were described 
by “a line from the northeast comer of the 
colony of Pennsylvania, along the north bounds 
thereof, to its northwest corner, continued due 
west until it shall be intersected by a meridian 
line, to be drawn from the forty-fifth degree of 
north latitude, through a point twenty miles 
due west from the most westerly bent, or incli¬ 
nation of the river, or strait of Niagara; thence, 
by the said meridian line, to the forty-fifth 
degree of north latitude, thence by the said 
forty-fifth degree of north latitude.” Massa¬ 
chusetts ceded her claim, in April, 1785, to all 
lands west of the line above indicated. Con¬ 
necticut, in September, 1784, ceded all lands 
within the limits of her grant lying 120 miles 
west of the western boundary of Pennsylvania. 
South Carolina, in August, 1787, surrendered all 
her right to lands west of the chain of moun¬ 
tains, which separates the eastern from the 
western watex-s. So the United colonies ab¬ 
sorbed all the lands northwest of the Ohio, and 
a government for the northwest ten-itory 
became imperative. This latter was effected by 
the celebrated Ordinance of 1787, which see. See 
Connecticut Resexve. 

Nullification. Diverse interests which involved 
the northern and southern sections of the 
United States in frequent and exciting disputa, 
tions and contentions, were clearly indicated in 
the single instance of the “ nullification move¬ 
ment.” During the first term of President 
Andrew Jackson, the tariff question assumed 
quite fonnidable proportions. The south had 
no manufactures to foster, and possessed a sta¬ 
ple article which it desired to sell, therefore it 





































80 


POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


was opposed to a protective tariff. On the '21st 
to 25th January, 1830, Robert Y. Hayne, coajutor 
of John C. Calhoun, and senator from South 
Carolina, delivered his great speech in favor of 
nullification, and the celebrated reply of Daniel 
Webster was made on the 26th. President Jack- 
son, at a banquet, 13th April, offered the famous 
toast: “Our federal union: it must be pre¬ 
served.” In 1832, having reached the point of 
extreme opposition to the tariff, or the increased 
rate of duties, which congress had laid, the state 
of South Carolina, in convention, November 19, 
resolved that the tariff acts were unconstitu¬ 
tional and void. That state at once prepared to 
resist the national authority by force of arms. 
President Jackson, having been re elected, in 

1832, was in office, and determined to execute 
the laws, which he did by proclamation, issued 
December 10, and an order for General Scott to 
proceed to Charleston with all the national 
troops under his command. He also sent a ves¬ 
sel of war to that port, and had the leaders of the 
movement informed of his intention to seize 
and hang them as soon as they should fire the 
first gun against the national authority. The 
danger of disunion was, for the time, averted. 
Heni'y Clay proposed a compromise measure in 
the form of a tariff bill, which provided for a 
gradual reduction of duties during the following 
decade. The measure became a law, March 2, 

1833. See State Rights. 

Office-holder. One who holds an office under 
government. Often used as a term of reproach. 
“Office-seeker,” one who strives to get a public 
position or office. 

Old Abe. Abraham Lincoln was so-called. Dur¬ 
ing the war of 1861-5 colored people of the south 
called him Massa Linkum. 

Old Fogy. One who is not up to the spirit of 
the age. 

Old Hickory. General Jackson, president of the 
United States. So-called from his tough nature, 
and his intelligent firmness. Parson Brownlow 
was called the hickory unionist. 

One-horse. A term applied to any small concern; 
as a one-horse bank, one-horse town, etc. 

The twin curses of Kansas, now that the bolder 
ruffians have stopped ravaging her, are land spec¬ 
ulation and one-horse politicians.—Horace Gree¬ 
ley, 1859. 

On to Richmond. A phrase believed to have 
originated with Mr. Fitz Henry Warren, asso¬ 
ciate editor of the New York Tribune, who 
wrote it, “ Forward to Richmond! ” The expres¬ 
sion was popularized as above. 

I wish to be distinctly understood as not seek¬ 
ing to be relieved from any responsibility for 
urging the advance of the union grand army into 
Virginia, though the precise phrase, “ Forward to 
Richmond!” is not mine, and I would have pre¬ 
ferred not to iterate it.—Horace Greeley, July 
24, 1864. 

Ordinance of 1787. The celebrated ordinance 
and articles of comjgict, as framed by the con¬ 
gress of the American confederacy By the 
adoption of this measure, 13 July, 1787, a basis 
was established for the government of the vast 
northwest territory. The articles of the com¬ 
pact provided for religious freedom, the benefits 
of the writ of habeas corpus, trial by jury, etc.; 
for the encouragement of schools; for just treat¬ 
ment of the Indians; and by the sixth and last 
article forbade any “ slavery' or involuntary 
servitude except for crime,” within the bounds 
of the territory. Arthur St. Clair was elected 
by congress, 5th October, 1787, as the first gover¬ 
nor of the northwest territory. See Northwest 
Territory. 

Origin of the Names of States— 

Alabama comes from a Greek word, signifying 
“ The land of rest.” 

Arkansas is derived from the Indian word Kan¬ 
sas, “Smoky Waters,” with the French prefix 
of ark, “ a bow.” * 

California, from a Spanish romance, in which is 
described “the great island of California 
where an abundance of gold and precious 
stones are found.” 


Colorado, ruddy or blood-red, from the color of 
the water of Colorado river. 

Connecticut’s was Monegan, spelled originally 7 , 
Qoun-eli-ta-cut, signifying “a long river.” 
Delaware derives its name from Thomas West, 
Lord De la Ware, governor of Virginia. 

Florida gets its name from Kasquas de Flores, or 
“ Feast of the Flowers.” 

Illinois’ name is derived from the Indian word 
“ Illini,” men, and the French affix “ois,” 
making “ Tribe of men.” 

Indiana’s name came from that of the Indians. 
Iowa signifies, in the Indian language, “ The 
drowsy ones.” 

Kansas is an Indian w 7 ord for smoky water. 
Kentucky, also, is an Indian name, “Kain- 
tuk-ae,” signifying, at the head of the river. 
Louisiana w r as so named in honor of Louis XIV. 
Maine takes its name from the province of Main, 
in France, and was so-called in compliment to 
the queen of Charles I., Henrietta, its owner. 
Maryland receives its name from the queen of 
Charles I., Henrietta Maria. 

Massachusetts, from the Indian language, signi¬ 
fying the country about the great hills. 
Michigan’s name was derived from the lake, the 
Indian name for fish-weir, or trap, which the 
shape of the lake suggested. 

Minnesota, an Indian word for “ Cloudy water.” 
Mississippi derived its name from that of the 
great river, which is, in the Natchez tongue, 
“ The Father of Waters.” 

Missouri is an Indian name for muddy, having 
reference to the muddiness of the Missouri 
river. 

New Hampshire—first called Laconia —from 
Hampshire, England. 

New Jersey was named by one of its original 
proprietors, Sir George Carter, after the island 
of Jersey in the British channel, of which he 
was governor. 

New York was so named as a compliment to the 
Duke of York, whose brother, Charles II, 
granted him that territory. 

The Carolinas were named in honor of Charles 
I, and Georgia in honor of Charles II. 

Ohio is the Shawnee name for “ The beautiful 
river.” 

Oregon, from its river, in Indian meaning 
“River of the West.” 

Pennsylvania, as is generally known, takes its 
name from William Penn, and the word “ sil¬ 
van ia,” meaning woods. 

Rhode Island gets its name from the fancied 
resemblance of the island to that of Rhodes in 
the ancient Levant. 

Tennessee is an Indian name, meaning “ The 
river with the big bend.” 

Vermont, from the Green mountains. (French, 
vcrd monl.) 

Virginia gets its name from Queen Elizabeth, 
the unmarried, or Virgin Queen. 

West Virginia is simply a geographical designa¬ 
tion. From its shape, the northern part is 
called “ Panhandle state.” 

Wisconsin’s name is said to be the Indian name 
for a wild rushing channel. 

Peculiar Institution- Said of negro slavery, 
which was peculiar to the south. 

Pickings anti Stealings. Perquisites of office, 
which are not always honestly 7 obtained. 

Platform. A declaration of principles to which 
members of a political party declare their adhe¬ 
sion. 

Political Capital. The means of political ad¬ 
vancement. 

Popular Sovereignty. The right of the whole 
people to participate in forming the constitu¬ 
tion, and enacting the laws under which they 
are to live and by which they are to be gov¬ 
erned. “Squatter sovereignty,” the right of 
squatters in a territory of the United States to 
form and regulate their own domestic relations 
in their own way; the squatter sovereigns of Cal¬ 
ifornia voted against slavery, and entered the 
union as a free state. See Kansas and Nebraska. 


Pre-emption Right. The right given to settlers 
of public lands, to purchase them in preference 
toothers. In order to maintain this right, the 
pre-emptor must have erected a house or entered 
upon the work of improving the land, of which 
he has taken possession. 

President. In the United States, the chief execu¬ 
tive of the nation. 

Prohibitionist. One in favor of prohibiting by 
law the sale of alcoholic beverages. 
Pro-slavery. In favor of slavery. 

Rag Baby. The idea of making greenbacks the 
legal, if not the only, money of the nation. 
Opposed to national-bank money. The green, 
backers regard the precious metals as cumbrous 
and expensive articles for currency. See Na¬ 
tional Greenbackers. 

Rag Money. Paper money. This term was 
applied to the greenback currency by 7 the hard- 
money press. 

Rebellion, War of. See Slavery War. 

Red Dog. An epithet applied to certain bank, 
notes, upon the back of which the form of a 
stamp was printed in red ink. 

West of Lake Michigan we never had a paper 
dollar that was worth exactly 7 as much as a gold 
dollar. . . . Red dog and stump-tail were the 

descriptive terms applied by us to our currency 
before the war.—D. H. Wheeler, March 5, 1868. 
Republican Party. The anti-slavery 7 party that 
rose into vigorous life during the political 
upheaval of 1856. The name has been used sev¬ 
eral times in the history of American politics. 
(See Democratic Party 7 .) The democrats were 
the political friends of the south, or of slavery. 
The republicans were their political opponents. 
Previous to its organization in 1856, the ele¬ 
ments of the republican party opposed the 
extension of slavery, and generally, were in 
favor of abolition. The first national conven¬ 
tion met at Philadelphia, June 17, of the year 
named, and nominated Colonel John C. Fre¬ 
mont, of California, for president. William L. 
Dayton, of New Jersey 7 , was chosen for vice- 
president. The nominations were made unani¬ 
mous. The democrats had previously desig¬ 
nated their candidates, James Buchanan, of 
Pennsylvania, for president, and John C. Breck¬ 
inridge, of Kentucky, for vice-president. The 
campaign following these and other nomina¬ 
tions, was one of great excitement, which the 
war in Kansas tended to inflame. At the elec- 
tion the republicans polled a very large popular 
vote, and firmly established themselves as the 
most formidable party 7 in opposition to the 
national democracy. The democratic adminis¬ 
tration that followed was marked by the Dred 
Scott decision—odious to the republicans—the 
approval of the Lecompton constitution by 
President Buchanan, which was as odious, and 
the execution of John Brown, which aroused 
the feelings of the abolitionists. Mr. Lincoln, 
atSpringfield, 17 June, 1858, announced that the 
government could not permanently endure half 
slave and half free; and later, October 25, in a 
speech at Rochester, Mr. Seward declared, as 
between slavery and freedom, there existed an 
irrepressible conflict. These phrases were often 
repeated by the republicans, and the southern 
democrats took notice of them as declarations 
utterly hostile to the institution of slavery. In 
the early part of the year, Senator Douglas, of 
Illinois, the great northern ally of the southern 
democracy, took issue with the administration 
on account of the attempt of the ultra demo¬ 
crats to force a pro-slavery constitution upon 
the people of Kansas. Mr. Buchanan had 
indorsed the Lecompton scheme, as indicated, 
and the opposition of Mr. Douglas had the effect 
to weaken the democratic party in the north. 
In the elections immediately following this 
remarkable contest, when most members of the 
thirty-sixth congress were chosen, the republi¬ 
cans showed increased strength, and the demo¬ 
cratic majority of the house was again over¬ 
thrown. During the year 1859, the breach 
widened between the north and south, and in 




























POLITICAL HISTORY OF TIIE UNITED STATES 


81 


I860, the republican party, all solidified and 
strong, entered the presidential campaign with 
renewed vigor. The republican national con- 
vention met in Chicago, May 16, and on the 18th 
the nomination of Abraham Lincoln, of Illinois, 
for president, and Hannibal Hamlin, of Maine, 
for vice-president, was made unanimous. Op¬ 
posed to Lincoln and Hamlin, were Douglas and 
Johnson (Douglas democracy), Breckinridge 
and Lane (Breckinridge democracy), and Bell 
and Everett (Constitutional union). In the elec¬ 
tion following all these nominations, the free 
states were carried by the republicans and Mr. 
Lincoln received a larger popular vote than 
that cast for James Buchanan, four years before. 
When the result was determined, several fed¬ 
eral officers in South Carolina resigned their 
positions, and the people of that state prepared 
to secede from the union. President Buchanan, 
by his message, December 4, virtually recog¬ 
nized the right of secession, and one after 
another various southern states seceded from 
the union, beginning with South Carolina, 
December 20, I860, and ending with the secession 
of Tennessee, which was effected June 8, 1861. 
Mr. Lincoln was inaugurated as president 4th 
March, 1861, when the war for the union was 
commenced and pushed to a successful termina¬ 
tion. From the year 1861 to the time of this 
writing (1888) the national republican party has 
been in constant possession of the presidential 
office. See Democratic party, and Wide-awakes. 
Repudiationlst. One who favors or advocates 
repudiation of debts. 

The south was never at any time more fully 
represented at Washington by a fanatical and 
lunatic pro-slavery set than is the west at present 
by a fanatical and lunatic set of silver-money 
repudiationists.—New York Herald, about Decem¬ 
ber. 1877. 

Returning Board. A number of men whose 
duty is that of canvassing the votes cast at an 
election, and making known the result. Cer tain 
southern states. 

Richmond. Capital of Virginia, and during the 
slavery war of 1861-5 was the seat of government 
in the Southern confederacy. The capture of 
Petersburg and Richmond by the national 
troops under Grant, was effected 2d and 3d 
April, 1865. For surrender of Lee and Johnston, 
etc., see under the head of Slavery War. 

Ring. A set of operator's for self-interest or self- 
aggrandizenrent, whose acts are detrimental to 
the public. This sort of ring was aptly illus¬ 
trated in a book by the use of a cut showing the 
ring men of New York standing in a circular 
line, boss Tweed being prominent, each one 
pointing at the one next to him. The picture 
was labelled, “T’washim.” 

Rooster, Democratic. Bird B. Chapman, a poli¬ 
tician of repute in Indiana, about 1844, published 
a democratic paper, and on the occasion of a 
victory at some local election, was felicitated 
by an active democrat, who wrote, “ Crow, 
Chapman, crow.” These words were used as a 
headline in his next day’s edition, and so the 
democratic rooster was first introduced as the 
harbinger of victory. 

Salt River. An imaginary river, up which de¬ 
feated political candidates are supposed to be 
sent. The phrase “ to row up salt river ” had its 
origin from Salt river, or Salt creek, a small, 
winding stream in the state of Kentucky. 
Owing to the many bars and shallows by which 
it is characterized, it is difficult to row up the 
stream. The defeated individual is rowed up 
Salt river. 

Scratch. To scratch the name of a candidate, so 
that it will not appear on the ticket. A 
scratched ticket is one with the name of a can¬ 
didate erased. A “ badly scratched ticket ” is 
one with the names of several candidates 
erased. See Ticket. 

Secessionists. Those of the party in the south 
in favor of withdrawing from the federal union. 
The term secesli was commonly applied to seces¬ 
sionists. “ Secessia,” the confederate states. 


Sectionalism. A feeling of special interest in one 
section rather than in the whole country. 

Senate. The higher branch of the congress of 
the United States. It is composed of two sena¬ 
tors from each state of the federation, chosen 
for a term of six j-ears. The presiding officer 
is the vice-president of the United States. 
“House,” the lower branch of the congress of 
the United States; it is composed of members 
chosen every second year by the people of the 
several states. 

Shinplaster. A bank note or any paper money 
that is of low denomination or depreciated in 
value. 

Silver Dollar. See Trade Dollar. 

Silver Grays. A term applied to conservative 
whigs in the state of New York, who disagreed 
with other members at a convention, and 
consequently withdrew. The dissenters were 
observed to be gentlemen of maturer years, and 
many were gray-haired. Whereupon some one 
remarked, as they left the meeting, “ There go 
the silver grays.” The younger element, or 
radical members of the whig party, were called 
wooly-heads, as distinct from silver grays. 

Slate. A term applied to an imaginary slate, 
upon which is written the names of candidates 
for office. Those who expect to become candi¬ 
dates strive to get their names on the slate, 
which is about equivalent to getting the norni- 
nation. 

Slave Code. A digest of laws relating to slaves 
and the slave system. 

Slavery War, or Rebellion. The war on account 
of slavery in the United States, was begun by 
the confederates, under Beauregard, who opened 
with thirty heavy guns and mortars upon Fort 
Sumter, in the harbor of Charleston, S. C., 12 
April, 1861. During four years, the losses were, 
killed in battle, 61,362; died of wounds, 34,727; 
died of disease, 183,287; total died, 279,376; total 
deserted, 199,105. Confederate soldiers who died 
of wounds or disease, 133,821; deserted, 104,428— 
partial figures. Total confederate and union 
dead, 413,197. Estimated cost of the war, $3,000,- 
000,000. Expenditures arising from the war 
were, on June 10,1880, as reported by Secretary 
Sherman, $6,189,929,908.58. Confederate forces 
under General Lee surrendered to General 
Grant, April 9, 1865. President Lincoln was 
assassinated at Washington, April 14. General 
Johnston’s confederate army surrendered to 
General Sherman on the 26tli, and early in May, 
1865, the war ended. 

Slave Trade and Slavery. (Suppression and 
abolition in the British empire)—The occupa¬ 
tion of procuring and selling persons who are 
at the disposal of others. The Portuguese 
began to transport negroes from their posses¬ 
sions in Africa to Spanish America in 1501. 
In 1517 the emperor, Charles Y, legalized the 
slave trade, and it was permitted by the French 
under Louis XIII, and the English under Queen 
Elizabeth. The first Englishman to engage in 
the traffic was Sir John Hawkins, and between 
the years 1680 and 1700, the English traders 
exported 300,000 slaves from Africa, and from the 
year last named up to 1786, sent 610,000 to 
Jamaica, the principal of the British West 
India islands. The most important markets for 
slaves in Africa were Bonny and Calabar, on the 
coast of Guinea. Here the slaves who came 
from the interior were exchanged for rum, 
brandy, toys, iron, salt, etc., and the number of 
those beings who have been thus torn from 
their country during three centuries is calcu¬ 
lated to amount to upward of forty millions. 
Almost from the very time that this traffic was 
established, there were persons who more or 
less powerfully declared against it; but the 
honor of having systematically and successfully 
taken up the cause of the slaves belongs to the 
Quakers, and the movement began more par¬ 
ticularly about 1727. In 1751 the Quakers en¬ 
tirely abolished it among themselves, and in 
1772 Granville Sharp obtained a decision of the 


English judges, in the famous case of the negro 
Somerset, that a slave, as soon as he set his foot 
upon English ground should become free. In 
1783 a petition for the abolition of the slave 
trade was addressed to parliament by the Qua¬ 
kers, and in 1787 a society for its suppression 
was established in London. In 178B an order 
was obtained for a committee of the privy 
council to inquire into it. May 12, 1789, Wilber- 
force made his first speech in the house on the 
subject, supported by Burke, Fox, Granville, 
and Pitt. Various subsequent attempts were 
made without success, and the object was not 
effected until March 25,1807, when a bill that had 
passed both houses received the royal assent. 
By the terms of an act passed, 28 August, 1833, 
slavery was to cease throughout the British 
empire on the first of August, 1834, and at that 
time nearly 800,000 negroes became nominally 
free. They were to be wholly free after a few 
years’ apprenticeship under their former own¬ 
ers. See Abolitionists, etc. 

Socialists. Those who accept the principles of 
socialism as taught by Robert Owen, who pro¬ 
posed to reorganize society by banishing old 
motives of action, including religion in any of 
its special forms, and to establish the social edi¬ 
fice on the basis of co-operation and mutual 
usefulness. As summed up by Horace Greeley, 
the three projects for social reform are— 

Owen .—Place human beings in proper relations, 
under favoring circumstances (among which I 
include education and intelligence), ana they will 
do right rather than wrong. Hitherto, the heri¬ 
tage of the great majoi'ity has been filth, squalor, 
famine, ignorance, superstition; and these have 
impelled many to indolence and vice, if not to 
crime. Make their external conditions what they 
should be, and these will give place to industry, 
sobriety, and virtue. 

St. Simon.—" Love is the fulfilling of the law.” 
Secure to every one opportunity; let each do 
whatever he can do best; and the highest good of 
the whole will be achieved and perpetuated. 

Fourier.— Society, as we find it, is organized 
rapacity. Half of its force is spent in repressing 
or resisting the jealousies and rogueries of its 
members. We need to organize universal justice 
based on science. The true Eden lies before, not 
behind us. We may so provide that labor, now 
repulsive, shall be attractive; while its efficiency 
in production shall be increased by the improve¬ 
ment in machinery and the extended use of 
natural forces, so as to secure abundance, educa¬ 
tion, and elegant luxury to all. What is needed 
is to provide all with homes, employment, instruc¬ 
tion, good living, the most eflective implements, 
machinery, etc., securing to each the fair and full 
recompense of his achievement; and this can 
best be attained through the association of some 
four to five hundred families in a common house¬ 
hold, and in the ownership and cultivation of a 
common domain, say of 2,000 acres, or about one 
acre to each person living thereon. 

Soft Money. A term applied to paper money, 
especially the greenbacks. For Hard Money, 
see Hard Pan. 

Soft-shell Democrats. That portion of the 
democratic party in New York, which favored 
union and harmony, and opposed the election 
of General Lewis Cass, in 1848. The “softs” 
supported Van Buren for president, as also did 
the Barnburners, which see. The hard-shell 
democrats supported Cass, favored the execu¬ 
tion of the fugitive slave act, and were for 
dividing the offices among the pro-slavery hun¬ 
kers. See Hunkers. 

Solid. A term applied to a political party, whose 
members vote as a unit for its regular nominees 
and principles; also, the various localities or 
sections where votes are cast. 

Four years ago the south was solid for free 
trade. .’ . . There are more democratic protec¬ 
tionists in the south than in any other section of 
the country, except Pennsylvania, and on this 
issue the party will split.—Chicago Inter Ocean, 
June 3, 1882. 

Sons of Liberty. The name assumed by those 
colonists who, in 1765, united in opposition to 
the odious stamp act, and other unlawful meas¬ 
ures of Great Britain. 

Sorehead. A politician who is dissatisfied with 
certain acts of his party, and disposed to com- 
plain. 

He was what the virtuous politicians of the 
present day would call a sorehead; a sorehead 


































82 


POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 


being a person with some ideas of his own, and a 
man not signed, sealed, and delivered up in fee 
simple to party.—Ingersoll’s Life of Greeley. 
South. A term applied to the states lying south 
of Mason and Dixon’s line, in which slavery 
existed. See North. 

South Sea Bubble. Law’s Mississippi scheme 
begat, in England, a company for trading to the 
south seas, and a similar mania seized on the 
English nation. There were 20,000 shares of £100 
each, and they rose, in a few weeks, to fifty and 
100 times their value, but the secretary abscond¬ 
ing with a large proportion of the capital, and it 
being discovered that fraudulent shares were 
issued, they fell in price as rapidly as they rose, 
and thousands were left in destitution. The 
temporary success of the South sea bubble gave 
rise to so many schemes and companies that the 
year 1722 is generally called the bubble year. 
See Mississippi Scheme. 

Sovereign. A citizen of the United States. 

Split. To divide or split in two. 

An effort was made to force a pro-slavery con¬ 
stitution upon the territory (Kansas), and it split 
the democratic party into two wings.—History of 
the United States. 

Split Ticket. See Ticket. 

Spoils. The pay, honors, and emoluments of offi¬ 
cial position. 

To the victors belong the spoils of the enemv.— 
William L. Marey , 1837. 

While denouncing the “infamous spoils sys¬ 
tem,” this postmaster (Major Merrick, Penn.) 
holds tight to one bundle of spoils until he gets 
ready to reach out for another and larger bundle 
of spoils.—New York Sun, June 5, 1882. 

Spread Eagle. The figure of an eagle, usually 
with shield showing stripes and stars, arrows, 
olive branch, and sometimes horn of plenty; 
the national emblem of the United States, an 
eagle with extended wings. 

Squatter Sovereignty. See Popular Sovereignty. 
Stalwarts. A term used to distinguish those of 
the republican party who were unfriendly to 
the administration of Garfield; followers of 
Conkling. Opposed to Half breeds, which see. 
The two factions in New York, that may be 
called for convenience the Garfield and the Conk¬ 
ling republicans, hate each other with an inten¬ 
sity that characterizes ail quarrels of the kind, 
and they declared war to the knife, and the knife 
to the hilt.—Chicago Journal, Nov. 9, 1882. 

Stamp Act. An act by which a direct tax was 
imposed upon the colonies by Great Britain in 
1765. It was proposed that the expenses incurred 
in defending American possessions during the 
French and Indian war (1755-1763) should be off¬ 
set by taxation; hence the stamp act. The vig¬ 
orous opposition of the colonists caused the 
stamp act to be repealed the next year. Another 
attempt to tax the colonists was made in 1767, 
but it came to naught before the wrath of the 
people, who were determined to uphold the 
principle of “ no taxation without representa¬ 
tion.” 

Stars and Stripes. The national ensign of the 
United States. It was adopted by act of con¬ 
gress, 14 June, 1777, in the following words; 
Resolved, That the flag of the thirteen United 
colonies be thirteen stripes alternately red and 
white; that the union be thirteen stars, white in 
a blue field, representing a new constellation. 
Star-spangled Banner. The national flag was 
first so-called by Francis S. Key, in his beautiful 
song of that name: 

Oh! say, can you see, by the dawn’s early light, 
What so proudly we hail’d at the twilight’s last 
gleaming. 

Whose broad stripes and bright stars, through the 
perilous fight, 

O’er the ramparts we watch’d were so gallantly 
streaming? 

And the rocket’s red glare, the bombs bursting 
in air, 

Gave proof through the night that our flag was 
still there; 

Oh! say, does that star-spangled banner yet wave 
O’er the land of the free and the home Qf the 
brave? 

States. See Nicknames of States, Cities, and Peo¬ 
ple. See, also, Origin of the Names of States. 
State Rights. The rights of ,the several states as 
opposed to the federal government; the judg¬ 
ment of a state as opposed to the two houses of 


congress, the president, and the supreme court 
of the United States. The origin of the famous 
resolutions of 1798, introduced in congress by 
James Madison, is attributed to Thomas Jeffer¬ 
son. The south was the home of the state 
rights party when John Adams became presi¬ 
dent in 1797. Kentucky adopted (1798) the state 
rights manifesto which Jefferson was privately 
solicited to draft, and by which that state pro¬ 
claimed her opposition to federal rule. Resolu- 
tions in favor of nullification were afterward 
drafted by Madison and introduced in the 
legislature of Virginia. John C. Calhoun was 
regarded as prime author of state rights. See 
Nullification. 

Straight. Unmixed; as a straight ticket, a 
straight republican. “Straight-out,” genuine; 
true; as, a straight-out democrat, or, straight- 
out greenbacker. See Ticket. 

Stump. The upright part of a tree remaining in 
the ground after the tree is cut down. In 
former times, this was used as a stand for 
speakers. To take the stump and go on an 
electioneering tour, is the occupation of some 
candidates during a political campaign. 
Stump-tail. See Red Dog. 

Surprise Candidate. A political candidate sud¬ 
denly put up by wire-pullers. 

Swamp Angel. A 200-pounder Parrott gun that 
was planted in a marsh between Morris and 
James’ islands, within five miles of Charleston, 
S. C., under command of General Gilmore, 
August, 1863. Shells were thrown into the city. 
As a result of the operations, Fort Wagner was 
evacuated by the confederates and occupied by 
the national troops 7tli Sept., 1863. Charleston 
was finally evacuated, and occupied by General 
Sherman’s troops, 18 February, 1865. 

Swinging Around the Circle. An expression 
used by President Johnson, who laid the comer 
stone of the Douglas monument, at Chicago, 
6th Sept., 1866. He took advantage of his tour 
to make many speeches through the country, 
and the above expression was used in an epi- 
thetical sense by those who disapproved of his 
course. 

Tammany Society. An organization started in 
New York, 12 May, 1789, for charitable purposes, 
by William Mooney, an Irishman, who was 
prime mover. The name is derived from an 
Indian chief of great age and virtue, who was 
patron saint. This society Avas modeled after 
the Jacobin club of Paris. In later years it was 
absorbed by the democratic party, or became 
one wing of that party, and from the association 
of such men as William M. Tweed, the late New 
York boss, received a bad name; but since the 
breaking up of the Tammany ring, 28 October, 
1871, the Tammany democracy seem to have 
flourished. 

Territory. A great district of country, oivned 
by the United States. It is distinguished from 
a state in that it is organized with a separate 
legislature, placed under a territorial goA r ernor 
and other officers appointed by the president 
and senate of the United States. 

Ticket. The form of names printed on a slip of 
paper, and used as a ballot at an election. 
“ Regular,” or “ Straight,” ticket, a list of can¬ 
didates as named by an assemblage of delegates 
from a body of constituents. “Clean ticket,” 
same as regular or straight ticket. “Split 
ticket,” one that is formed to meet the require¬ 
ments of the different divisions of a political 
party; as, the two wings. (See Scratch.) “Mixed 
ticket,” one in Avhicli is combined the elements 
of different parties. 

Have they forgotten the Greeley disaster? A 
mixed ticket this year would repel democrats on 
the one side and republicans on the other, and 
neither side could poll its full vote for it.—New 
York Sun, May 20, 1882. 

Tippecanoe and Tyler Too. See Hard Cider and 
Log Cabin Campaign. 

Tory. A term which for two centuries, has served 
to designate one of two principal political par¬ 
ties in England, and was used during the war of 


the revolution by the wliigs or patriots as 
against those who supported the crown. The 
first definition given by Dr. Johnson is: “A 
cant term, derix r ed, I suppose, from an Irish 
Avord, signifying savage.” Respecting the prin¬ 
ciples of a tory, the lexicographer adds: “One 
avIio adheres to the ancient constitution of the 
state, and the apostolical hierarchy of the 
church of England.” 

Trade Dollar. A silver dollar of 420 grains Troy, 
that Avas coined by act of congress, 12 January, 
1873, in consequence of a demand on the Pacific 
coast for a coin to be used in commercial trans¬ 
actions Avith several of the Asiatic nations, 
specially Japan and China. This coin came to 
be quite extensively circulated in the various 
states of the union. Previous to the coinage of 
the trade dollar the old silA’er dollar of 37IX 
grains Avas the only silver dollar known, but its 
coinage was discontinued by the act of 1873. By 
subsequent legislation, the trade dollar coins 
were retired; the coinage is limited, and the 
dollar is no longer legal tender as bet ween 
inhabitants of the United States. 

Treason. A betraying, treachery, or breach ot 
faith. In the United States, the actual le\'ying 
of Avar against the union, and giving aid and 
comfort to its enemies. Jefferson Davis, on 
trial for treason, in 1867, at Richmond, Avas dis¬ 
charged on account of a nolle prosequi, i. e., the 
government being unwilling to proceed further 
in the prosecution of its suit. See Confederate 
States. 

Uncle Sam. The popular title for the United 
States. In the year 1812, a large quantity of 
provisions for the army Avas purchased at Troy, 
New York, by Elbert Anderson, a government 
contractor. The goods Avere inspected by two 
brothers, Ebenezer and Samuel Wilson. The 
last-named was invariably known among the 
workmen as Uncle Sam. The packages were 
marked E. A.—U. S. On being asked the mean¬ 
ing of these initials, a workman jokingly replied 
that he did not know unless they meant Elbert 
Anderson and Uncle Sam. So the title became 
current among workmen, soldiers and people, 
and the United States government is knoAvn 
now by those who affectionately call it Uncle 
Sam. See also Brother Jonathan. 

Underground Railroad. See Abolition of Slavery. 

Union. The political connection between the 
states of North America. The United States. 

Unionists. See Constitutional Union Party. 

Upper House. A senate. The term is used in 
some states, Avhere the legislative branches of 
government are called upper and lower; as, 
upper house, loAver house. Said also of the two 
houses of congress. 

Vigilance Committee. An organized body of 
citizens who, being satisfied of the apathy and 
lack of backbone on the part of local authori¬ 
ties, proceed to regulate matters in the com- 
munity; especially to punish criminals. 

Walk Over. Politically, an easy victory. Op¬ 
posed to forlorn hope. 

West. The states of the union lying Avest of 
Pennsylvania, Virginia, and North Carolina. 

The unreasonable domination of the west is no 

more to be submitted to than was the unreason¬ 
able domination of the south.—New York Herald, 

Nov. 15, 1877. 

Western Reserve. See Connecticut Reserve. 

Whig Party. A political party which may be 
said to have had its inception, together with the 
democratic party, in 1828, when public sentiment 
became divided upon the tariff question. The 
first whig national conA T ention met at Pitts¬ 
burgh, in December, 1839, when Harrison and 
Tyler became candidates for president and vice- 
president. (See Hard Cider and Log Cabin 
Campaign.) This later Avliig party, as dis¬ 
tinct from the, American Avhigs (which see), 
formed the conservative party of the country, 
and Henry Clay, Avho was its nominee for presi¬ 
dent in 1844, had been, as Mr. Greeley said, a 
champion of internal improvements, protection 
of home industry, a sound and uniform national 































POLITICAL, HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


83 


currency. The abolitionists, who had again 
nominated Mr. Bimey for president, gave a 
largely increased vote for their candidate, and 
this resulted in the defeat of Henry Clay. In 
1848 the whigs nominated and elected General 
Zachary Taylor for president and Millard Fill¬ 
more for vice-president. Had the free demo- 
crats and barnburners voted for Lewis Cass, the 
straight democrat, he would have been elected. 
In 1852, General Winfield Scott was the unsuc¬ 
cessful candidate as opposed to Franklin Pierce, 
who was elected. In the campaign of 1856, the 
remnant of the whig party and the American 
party united and cast 874,534 votes for Fillmore 
and Donelson, as against the republicans with 
Fremont and the democrats, who succeeded 
with James Buchanan. Then the whig party 
passed away. 

White League. An organization of armed men 
in New Orleans, in 1874, whose ostensible object 
was that of putting down the negroes who were 
reported as on the point of an uprising. The 
league sent for arms, which arrived on a steamer, 
but the city authorities, having fears for the 
well-being of the state government, refused to 
allow the league to take possession of them. 
This provoked the league to riotous action, 
which, on the 14th September, resulted in the 
death of more than a hundred persons. 

White Liner. A pro-slavery party in Louisiana. 

Wide Awakes. A name applied to the political 
organization which had for its object the elec¬ 
tion of Abraham Lincoln to the presidency. 
The wide awakes were equipped with swinging 
torches and black caps and capes. The order 
originated in Hartford, Connecticut, and the 
membership reached upward of half a million. 
The first wide-awake club was formed in that 
city 3d March, 1859. 


Wild Cat. The bank notes of an institution in 
the state of Michigan, having on their face a 
representation of a panther. When this bank 
failed the disgusted holders of its bills applied 
the epithet of wild cat to the panther money. 
Hence the terms, wild-cat money, wild cat bank¬ 
ing institutions, etc. See Red Dog. 

Wilmot Proviso. A measure proposed in con¬ 
gress, August, 1846, by David Wilmot, a repre¬ 
sentative from Pennsylvania. The proviso was 
offered as an addition to a bill then before the 
house, appropriating money for peace negotia¬ 
tions with Mexico. It provided that “as an 
express and fundamental condition to the acqui¬ 
sition of any territory from the republic of 
Mexico by the United States, by virtue of any 
treaty which may be negotiated between them, 
and to the use by the executive of the moneys 
herein appropriated, neither slavery nor invol¬ 
untary servitude shall ever exist in any part of 
said territory, except for crime, whereof the 
party shall be first duly convicted.” The pro¬ 
viso was adopted and readopted by the house, 
but rejected by the senate. See Free Soil 
Party. 

Wire Pullers. Those who plot and scheme in 
order to have potent influence in the region of 
politics. 

. . . Already that city (Philadelphia) is filled 
with wire-pullers, public opinion manufacturers, 
embryo cabinet officers, future ambassadors, and 
the whole brood of political make-shifts, who 
contrive to live out of the public purse by abus¬ 
ing public credulity.—New York Mirror, June 
5, 1848. 

Woman’s Rights. An issue, raised by earnest 
and now celebrated women, who have been 
seconded by men, in favor of woman’s equality 
before the law, the rightof woman to be a voter 
and citizen the same as those of the opposite 


sex. First woman’s rights convention was 
called, 19 July, 1848, at Seneca Falls, New York; 
the names appended to the call were Lucretia 
Mott, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Martha C. Wright, 
and Mary Ann McClintock. The states of Mas¬ 
sachusetts and Kansas allow women to vote for 
any school officers, and the territory of Wyo¬ 
ming for any state or county officer. 

Mr. President, I can make the speech our friend 
required in just one minute. I hold it the right 
of every woman to do any and everything that 
she can do well, provided it ought to be done. If 
it ought not to be done at all, or if she cannot do 
it, then she has no right to do it; but if it ought 
to be done, and she can do it, then her right to do 
it is, to my mind, indisputable. And that is all 
that I have to say, now or ever, on the subject of 
woman’s rights.—Horace Greeley, at Salt Lake, 
July, 1859. 

Wooly Heads. Those of the wliigparty, so-called 
to distinguish them from the more conservative 
element. The wooly heads became separated 
from the conservatives about the year 1850. The 
latter were called Silver Grays, which see. 
Yankee, and Yankee Doodle. Said to be a cor- 
ruption of the word English, pronounced by the 
Indians Yengeese, and is now the popular name 
for the New Englanders. Yankee Doodle is the 
name given to the national air of the United 
States. It originated in 1755, when the British 
colonies in America contributed their several 
quotas of men to aid the British army in reduc¬ 
ing the French power in Canada. Their rawness 
and awkwardness became the sport of the 
British army, and an English physician named 
Shackburg composed a tune, and recommended 
it, by way of joke to the Americans, and it 
immediately became celebrated. 

Yankeedom. An epithet applied at the south 
to the north, especially during the war of 
1861-5. 



|t g> 


t a 


ADMINISTRATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT. 


S>1 



1. George Washington (Federalist). Born at 
Westmoreland, Va., 22 February, 1732. Ordinary 
school training. President two terms, 1789-1797. 
Died 14 December, 1799. John Adams, vice 
president. See Father of his Country. 

2. John Adams (Federalist). Born at Braintree, 
Mass., 30 Oct., 1735. First ambassador (1785) from 
United States to Great Britain. President one 
term, 1797-1801. Died 4th July, 1826. Thomas 
Jefferson, vice-president. 

3. Thomas Jefferson (Democratic-Republican). 
Bom atShadwell, Va., 2d April, 1743. Educated at 
William and Mary college, Williamsburg; Con¬ 
tinental congress; Gov. of Virginia 1779-’81; M. 
C., 1783; min. to France. Author of “Notes on 
Virginia.” President two terms, 1801-9. Died 
4th July, 1826. Aaron Burr- and George Glinton, 
vice-presidents. 

4. James Madison (Democratic - Republican). 
Born at King George, Va., 16 March, 175L Grad¬ 
uated from Princeton college. President two 
terms, 1809-’17. Died 28 June, 1836. George Clin- 
ton and E. Gerry, vice-presidents. 

5. James Monroe (Democratic - Republican). 
Born in Westmoreland county, Va., 28 April, 
1758. William and Mary college (Va). Member 
legislature, U. S. senator, min. to France, gov. 
in 1798. President two terms, 1817-’25. D. N. Y., 
4th July, 1831. D. D. Tompkins, vice-president. 

6. John Quincy Adams (National Republican). 
Born at Braintree, Mass., 11 July, 1767. Harvard 
College. Ambassador to Berlin, Cong, of Vienna, 
and court of St. James. President one term, 
1825-9. Died at Washington, 23 Feb., 1848. John 
C. Calhoun, vice-president. 

7. Andrew Jackson (New Democratic party). 
Born in Mecklenburg county, N. C., 15 March, 
1767. U. S. senator in 1797, then general of state 
troops; in 1814 major-general U. S. service; in 
1821 governor of Florida; in 1823 again senator. 
President two terms, 1829-’37. Died near Nash¬ 


ville, 8th June, 1845. John C. Calhoun and Mar¬ 
tin Van Buren, vice-presidents. 

8. Martin Van Buren (Democrat). Born at Kin- 
derhook, N. Y., 5th Dec., 1782. Rudimentary 
training; studied law, State senator N. Y. in 
1812; U. S. senator; Governor. President one 
term, 1837-’41. Died at Kinderhook, 24 July, 1862. 
R. M. Johnson, vice-president. 

9. William Henry Harrison (Whig). Bom at 
Berkeley, Va., 9th Feb., 1773. Fought Indians in 
N. W. Ter.; M. C.; Gov. Ter. Ind., 1S01-T3; Maj- 
Gen. U. S. A.; M. C. from Cincinnati, and in 1824 
senator. President one month. Died 4th April, 
1841. John Tyler, vice-president. 

10. John Tyler (Democrat). Born in Charles City 
county, Va., 29 March, 1790. Member of legisla¬ 
ture ; M. C. and Gov.; U. S. senate; mem. Confed. 
cong. President three years and eleven months, 
1841-5. Died at Richmond, 17 Jan., 1862. Samuel 
L. Southard, W. P. Mangum, vice-presidents. 

11. James Knox Polk (Democrat). B. in Meck¬ 
lenburg county, N. C., 2d Nov., 1795. University 
of N. C. Tenn. legislature; M. C. 14 years; Gov. 
Tenn. President one term, 1845-’49. D. at Nash¬ 
ville, 15 June, 1849. G. M. Dallas, vice-president. 

12. Zachary Taylor (Whig). B. Orange county, 
Va., 24 Sept., 1784. Lieut., major, lieut.-col., and 
afterward general. President one year and four 
months. D. 9th July, 1850. Millard Fillmore, 
vice-president. 

13. Millard Fillmore (Whig). B. at Summerhill, 
N. Y., 7th Jan., 1800. Limited education, N. Y 
legislature; M. C. four terms. President two 
years, eight months, 1849-’53. D. 8tli March, 1874. 

14. Franklin Pierce (Democrat). B. at Hillsbor¬ 
ough, N. II., 23 Nov., 1804. Bowdoin college. 
Mem. legislature, N. H.; M. C. twice; U S. sena¬ 
tor, 1837; col., then brig-gen. President one 
term. D. at Concord, N. H., 8th Oct., 1869. 

15. James Buchanan (Democrat). B. at Stony 
Batter, Penn., 22 April, 1791. Dickinson college, 


Carlisle, Penn. Minister to St. Petersburg, to 
1833; M. C.; ambassador to England, 1853 till 1856. 
President one term, 1857-’61. D. at Lancaster, 
Penn., 1st June, 1868. John C. Breckinridge, 
vice-president. 

16. Abraham Lincoln (Broad Republican). B.in 
Hardin county, Ivy., 12 Feb., 1809. Self-educated. 
Member Illinois legislature, 1834. Hero of Ameri¬ 
can republicanism. President one term and one 
month. D. at Washington, 15 April, 1865. Han¬ 
nibal Hamlin and Andrew Johnson, vice-presi¬ 
dents. 

17. Andrew Johnson (Democrat). B. at Raleigh, 
N. C., 29 Dec., 1808. Self-educated. Alderman in 
Greenville, and mayor; Tenn. legislature; M. 0. 
1843; Gov.; senator; mil. gov. Tenn. President 
three years and eleven months, 1865-’69. D. at 
Greenville, Tenn., 31 July, 1875. LaFayette Fos¬ 
ter and Benj. F. Wade, vice-presidents. 

18. Ulysses S. Grant (Republican). B. at Point 
Pleasant, Ohio, 27 April, 1822. West Point; 2d 
Lt. 4th Inf.; Capt.; Adj.-Gen. Ill.; Col. 21st Ill.; 
Brig-Gen.; Lieut-General; General. President 
two terms, 1869-77. Schuyler Colfax and Henry 
Wilson, vice-presidents. 

19. Rutherford B. Hayes (Republican). B. in 
Ohio, 4th Oct., 1822. Kenyon College, Cambridge 
Law School, 1845. Major 23d O. Vols. in W. V.; 
Brig-Gen.; M. C.; Gov. Ohio. President one 
term, 1877-’81. Wm. A. Wheeler, vice-president. 

20. James A. Garfield (Republican). B. Orange, 
Cuyahoga county, Ohio, 19 Nov., 1831. Geauga 
(Ohio) Acad., and William’s college, Mass; Col. 
42d O. Regt.; Brig-Gen.; Maj.-Gen.; M. C.; U. S. 
senator. President six months and fifteen days. 
D. at Elberon (Long Branch) N. J., 19 Sept., 1881. 
Chester A. Arthur, vice-president. 

21. Chester A. Arthur (Republican). B. at Fair- 
field, Vt., 5th Oct., 1830. Educated at Union, Vt.; 
admitted to the bar in N. Y.; quartermaster- 
general state N. Y.; coll, port of N. Y., 1871-8. 














































84 


POLITICAL INFORMATION. 


22. Grover Cleveland (Democrat). Former occu¬ 
pation, lawyer, sheriff, mayor and governor. Carried New 
York when elected governor by the phenominal majority 
of over 190,000 votes. Thomas A. Hendricks, of Indi¬ 
ana, vice-president. 

23. Benjamin Harrison (Republican). Former occu¬ 
pation, lawyer, general in U. S. army, and United States 
senator. Had 479,304 popular votes less than his oppo¬ 
nents, yet had a majority of 65 in the electoral college. 
Levi P. Morton, of New York, vice-president. 


POLITICAL INFORMATION. 

RESULT OF THE ELECTORAL COLLEGE PROCEEDINGS BY 
STATES FROM 1789 TO AND INCLUDING 1889. 

1789, Washington and Adams—Washington had the 
vote of all the States, viz.. New Hampshire, Massachu¬ 
setts, Connecticut, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, 
Maryland, Virginia, South Carolina and Georgia. 

Adams had all of New Hampshire, Massachusetts, 5 of 
the 7 of Connecticut, 1 of the 6 of New Jersey, 8 of the 
10 of Pennsylvania, 5 of the 10 of Virginia; total 34. 

1793, Washington and Adams—Washington had the 
votes of all the States, viz., New Hampshire, New York, 
New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, 
Kentucky, North Carolina, South Carolina and Georgia; 
total 132. 

Adams carried all these States with the exception of 
New York, Virginia, Kentucky, North Carolina and 
Georgia; total 77 votes. 

1797, Adams and Jefferson—Adams had the votes of 
New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecti¬ 
cut, Vermont, New York, New Jersey, Delaware, 1 of the 
15 of Pennsylvania, 1 of the 20 of Virginia, 1 of the 12 
of North Carolina, and 7 of the 11 of Maryland; total 71. 

Thomas Jefferson had 14 of the 15 votes of Pennsylva¬ 
nia, 4 of the 11 of Maryland, 20 of the 21 of Virginia, 
Kentucky, 11 of the 12 of North Carolina, Tennessee, 
Georgia and South Carolina; total 68. 

1801, Jefferson and Burr—Had the votes of the States 
of New York, 8 of the 15 of Pennsylvania, 5 of the 10 of 
Maryland, Virginia, Kentucky, 8 of the 12 of North Caro¬ 
lina, Tennessee, South Carolina and Georgia; total 73. 
House decided Jefferson President and Burr Vice-President. 

Adams and Pinckney—Had the votes of the States of New 
Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, 
Vermont, New Jersey, 7 of the 15 of Pennsylvania, Dela¬ 
Avare, 5 of the 10 of Maryland, and 4 of the 12 of North 
Carolina; total 65. 

1805, Jefferson and Clinton—Had the votes of the. 
States of New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, 
Vermont, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Mary¬ 
land, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, 
Tennessee, Kentucky and Ohio; total 162. 

Pinckney and King—Had the votes of the States of 
Connecticut, Delaware and 2 of the 11 of Maryland; 
total 14. 

1809, Madison and Clinton—Had the votes of the States 
of Vermont, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, 9 of 
the 11 of Maryland, Virginia, 11 of the 14 of North Car¬ 
olina, South Carolina, Georgia, Kentucky, Tennessee and 
Ohio; total 122. 

Pinckney and King—Had the votes of the States of 
New York, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, 
DelaAvare, 2 of the 11 of Maryland, and 3 of the 14 of 
North Carolina; total 47. 

1813, Madison and Gerry—Carried Vermont, Pennsyl¬ 
vania, 6 of the 11 of Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, 


South Carolina, Georgia, Kentucky, Tennessee, Ohio and 
Louisiana; total 128. 

Clinton and Ingersoll—Had the votes of the States of 
NeAV Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connec¬ 
ticut, New York, New Jersey, Delaware and 5 of the 11 
of Maryland; total 89. 

1817, Monroe and Tompkins—Had the votes of the 
States of Neiv Hampshire, Rhode Island, Vermont, New 
York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, 
North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Kentucky, Ten¬ 
nessee, Ohio, Louisiana and Indiana; total 183. 

King and Howard—Had the votes of the States of Mas¬ 
sachusetts, Connecticut and DelaAvare; total 34. 

1821, Monroe and Tompkins—Had the votes of every 
State in the Union; total 231. 

Adams and Stockton—Adams had 1 vote of the 8 of 
NeAV Hampshire, and Stockton 8 of the 15 of Massachu¬ 
setts. 

1825, Adams and Calhoun—Had the votes of the States 
of Maine, NeAV Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, 
Connecticut, Vermont, 26 of the 36 of NeAV York, 1 of 
the 3 of Delaware, 3 of the 11 of Maryland, 2 of the 5 
of Louisiana, and 1 of the 3 of Illinois; total 84 for 
Adams. Calhoun for Vice-President carried several States 
that Adams did not carry, and had a total of 182 votes. 

Crawford—Had 5 of the 36 votes of NeAV York, 2 of the 
3 of Delaware, and 1 of the 11 of Maryland, Virginia and 
Georgia; total 41. 

Jackson—Had 1 of the 36 votes of New York, New 
Jersey, Pennsylvania, 7 of the 11 of Maryland, North 
Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, 3 of the 5 of Louis¬ 
iana, Mississippi, Indiana, Illinois and Alabama; total 99. 

Clay—Had 4 of the 36 votes of New York, Kentucky, 
Ohio and Missouri; total 37. 

No choice by the electoral college, it devolving upon the 
House of Representatives. A choice was reached on first 
ballot as folloAvs: Adams—Connecticut, Illinois, Kentucky, 
Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Missouri, 
New Hampshire, New York, Ohio, Rhode Island and 
Vermont; 13 States. Jackson—Alabama, Indiana, Mis¬ 
souri, NeAV Jersey, Pennsylvania, South Carolina and Ten¬ 
nessee; 7 States. Crawford—Delaware, Georgia, North 
Carolina and Virginia; 4 States. 

1829, Jackson and Calhoun—Had 1 of the votes of the 
9 of Maine, 20 of the 36 of New York, Pennsylvania, 
5 of the 11 of Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South 
Carolina, Georgia, Kentucky, Tennessee, Ohio, Indiana, 
Mississippi, Illinois, Alabama and Missouri; total 178. 

Adams and Rush—Had 8 of the 9 votes of Maine, New 
Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, 
Vermont, 16 of the 36 of New York, NeAV Jersey, Dela¬ 
ware, and 6 of the 11 of Maryland; total 83. 

1833, Jackson and Van Buren—Had the votes of Maine, 
NeAV Hampshire, NeAV York, Noav Jersey, Pennsylvania, 3 
of the 8 of Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, Georgia, 
Tennessee, Ohio, Louisiana, Mississippi, Indiana, Illinois, 
Alabama and Missouri; total 219. 

Clay and Sergeant—Had the votes of the states of Massa¬ 
chusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, Delaware, 5 of the 8 
of Maryland and Kentucky; total, 49. 

1837, Van Buren and Johnson—Had the votes of the 
states of Maine, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Connecti¬ 
cut, New York, Pennsylvania, Virginia, North Carolina, 
Louisiana, Mississippi, Illinois,Alabama, Missouri, Arkan¬ 
sas and Michigan; total, 170. 

Harrison and Granger—Had the votes of the states of 
Vermont, New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky, 
Ohio and Indiana; total, 73. 

1841, Harrison and Tyler—Had the votes of the states 
j of Maine, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, Ver- 
































POLITICAL INFORMATION. 


85 


mont, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, 
Maryland, North Carolina, Georgia, Kentucky, Tennessee, 
Ohio, Louisiana, Mississippi, Indiana and Michigan; total, 
234. 

Van Buren—Had the votes of the states of New Hamp¬ 
shire, Virginia, South Carolina, Illinois, Alabama, Mis¬ 
souri and Arkansas; total, 60. 

1845, Polk and Dallas—Had the votes of the states 
of Maine, New Hampshire, New York, Pennsylvania, Vir¬ 
ginia, South Carolina, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, In¬ 
diana, Illinois, Alabama, Missouri, Arkansas and Michi¬ 
gan; total, 170. 

Clay and Frelinghuysen—Had the votes of the states of 
Rhode Island, Connecticut, Vermont, New Jersey, Dela¬ 
ware, Maryland, North Carolina, Kentucky, Tennessee 
and Ohio; total, 105. 

1849, Taylor and Fillmore—Had the votes of the States 
of Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, Vermont, 
New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Mary¬ 
land, North Carolina, Georgia, Kentucky, Tennessee, 
Louisiana and Florida; total, 163. 

Cass and Butler—Had the votes of the States of Maine, 
New Hampshire, Virginia, South Carolina, Ohio, Missis¬ 
sippi, Indiana, Illinois, Alabama, Missouri, Arkansas, 
Michigan, Texas, Iowa and Wisconsin; total, 127. 

18o3, Pierce and King—Had the votes of the States of 
Maine, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New 
York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, 
Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Ohio, 
Louisiana, Mississippi, Indiana, Illinois, Alabama, Mis¬ 
souri, Arkansas, Michigan, Florida, Texas, Iowa, Wiscon¬ 
sin and California; total, 254. 

Scott and Graham—Had the votes of the States of Mas¬ 
sachusetts, Vermont, Kentucky and Tennessee; total, 42. 

1857, Buchanan and Breckinridge—Had the votes of the 
States of New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Virginia, 
North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Kentucky, Ten¬ 
nessee, Louisiana, Mississippi, Indiana, Illinois, Alabama, 
Missouri, Arkansas, Florida, Texas and California; total, 
174. 

Fremont and Dayton—Had the votes of the States of 
Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, 
Connecticut, Vermont, New York, Ohio, Michigan, Iowa 
and Wisconsin; total, 114. 

Fillmore and Donelson—Had the votes of the State of 
Maryland; total, 8. 

1861, Lincoln and Hamlin—Had the votes of the States 
of Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, 
Connecticut, Vermont, New York, 4 of the 7 of New Jer¬ 
sey, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Iowa, 
Wisconsin, California, Minnesota and Oregon; total, 180. 

Breckinridge and Lane—Had the votes of the States of 
Delaware, Maryland, North Carolina, South Carolina, 
Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, Arkansas, Flor¬ 
ida and Texas, total, 72. 

Douglas and Johnson—Had the votes of the States of 
Missouri, and 3 of the 7 of New Jersey; total, 12. 

Bell and Everett—Had the votes of the States of Vir¬ 
ginia, Kentucky and Tennessee; total, 39. 

1865, Lincoln and Johnson—Had the votes of the States 
of Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, 
Connecticut, Vermont, New York, Pennsylvania, Mary¬ 
land, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Missouri, Michigan, Wiscon¬ 
sin, Iowa, California, Minnesota, Oregon, Kansas, West 
Virginia and Nebraska; total, 212. 

McClellan and Pendleton—Had the votes of the States 
of New Jersey, Delaware and Kentucky; total, 21. 

Eleven States did not vote, viz.: Alabama, Arkansas, 
Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, North Carolina, 
South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas and Virginia. 


1869, Grant and Colfax—Had the votes of the States of 
Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode 
Island, Connecticut, Pennsylvania, North Carolina, South 
Carolina, Alabama, Ohio, Tennessee, Indiana, Illinois, 
Missouri, Arkansas, Michigan, Florida, Iowa, Wisconsin, 
California, Minnesota, Kansas, West Virginia, Nevada and 
Nebraska; total, 214. 

Seymour and Blair—Had the votes of the States of New 
York, New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland, Georgia, Louisi¬ 
ana, Kentucky and Oregon; total, 80. 

Three States did not vote, viz.: Mississippi, Texas and 
Virginia. 

1873, Grant and Wilson—Had the votes of the States of 
Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode 
Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsyl¬ 
vania, Delaware, Virginia, North Carolina, South Caro¬ 
lina, Alabama, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Mississippi, Michi¬ 
gan, Florida, Iowa, Wisconsin, California, Minnesota, 
Oregon, Kansas, West Virginia, Nebraska and Nevada; 
total, 286. 

Greeley and Brown—Had the votes of the States of 
Maryland, Georgia, Kentucky, Tennessee, Missouri and 
Texas; total, 63. 

Three electoral votes of Georgia cast for Greeley, and 
the votes of Arkansas, 6, and Louisiana, 8, cast for Grant, 
were rejected. 

1877, Hayes and Wheeler—Had the votes of the States 
of Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode 
Island, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Ohio, Louisiana, 
Illinois, Michigan, Florida, Iowa, Wisconsin, California, 
Minnesota, Oregon, Kansas, Nevada, Nebraska and Colo¬ 
rado; total, 185. 

Tilden and Hendricks—Had votes of Connecticut, New 
York, New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North 
Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Kentucky, Tennessee, 
Indiana, Missouri, Arkansas, Mississippi, Texas and West 
Virginia; total 184. 

1881. Garfield and Arthur—Had votes of Maine, New 
Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Con¬ 
necticut, New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, 
Michigan, Iowa, Wisconsin, 1 of the 6 of California, Min¬ 
nesota, Oregon, Kansas, Nebraska and Colorado; total 
214. 

Hancock and English—Had votes of New Jersey, Dela¬ 
ware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, 
Georgia, Alabama, Louisiana, Kentucky, Tennessee, Mis¬ 
souri, Arkansas, Mississippi, Florida, Texas, 5 of the 6 of 
California, West Virginia and Nebraska; total 155. 

1884. Cleveland and Hendricks—Had votes of Alabama, 
Arkansas, Connecticut, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, In¬ 
diana, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland, Mississippi, Mis¬ 
souri, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, South 
Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia, West Virginia; 
total 203. 

Blaine and Logan—Had votes of California, Colorado, 
Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, Maine, Massachusetts, Michigan, 
Minnesota, Nebraska, Nevada, New Hampshire, Ohio, 
Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Vermont, Wisconsin; 
total 166. 

1888. Harrison and Morton—Had votes of California, 
Colorado, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Maine, Mas¬ 
sachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Nebraska, Nevada, New 
Hampshire, New York, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, 
Rhode Island, Vermont, Wisconsin; total 233. 

Cleveland and Thurman—Had votes of Alabama, Ark¬ 
ansas, Connecticut, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, 
Louisiana, Maryland, Mississippi, Missouri, New Jersey, 
North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Vir¬ 
ginia, W. Va. ; total 168. 


































86 


POLITICAL INFORMATION. 


VOTE BY STATES. 

Alabama—1824, Dem. maj. 5,280; 1828, Dem. maj. 
15,200; 1836, Dem. maj. 3,431; 1840, Dem. maj. 5,520; 
1844, Dem. maj. 11,656; 1848, Dem. maj. 881; 1852, Dem. 
maj. 11,843; 1856, Dem. maj. 18,187; 1860, Dem. maj. 
7,355; 1868, Rep. maj. 4,278; 1872, Rep. maj. 10,828; 
1876, Dem. maj. 33,772; 1880, Dem. maj. 29,867; 1884, 
Dem. plur. 33,529; 1888, Dem. plur. 60,113. 

Arkansas—1836, Dem. maj. 1,162; 1840, Dem. maj. 
889; 1844, Dem. maj. 4,042; 1848, Dem. maj. 1,712; 1852, 
Dem. maj. 4,769; 1856, Dem. maj. 11,123; 1860, Dem. 
maj. 3,411; 1868, Rep. maj. 3,034; 1872, Rep. maj. 3,446; 
1876, Dem. maj. 19,113; 1880, Dem. maj. 14,749; 1884, 
Dem. plur. 22,208; 1888, Dem. plur. 27,210. 

California—1852, Dem. maj. 5,119; 1856, Dem. plur. 
17,200; 1870, Rep. plur. 657; 1864, Rep. maj. 18,293; 
1868, Rep. maj. 506; 1872, Rep. maj. 12,234; 1876, Rep. 
maj. 2,738; 1880, Dem. plur. 78; 1884, Rep. plur. 13,128; 
1888, Rep. plur. 7,080. 

Colorada—1880, Rep. maj. 1,368; 1884, Rep. maj. 8,567; 
1888, Rep. plur. 13,224. 

Connecticut—1824, Loose Constructionist (Rep.) maj. 
5,609; 1828,Loose Constructionist (Rep.) maj. 9,381; 1832; 
Loose Constructionist (Rep.) maj. 6,486; 1836, Dem. maj. 
768; 1840, Whig (Rep.) maj. 6,131; 1844, Whig (Rep.) maj. 
1,048; 1848, Whig, (Rep.) plur. 3,268; 1852, Dem. plur. 
2,892; 1856, Re]i. maj. 5,105; 1860, Rep. maj. 10,238; 
1864, Rep. maj. 2,406; 1868, Rep. maj. 3,043; 1872, Rep. 
maj. 4,348; 1876, Dem. maj. 1,712; 1880, Rep. maj. 1,788; 
1884, Dem. plur. 1,274; 1888, Dem. plur. 336. 

Delaware—1828, Loose Constructionist (Rep.) maj. 420; 
1832, Loose Constructionist, (Rep.) maj. 166; 1836, Whig 
(Rep.) maj.583; 1840, Whig (Rep.) maj. 1,083; 1844, Whig 
(Rep.)maj.282; 1848,Whig(Rep.) maj.443; 1852,Dem.plur. 
25; 1856, Dem. maj. 1,521; 1860; Dem. plur. 3,483; 1864, 
Dem. maj. 612; 1868, Dem. maj. 3,357; 1872, Rep. maj. 
422; 1876, Dem. maj. 2,629; 1880, Dem. maj. 1,023; 1884, 
Dem. plur. 423; 1888, Dem. plur. 3,441. 

Florida—1848,Whig (Rep.) maj. 1,269; 1852, Dem. maj. 
1,443; 1856, Dem. maj. 1,525; 1860, Dem. maj. 2,739; 1872, 
Rep. maj. 2,336; 1876, Rep. maj. 926; 1880, Dem. maj. 
4,310; 1884, Dem. plur. 3,738; 1888, Dem. plur. 12,002. 

Georgia—1836, Whig (Rep.) maj. 2,804; 1840, Whig 
(Rep.) maj. 8,328; 1844,Dem.maj. 2,071; 1848, Whig (Rep.) 
maj. 2,742; 1852, Dem. maj. 18,045; 1856, Dem. maj. 
14,350; 1860, Dem. plur. 9,003; 1868, Dem. maj. 45,588; 
1872, Dem. maj. 9,806; 1876, Dem. maj. 79,642; 1880, 
Dem. maj. 4,199; 1884, Dem. plur. 46,961; 1888, Dem. 
plur. 60,029. 

Illinois—1824, Dem. plur. 359; 1828, Dem. maj. 5,182; 
1832, Dem. maj. 8,718; 1836, Dem. maj. 3,114; 1840, Dem. 
maj. 1,790; 1844, Dem. maj. 8,822; 1848, Dem. plur. 
3,253; 1852, Dem. maj. 5,697; 1856, Dem. plur. 9,159; 
1860, Rep. maj. 5,629; 1864, Rep. maj. 30,766; 1868, Rep. 
maj. 51,160; 1872, Rep. maj. 53,948; 1876, Rep. maj. 1,971; 
1880, Rep. maj. 14,358; 1884, Rep. plur. 25,122; 1888, Rep. 
plur. '22,042. 

Indiana—1824, Dem. plur. 2,028; 1828, Dem. maj. 
5,185; 1832, Dem. maj. 16,080; 1836, Whig (Rep.) maj. 
8,801; 1840, Whig (Rep.) maj. 13,607; 1844, Dem. maj. 
208; 1848, Dem. plur. 4,838; 1852, Dem. maj. 7,510; 1856, 
Dem. maj. 1,909; 1860, Rep. maj. 5,923; 1864, Rep. maj. 
20,189; 1868, Rep. maj. 9,568; 1872, Rep. maj. 21,098; 
1876, Dem. plur. 5,515; 1880, Rep. plur. 6,641; 1884, Dem. 
plur. 6,527; 1888, Rep. plur. 2,348. 

Iowa—1848, Dem. plur. 1,009; 1852, Dem. maj. 303; 
1856, Rep. plur. 7,784; 1860, Rep. maj. 12,487; 1864, Rep. 
maj. 39,479; 1868, Rep. maj. 46,359; 1872, Rep. maj, 58,- 
149; 1876, Rep. maj. 50,191; 1880, Rep. maj.45.732; 1884, 
Rep. plur. 19,796; 1888, Rep. plur. 31,721. 


Kansas—1864, Rep. maj.12,750; 1868, Rep.maj. 17,058; 
1872, Rep. maj. 33,482; 1876, Rep. maj. 32,511; 1880, Rep. 
maj.42,021; 1884, Rep .plur. 64,274; 1888, Rep.plur. 79,961. 

Kentucky—1824, Loose Constructionist (Rep.) majority 
10,329; 1828, Dem. majority 7,912; 1832, Loose Construc¬ 
tionist (Rep.) majority 7,149; 1836, Whig (Rep.) major- 
ty 5,520; 1840, Whig (Rep.)majority 25,873; 1844, Whig 
(Rep.) majority 9,267 ; 1848, Whig (Rep.) majority 

17,421; 1852, Whig (Rep.) majority 2,997; 1856, Dem. 
majority 6,912; 1860, Constitutional Union plurality 
12,915; 1864, Dem. majority 36,515; 1868, Dem. ma¬ 
jority 76,324; 1872, Dem. maj. 8,855; 1876 Dem. maj. 
59,772; 1880, Dem. maj. 31,951; 1884, Dem. plur. 34,839; 
1888, Dem.plur. 38,666. 

Louisiana—1828, Dem. majority 508; 1832, Dem. ma¬ 
jority, 1,521; 1836, Dem. majority 270; 1840, Whig (Rep.) 
maj. 3,680; 1844, Dem. majority 699; 1848, Whig (Rep.) 
majority 2,847; 1852, Dem. majority 1,392; 1856, Dem. 
majority 1,455; 1860,Dem. plurality 2,477; 1868, Dem. ma¬ 
jority 46,962; 1872, Rep. majority 14,634; 1876, Rep. ma¬ 
jority 4,499; 1880, Dem. majority 33,419; 1884, Dem. 
plur. 16,250; 1888, Dem. plur. 54,760. 

Maine—1824, Loose Constructionist (Rep.) majority 
4,540; 1828, Loose Constructionist (Rep.) majority 6,848; 
1840, Whig (Rep.) majority 217; 1844, Dem. majority 
6,505; 1848; Dem. plurality 4,755; 1852, Dem. majority 
1,036; 1856, Rep. majority 24,974; 1860, Rep. majority 
27,704; 1864, Rep. majority 17,592; 1868, Rep. majority 
28,033; 1872, Rep. majority 32,355; 1876, Rep. majority 
15,814; 1880, Rep. majority 4,460; 1884, Rep. plurality 
20,069; 1888, Rep. plurality 32,252. 

Maryland—1824, Loose Constructionist (Rep.) plurality 
109; 1828,LooseConstructionist(Rep.) majority 1,181; 1832, 
Loose Constructionist (Rep.) majority 4; 1836, Whig 
(Rep.) majority 3,685; 1840, Whig (Rep.) majority 4,776, 
1844, Whig (Rep.) majority 3,308; 1848, Whig (Rep.) ma¬ 
jority 3,049; 1852, Dem. majority 4,900; 1856, Know- 
Nothing majority 8,064; 1860, Dem. plurality 722; 1864, 
Rep. majority 7,414; 1868, Dem. majority 31,919; 1872,. 
Dem. majority 908; 1876, Dem. majority 19,756; 1880, 
Dem. majority 15,191; 1884, Dem. plur. 11,305; 1888, 
Dem. plur. 6,182. 

Massachusetts—1824, Loose Constructionist (Rep.) ma¬ 
jority 24,071; 1828, Loose Constructionist (Rep.) majority 
22,817; 1832. Loose Constructionist (Rep.) majority 
18,458; 1836, Whig (Rep.) majority 7,592; 1840, Whig 
(Rep.) majority 19,305; 1844, Whig (Rep.) majority 2,712; 
1848, Whig (Rep.) plurality 23,014; 1852, Whig (Rep.) 
plurality 8,114; 1856, Rep. majority 49,324; 1860, Rep. 
majority 43,981; 1864, Rep. majority 77,997; 1858, Rep. 
majority 77,069; 1872, Rep. majority 74,212; 1876, Rep. 
majority 40,423; 1880, Rep. maj. 49,097; 1884, Rep. plur. 
24,372; 1888, Rep. plur. 31,457. 

Michigan—1836, Dem. majority 3,360; 1840, Whig 
(Rep.) majority 1,514; 1844, Dem. plurality 3,423; 1848, 
Dem. plurality 6,747; 1852, Dem. majority 746; 1856, 

Rep. majority 17,966; 1860, Rep. majority 22,213; 1864, 

Rep. majority 16,917; 1868, Rep. majority 31,481; 1872, 

Rep. majority 55,968; 1876, Rep. majority 15,542; 1880, 

Rep. majority 19,095; 1884, Rep. plurality 3,308; 1888, 
Rep. plurality 22,903. 

Minnesota—1860, Rep. majority 9,339; 1864, Rep. ma¬ 
jority 7,685; 1868, Rep. majority 15,470; 1872, Rep. ma¬ 
jority 20,694; 1876 Rep. majority 21,780; 1880, Rep. ma¬ 
jority 40,588; 1884, Rep. plurality 38,738; 1888, Rep. 
plur. 36,695. 

Mississippi—1824, Dem. majority 1,421; 1828, Dem. 
majority 5,182; 1832, Dem. majority 5,919; 1836, Dem. 
majority 291, 1840, Whig (Rep.) majority 2,523; 1844, 
Dem. majority 5,920; 1848, Dem. majority 615; 1852, 













































POLITICAL INFORMATION. 



Dem. majority 9,328; 1856, Dem. majority 11,251; 1860, 
Dem. majority 12,474; 1872, Rep. majority 34,887; 1876, 
Dem. majority 59,568; 1880, Dem. majority 35,099; 1884, 
Dem plurality 33,001; 1888, Dem. plurality 55,375. 

Missouri—1824, Loose Constructionist (Rep.) majority 
103; 1828, Dem. majority 4,810; 1832, Dem. majority 

5,192; 1836, Dem. majority 2,658; 1840, Dem. majority 

6,788; 1844, Dem. majority 10,118; 1848, Dem. majority 

7,406; 1852, Dem. majority 8,369; 1856, Dem. majority 

9,640; 1860, Dem. plurality 429; 1864, Rep. majority 
41,072; 1868, Rep. majority 21,232; 1872, Dem. majority 
29,809; 1876, Dem. majority 54,389; 1880, Dem. majority 
19,997; 1884, Dem. plurality 33,059; 1888, Dem. plurality 
25,701. 

Nebraska—1868, Rep. majority 4,290; 1872, Rep. ma¬ 
jority 10,517; 1876, Rep. majority 10,326; 1880, Rep. ma¬ 
jority 32,603; 1884, Rep. plurality 22,512; 1888, Rep. 
plurality 27,873. 

Nevada—1864, Rep. majority 3,232; 1868, Rep. ma¬ 
jority 1,262; 1882, Rep. majority 2,177; 1876, Rep. ma¬ 
jority 1,075; 1880, Dem majority 879; 1884, Rep. plural¬ 
ity 1,615; 188, Rep. plurality 1,939. 

New Hampshire—1824, Loose Constructionist (Rep.) 
majority 3,464; 1628, Loose Constructionist (Rep.) ma¬ 
jority 3,384; 1832, Dem. majority 6,476; 1836, Dem. plur¬ 
ality 12,494; 1840, Dem. majority 6,386; 1844, Dem. ma¬ 
jority 5,133; 1848, Dem. majority 5,422; 1852, Dem. ma¬ 
jority 7,155; 1856, Rep. majority 5,134; 1860, Rep. ma¬ 
jority 9,085; 1864, Rep. majority 3,529; 1868, Rep. ma¬ 
jority 6,967; 1872, Rep. majority 5,444; 1876, Rep. ma¬ 
jority 2,954; 1880, Rep. maj. 3,530; 1884, Rep. plur. 
4,059; 1888, Rep. plur. 2,370. 

New Jersey—1824, Dem. majority 679; 1820, Loose 
Constructionist (Rep.) majority 1,808; 1832, Dem. major¬ 
ity 463; 1836, Whig (Rep.) majority 545; 1840, Whig (Rep.) 
majority 2,248; 1844, Whig (Rep.) majority 692; 1848, 
Whig (Rep.) majority 2,285; 1852, Dem. majority 5,399; 
1856, Dem. plurality 18,605; 1860, Dem. majority 4,477; 
1864, Dem. majority 7,301; 1868, Dem. majority 2,870; 
1872, Rep. majority 14,570; 1876, Dem. majority 11,690; 
1880, Dem. plurality 2,010; 1884, Dem. plurality 4,412; 
1888, Dem. plurality 7,149. 

New York—1828, Dem. majority 4,350; 1832, Dem. 
majority 13,601; 1836, Dem. majority 28,272; 1840, Whig 
(Rep.) majority 10,500; 1844, Dem. plurality 5,106; 1848, 
Whig (Rep.) majority 98,093; 1852, Dem. majority 1,872; 
1856, Rep. plurality 80,129; 1860, Rep. majority 50,136; 
1864, Rep. majority 6,749; 1868, Dem. majority 10,000; 
1872, Rep. majority 51,800; 1876, Dem. majority 26,568; 
1880, Rep. majority 8,660; 1884, Dem. plurality 1,148; 
1888, Rep. plurality 14,373. 

North Carolina—1824, Dem. majority 4,794; 1828, 
Dem. majority 23,939; 1832, Dem. majority 20,299; 1836, 
Dem. majority 3,284; 1840, Whig (Rep.) majority 12,158; 
1844, Whig (Rep.) majority 3,945; 1848, Whig (Rep.) 
majority 8,681; 1852, Dem. majority 627; 1856, Dem. 
majority 11,360; 1860, Dem. majority 648; 1868, Rep. 
majority 12,168; 1872, Rep. majority 24,675; 1876, Dem. 
majority 17,010; 1880, Dem. majority 8,326; 1884, Dem. 
plurality 17,884; 1888, Dem. plurality 13,118. 

Ohio—1824, Loose Constructionist (Rep.) plurality 798; 
1828, Dem. majority 4,201; 1832, Dem. majority 4,707; 
1836, Whig (Rep.) majority 8,457; 1840, Whig (Rep.) ma¬ 
jority 22,472; 1844, Whig (Rep.) plurality 5,940; 1848, 
Dem. plurality 16,415; 1852, Dem. plurality 16,694; 1856, 
Rep. plurality 16,623; 1860, Rep. majority 20,779; 1864, 
Rep. majority 59,586; 1868, Rep. majority 41,617; 1872, 
Rep. majority 34,268; 1876, Rep. majority 2,747; 1880, 
Rep. majority 27,771; 1884, Rep. plurality, 31,602; 1888, 
Rep. plurality 19,599. 



1856, 

1864, 

1872, 

1880, 

1888, 


Oregon—1860, Rep. plurality 1,318; 1864, Rep. majority 
1,431; 1868, Dem. majority 164; 1872, Rep. majority 
3,517; 1876, Rep. majority 547; 1880, Rep. majority 422; 
1884, Rep. plurality 2,256; 1888, Rep. plurality 6,769. 

Pennsylvania—1824, Dem. majority 24,845; 1828, Dem. 
majority 50,804; 1832, Dem. majority 34,267; 1836, Dem. 
majority 4,364; 1840, Whig (Rep.) majority 2; 1844, Dem. 
majority 3,194; 1848, Whig (Rep.) majority 3,074; 1852, 
Dem. majority 10,869; 1856, Dem. majority 1,025; 1860, 
Rep. majority 59,618; 1864, Rep. majority 20,075; 1868, 
Rep. majority 28,898; 1872, Rep. majority 135,918; 1876, 
Rep. majority 9,375; 1880, Rep. majority 16,608; 1884, 
Rep. plurality 81,019; 1888, Rep. plurality 79,458. 

Rhode Island—1824, Loose Constructionist (Rep.) ma¬ 
jority 1,945; 1828, Loose Constructionist (Rep.) majority 
1,933; 1832, Loose Constructionist (Rep.) majority 684; 
1836, Dem. majority 254; 1840, Whig (Rep.) majority 
1,935; 1844, Whig (Rep.) majority 2,348; 1848, Whig 
(Rep.) majority 2,403; 1852, Dem. majority 465; 

Rep. majority 3,112; 1860, Rep. majority 4,537; 

Rep. majority 5,222; 1868, Rep. majority 6,445; 

Rep. majority 8,336; 1876, Rep. majority 4,947; 

Rep. majority 7,180; 1884, Rep. plurality 6,639; 

Rep. plurality 4,427. 

South Carolina—1868, Rep. majority 17,064; 1872, Rep. 
majority 49,400; 1876, Rep. majority 964; 1880, Dem. 
majority 54,241; 1884, Dem. pluralitv 48,112; 1888, Dem. 
plurality 52,085. 

Tennessee—1824, Dem. majority 19,669; 1828, Dem. 
majority 41,850; 1832, Dem. majority 27,304; 1836, Whig 
(Rep.) majority 9,842; 1840, Whig (Rep.) majority 12,102; 
1844, Whig (Rep.) majority 113; 1848, Whig (Rep.) ma¬ 
jority 6,286; 1852, Whig (Rep.) majority 1,880; 1856, 
Dem. majority 7,460; 1860, Constitutional Union plurality 
4,565; 1868, Rep. majority 30,499; 1872, Dem. majority 
8,736; 1876, Dem. majority 43,600; 1880, Dem. majority 
14,598; 1884, Dem. plur. 8,275; 1888, Dem. plur. 18,798. 

Texas—1848, Dem. majority 6,150; 1852, Dem. major¬ 
ity 8,557, 1856, Dem. majority 15,530; 1860, Dem. major¬ 
ity 32,110; 1872, Dem. majority 16,595; 1876, Dem. ma¬ 
jority 59,955; 1880, Dem. majority 70,878; 1884, Dem. 
plurality 132,168; 1888, Dem. plurality 146,603. 

Vermont—1828, Loose Constructionist (Rep.) majority 
16,579; 1832, Loose Constructionist (Rep.) majority 3,282; 
1836, Whig (Rep.) majority 6,954; 1840, Whig (Rep.) 
majority 14,117; 1844, Whig (Rep.) majority 4,775; 1848, 
Whig (Rep) plurality 9,285; 1852, Whig (Rep.) majority 
508; 1856, Rep. majority 28,447; 1860, Rep. majority 24,- 
772; 1864, Rep. majority 29,098; 1868, Rep. majority 
32,122; 1872, Rep. majority 29,961; 1876, Rep. majority 
23,838; 1880, Rep. majority 26,036; 1884, Rep. plurality 
22,183; 1888, Rep. plurality 28,404. 

Virginia—1824, Dem. majority 2,023; 1828, Dem. ma¬ 
jority 14,651; 1832, Dem. majority 22,158; 1836, Dem. 
majority 6,893; 1840, Dem. majority 1,392; 1844, Dem. 
majority 5,893; 1848, Dem. majority 1,453; 1852, Dem. 
majority 15,286; 1856, Dem. majority 29,105; 1860, Con¬ 
stitutional Union plurality 358; 1872, Rep. majority 1,772; 
1876,Dem. majority 44,112; 1880, Regular Dem. majority 
12,810; Dem. plwrality 6,315; 1888, Dem. plurality i,539. 

West Virginia—1864, Rep. majority 12,714; 1868, Rep. 
majority 8,869; 1872, Rep. majority 2,264; 1876, Dem. 
majority 12,384; 1880, Dem. majority 2,069; 1884, Dem. 
plurality 4,221; 1888, Dem. pluralty 839. 

Wisconsin—1848, Dem. plurality 1,254; 1852, Dem. 
majority 2,604; 1856, Rep. majority 12,668; 1860, Rep. 
majority 20,040; 1864, Rep. majority 17,574; 1868, Rep. 
majority 24,150; 1872, Rep. majority 17,686; 1876, Rep. 
majority 5,205; 1880, Rep. majority 21,783; 1884, Rep. 
plurality 14,693; 1888, Rep. plurality 21,271. 


d 













































88 


POLITICAL INFORMATION. 


POPULAR VOTE, 

SHOWING HOW EACH STATE WENT AND BY WHAT MAJORITY 
THE PARTY CARRIED IT FROM 1824 TO DATE. 

For Presidential candidates from 1824 to and including 
1888. Prior to 1824 electors were chosen by the legisla¬ 
tures of the different States. 

1824, J. Q. Adams—Had 105,321 to 155,872 for Jack- 
son, 44,282 for Crawford, and 46,587 for Clay. Jackson 
over Adams, 50,551. Adams less than combined vote of 
others, 140,869. Of the whole vote Adams had 29.92 per 
cent., Jackson 44.27, Clay 13.23, Crawford 13.23. Adams 
elected by House of Representatives. 

1828, Jackson—Had 647,231 to 509,097 for Adams. 
Jackson’s majority, 138,134. Of the whole vote Jackson 
had 55.97 percent., Adams 44.03. 

1832, Jackson—Had 687,502 to 530,189 for Clay, and 
33,108 for Floyd and Wirt combined. Jackson’s majority, 
124,205. Of the whole vote Jackson had 54.96 per cent., 
Clay 42.39, and others combined 2.65. 

1836, Van Buren—Had 761,549 to 736,656, the com¬ 
bined vote for Harrison, White, Webster and Maguin. 
Van Buren’s majority, 24,893. Of the whole vote Van 
Buren had 50.83 per cent., and the others combined 49.17. 

1840, Harrison—Had 1,275,017 to 1,128,702 for Van 
Buren, and 7,059 for Birney. Harrison’s majority, 139,- 
256. Of the whole vote Harrison had 52.89 per cent., 
Van Buren 46.82, and Birney .29. 

1844, Polk—Had 1,337,243 to 1,299,068 for Clay, and 
62,300 for Birney. Polk over Clay, 38,175. Polk less 
than others combined, 24,125. Of the whole vote Polk 
had 49.55 per cent.. Clay 48.14, and Birney 2.21. 

1848, Taylor—Had 1,360,101 to 1,220,544 for Cass, and 
291,263 for Van Buren. Taylor over Cass, 139,557. 
Taylor less than others combined, 151,706. Of the whole 
vote Taylor had 47.36 per cent., Cass, 42.50, and Van 
Buren 10.14. 

1852, Pierce—Had 1,601,474 to 1,386,578 for Scott, and 
156,149 for Hale. Pierce over all, 58,747. Of the whole 
vote Pierce had 50.90 per cent., Scott 44.10, and Hale 4.97. 

1856, Buchanan—Had 1,838,169 to 1,341,264 for Fre¬ 
mont, and 874,534 for Fillmore. Buchanan over Fremont 
496,905. Buchanan less than combined vote of others, 
377,629. Of the whole vote Buchanan had 45.34 per 
cent., Fremont 33.09, and Fillmore 21.57. 

1860, Lincoln—Had 1,866,352 to 1,375,157 for Douglas, 
845,763 for Breckinridge, and 589,581 for Bell. Lincoln 
over Breckinridge, 491,195. Lincoln less than Douglas 
and Breckinridge combined, 354,568. Lincoln less than 
combined vote of all others, 944,149. Of the whole vote 
Lincoln had 39.91 per cent., Douglas 29.40, Breckinridge 
18.08, and Bell 12.61. 

1864, Lincoln—Had 2,216,067 to 1,808,725 for McClel¬ 
lan. (Eleven States not voting, viz.: Alabama, Arkan¬ 
sas, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, North 
Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas and Virginia.) 
Lincoln’s majority, 408,342. Of the whole vote Lincoln 
had 55.06 per cent., and McClellan 44.94. 
r 1868, Grant—Had 3,015,071 to 2,709,613 for Seymour. 
(Three States not voting, viz.: Mississippi, Texas and 
Virginia.) Grant’s majority, 305,458. Of the whole vote 
Grant had 52.67 per cent., and McClellan 47.33. 

1872, Grant—Had 3,597,070 to 2,834,079 for Greeley, 
29,408 for O’Connor, and 5,608 for Black. Grant’s major¬ 
ity 729,975. Of the whole vote Grant had 55.63 per cent., 
Greeley 43.83, O’Connor .15, Black .09. 

1876, Hayes—Had 4,033,950 to 4,284,885 for Tilden, 
81,740 for Cooper, 9,522 for Smith, and 2,636 scattering. 
Tilden’s majority over Hayes 250,935. Tilden’s majority 
of the entire vote cast, 157,037. Hayes less than the 


combined vote of others, 344,833. Of the whole vote 
cast Hayes had 47.95 percent., Tilden 50.94 per cent., 
Cooper .97 per cent., Smith .11 per cent., scattering .03. 

1880, Garfield—Had 4,449,053 to 4,442,035 for Hancock, 
307, 306 for Weaver, and 12,576 scattering. Garfield over 
Hancock, 7,018. Garfield less than the combined vote for 
others, 313,864. Of the popular vote Garfield had 48.26 
per cent., Hancock 48.25, Weaver 3.33, scattering .13. 

1884, Cleveland—Had 4,913,248 to 4,848,150 for Blaine, 
151,062 for St. John, 133,728 for Butler. Cleveland over 
Blaine, 65,098. Cleveland less than entire vote of oppo- 
iiGiits 2^9 

1888, Harrison—Had 5,430,607 to 5,538,045 for Cleve¬ 
land, 257,243 to Fisk, and 114,623 to the Labor issue. 
Cleveland over Harrison, 107,438. Harrison less than 
entire vote of opponents, 479,304. 


180.61 

265.32 

466.09 

672.75 

155.79 

207.89 

317.21 

417.72 

134.39 

162.88 

215.89 

250.37 

115.92 

127.62 

146.93 

161.05 

106.09 

110.25 

116.64 

121.00 


HOW TO CONDUCT A SUCCESSFUL 
BUSINESS. 

That short credit and small profits form the golden rule 
for success in trade may be seen from the following table, 
exhibiting the amounts realized for $100 at various percent¬ 
ages during various periods. 

Am’t at Am’t at Am’t at Am’t at 
3 pr. ct. 5 pr. ct. 8 pr. ct. 10 pr. ct. 
If turned over every 3 months, $326.20 $703.99 $2,172.45 $4,525 92 
“6 “ 

“ 8 “ 

“ 12 “ 

“ 2 years, 

“ 5 “ 

Concerning Coal and Iron.—First notice of stone coal 
is B. C. 371. 

The coal fields of England were the first practically 
developed. 

First record of stone coal used in England was A. D. 820. 

Records of regular mining in England first made in 1180. 

Coal first used in London in 1240. 

First tax laid on coal in England in 1379. 

Tax was repealed in 1831, having been taxed 400 years. 

First patent for making iron with pit coal was granted 
to Simeon Sturtevant, in 1612, but was not successful. 

On Coal, Steam Heating, Etc.—In 1747 iron was made 
in England with pit coal, suitable for the manufacture of 
cannon. In 1788 the production of iron with pit coal in 
England was 48,300 tons; with charcoal, 13,000 tons. In 
1864 the production of iron in Great Britain was 5,000,- 
000 tons. Wooden rails in mines were used in 1777. 
Cast-iron rails in mines were used in 1790. Wrought-iron 
rails in mines were used in 1815. Coal gas first made use 
of practically in 1798. 

American Coal Fields.—First coal fields worked in 
America were the bituminous fields at Richmond, Va., 
discovered in 1750. This coal was used at Westliam, on 
the James river, to make shot and shell during the War 
of Independence. The first use of anthracite coal was in 
1768-69. First used for smithing purposes in 1790. First 
used to burn in a common grate in 1808. First success- 
full use of anthracite coal for the smelting of iron was in 
1839, at the Pioneer Furnace, at Pottsville, Pa. It had 
been tried on the Lehigh in 1826, but was unsuccessful. 
The great shaft of the Philadelphia and Reading Iron 
Company has been sunk to a depth of 1,569 feet from the 
surface to the great mammoth coal vein which attains a 
thickness of 25 feet, in that distance passing through no 
less than 15 coal seams, of which 6 are workable and have 
an average thickness together of 64 feet. Even then 
there are a number of coal seams underlying these. 





















































THE FAMILY PHYSICIAN. 


89 



The following receipts written by DR. J. H. GUNN 
will be found of great value, especially in emergencies : 

Asthma. —Take hyssop water and poppy water, of each 
ten ounces ; oxymel of squills, six ounces; syrup of maiden 
hair, two ounces. Take one spoonful when you find any 
difficulty in breathing. 

Ague in the Breast. —Take one part of gum camphor, 
two parts yellow bees-wax, three parts clean lard; let all 
melt slowly, in any vessel [earthen best], on stove. Use 
either cold or warm ; spread very thinly on cotton or linen 
cloths, covering those with flannel. No matter if the 
breast is broken, it will cure if persevered in. Do not, no 
matter how painful, cease from drawing milk from the 
breast that is affected. 

Ague, Mixture.— Mix twenty grains quinine with one 
pint diluted gin or port wine, and add ten grains subcar¬ 
bonate of iron. Dose, a Avine-glass each hour until the 
ague is broken, and then two or three times a day until 
the whole has been used. 

2. Take Peruvian bark, two ounces; wild cherry tree 
bark, 1 ounce ; cinnamon, one drachm; powdered capsicum, 
one teaspoonful; sulphur, one ounce; port wine, two 
quarts. Let it stand a day or two. Dose, a wine-glassful 
every two or three hours until the disease is broken, and 
then two or three times a day until all is taken. 

Sprained Ankle.— Wash the ankle frequently with 
cold salt and water, which is far better than warm vinegar 
or decoctions of herbs. Keep your foot as cold as possible 
to prevent inflammation, and sit with it elevated on a 
cushion. Live on very low diet, and take every day some 
cooling medicine. By obeying these directions only, a 
sprained ankle has been cured in a few days. 

Apoplexy. —Occurs only in the corpulent or obese, and 
the gross or high livers. To treat, raise the head to a 
nearly upright position ; unloose all tight clothes, strings, 
etc., and apply cold water to the head and warm water and 
warm cloths to the feet. Have the apartment cool and 
well ventilated. Give nothing by the mouth until the 
breathing is relieved, and then only draughts of cold 
water. 

Preparation for the Cure of Baldness.— Rum, one 
pint; alcohol, one ounce; distilled water, one ounce, tinct¬ 
ure of cantharides, a half drachm; carbonate of potash, a 
half drachm; carbonate of ammonia, one drachm. Mix 
the liquids after having dissolved the salts, and filter. 
After the skin of the head has been wetted with this prepa¬ 
ration for several minutes, it should be washed with water. 

Bilious Colic.— Mix two tablespoonfuls of Indian meal 
in half a pint of cold water; drink it at two draughts. 


Bilious Complaints. —Take the root and branch of 
dandelion, and steep it in soft water a sufficient length of 
time to extract all the essence; then strain the liquor and 
simmer until it becomes quite thick. Dose: From one to 
three glasses a day may be taken with good effect. 

Blackberry Cordial. —To one quart blackberry juice 
add one pound white sugar, one tablespoonful each cloves, 
allspice, cinnamon and nutmeg. Boil together fifteen 
minutes, and add a wine-glass of whisky, brandy or rum. 
Bottle while hot, cork tight and seal. Used in diarrhcea 
and dysentery. Dose, a wine-glassful for an adult, half 
that quantity for a child. It can be taken three or four 
times a day if the case is severe. 

Blisters. — On the feet, occasioned by walking, are 
cured by drawing a needleful of worsted thread through 
them; clip it off at both ends and leave it till the skin 
peals off. 

Raising 1 Blood. —Make a tea of white oak bark, and 
drink freely during the day; or take half a pound of yellow 
dock root, boil in new milk, say one quart; drink one gill 
three times a day, and take one pill of white pine pitch 
every day. 

How to Stop Blood. —Take the fine dust of tea, or the 
scrapings of the inside of tanned leather. Bind it upon 
the wound closely, and blood will soon cease to flow. 

Boils. —Make a poultice of ginger and flour, and lay it 
on the boil. This will soon draw it to a head. 

Swelled Bowels in Children.— Bathe the stomach of 
the child with catnip steeped, mixed with fresh butter and 
sugar. 

Chilblains. —Dr. Fergus recommends sulphurous acid 
in this affection. It should be applied with a cameFs hair 
brush, or by means of a spray producer. One application 
of this effects a cure. The acid should be used pure. A 
good wash for hands or feet affected with chilblains is sul¬ 
phurous acid, three parts; glycerine, one part, and water 
one part. The acid will be found particularly useful in the 
irritating, tormenting stage of chilblains. 

Chilblains and Chapped Hands.— When chilblains 
manifest themselves, the best remedy not only for prevent¬ 
ing their ulcerating, but overcoming the tingling, itching- 
pain, and stimulating the irculation of the part to healthy 
action, is the liniment of belladona, two drachms; the lini¬ 
ment of aconite, one drachm; carbolic acid, ten drops; 
collodion flexile, one ounce; painted with a camel’s hair pen¬ 
cil over their surface. When the chilblains vesicate, ulcer¬ 
ate or slough, it is better to omit the aconite and apply the 
other components of the liniment without it. The collodion 























































90 


THE FAMILY PHYSICIAN. 


flexile forms a coating or protecting film, which excludes 
the air, while the sedative liniments allay the irritation, 
generally of no trivial nature. For chapped hands we 
advise the free use of glycerine and good oil, in the propor¬ 
tion of two parts of the former to four of the latter; after 
this has been well rubbed into the hands and allowed to 
remain fora little time, and the hands subsequently washed 
with Castile soap and water, we recommend the bella¬ 
donna and collodion flexile to be painted on, and the pro¬ 
tective film allowed to remain permanently. These com¬ 
plaints not unfrequently invade persons of languid circula¬ 
tion and relaxed habit, who should be put on a generous 
regimen, and treated with ferruginous tonics. Obstinate 
cases are occasionally met with which no local application 
will remedy, unless some disordered state of the system is 
removed, or the general condition of the patient’s health 
improved. Chapped lips are also benefited by the stimu¬ 
lating form of application we advocate, but the aconite 
must not be allowed to get on the lips, or a disagreeable 
tingling results. 

Chilblain Balm. —Boil together ten fluid ounces olive 
oil, two fluid ounces Venice turpentine, and one ounce yel¬ 
low wax; strain, and while still warm add, constantly stir¬ 
ring, two and a half drachms balsam of Peru and ten 
grains camphor. 

Cure for Chilblain. —Make a strong lye by boiling 
wood ashes in water. Put your feet in a small tub and 
cover them with the lye as hot as you can bear it. Grad¬ 
ually add more lye, hotter and hotter. Keep them in half 
an hour, bathing and rubbing them continually, and being 
very careful to keep the lye hot. 

Chilblain Lotion. — Dissolve one ounce muriate of 
ammonia in one-half pint cider vinegar, and apply fre¬ 
quently. One-half pint of alcohol may be added to this 
lotion with good effects. 

Chilblain Ointment. —Take mutton tallow and lard, 
of each three-fourths of a pound avoirdupois; melt in an 
iron vessel, and add hydrated oxide of iron, two ounces, 
stirring continually with an iron spoon until the mass is of 
a uniform black color; when nearly cool add Venice tur¬ 
pentine, two ounces; Armenian bole, one ounce; oil of 
bergamot, one drachm; rub up the bole with a little olive 
oil before putting it in. Apply several times daily by put¬ 
ting it upon lint or linen. It heals the worst cases in a few 
days. 

Russian Remedy for Chilblains.— Slices of the rind 
of fully ripe cucumbers, dried with the soft parts attached. 
Previous to use they are softened by soaking them in warm 
water, and are then bound on the sore parts with the inner 
side next them, and left on all night. This treatment is 
said to be adopted for both broken and unbroken chilblains. 

How to Cure Itching 1 Chilblains.— Take hydrochloric 
acid, one part, and water, eight parts; mix. Apply on 
going to bed. This must not be used if the skin is broken. 

Sal ammoniac, two ounces ; rum, one pint; camphor, two 
drachms. The affected part is wetted night and morning, 
and when dry is touched with a little simple ointment of 
any kind — cold cream or pomatum. 

Oil of turpentine, four ounces; camphor, six drachms ; 
oil of cajeput, two drachms. Apply with friction. 

How to Cure Broken Chilblains.— Mix together four 
fluid ounces collodion, one and a half fluid ounces Venice 
turpentine, and one fluid ounce castor oil. 

How to Cure Corns. — Take equal parts of mercurial 
and galbanum ointments ; mix them well together, spread 
\ on a piece of soft leather, and apply it to the corns morn- 
J ing and evening. In a few days benefit will be derived, 
y Take two ounces of gum ammoniac, two ounces of yellow 
3) wax, and six ounces of verdigris; melt them together, and 


spread the composition on soft leather; cut away as much 
of the corn as you can, then apply the plaster, and renew 
it every fortnight till the corn is away. Get four ounces 
of white diachylon plaster, four ounces of shoemaker’s wax, 
and sixty drops of muriatic acid or spirits of salt. Boil 
them for a few minutes in an earthen pipkin, and when cold 
roll the mass between the hands, and apply it on a piece of 
white leather. Soak the feet well in warm water, then with 
a sharp instrument pare off as much of the corn as can be 
done without pain, and bind up the part with a piece of 
linen or muslin thoroughly saturated with sperm oil, or, 
which is better, the oil which floats upon the surface of the 
herring or mackerel. After three or four days the dressing 
may be removed by scraping, when the new skin will be 
found of a soft and healthy texture, and less liable to the 
formation of a new corn than before. Corns may be pre¬ 
vented by wearing easy shoes. Bathe the feet frequently in 
lukewarm water, with a little salt or potashes dissolved in 
it. The corn itself will be completely destroyed by rubbing 
it often with a little caustic solution of potash till the soft 
skin is formed. Scrape to a pulp sufficient Spanish garlic 
and bind on the corn over night, after first soaking it well 
in warm water, and scrape off as much as possible of the 
hardened portion in the morning. Repeat the application 
as required. 

How to Cure Soft Corns.— Scrape a piece of common 
chalk, and put a pinch to the soft Corn, and bind a piece of 
linen rag upon it. 

How to Cure Tender Corns.— A strong solution of 
tannic acid is said to be an excellent application to tender 
feet as well as a preventive of the offensive odor attendant 
upon their profuse perspiration. To those of our readers 
who live far away in the country, we would suggest a strong 
decoction of oak bark as a substitute. 

Caustic for Corns. — Tincture of iodine, four drachms; 
iodide of iron, twelve grains; chloride of antimony, four 
drachms; mix, and apply with a camel’s hair brush, after 
paring the corn. It is said to cure in three times. 

How to Relieve Corns. —Bind them up at night with 
a cloth wet with tincture of arnica, to relieve the pain, and 
during the day occasionally moisten the stocking over the 
corn with arnica if the shoe is not large enough to allow the 
corn being bound up with a piece of linen rag. 

Remedy for Corns. — 1 . The pain occasioned by corns 
may be greatly alleviated by the following preparation : 
Into a one-ounce vial put two drachms of muriatic acid and 
six drachms of rose-water. With this mixture wet the 
corns night and morning for three days. Soak the feet 
every evening in warm water without soap. Put one-third 
of the acid into the water, and with a little picking the corn 
will be dissolved. 2. Take a lemon, cut off a small piece, 
then nick it so as to let in the toe with the corn, tie this on 
at night so that it cannot move, and in the morning you will 
find that, with a blunt knife, you may remove a consider¬ 
able portion of the corn. Make two or three applications, 
and great relief will be the result. 

How to Cure Solvent Corns. —Expose salt of tartar 
(pearlash) in a wide-mouth vial in a damp place until it 
forms an oil-like liquid, and apply to the corn. 

How to Cure Cholera. — Take laudanum, tincture 
cayenne, compound tincture rhubarb, peppermint and cam¬ 
phor, of each equal parts. Dose, ten to thirty drops. In 
plain terms, take equal parts tincture of opium, red pepper, 
rhubarb, peppermint and camphor, and mix them for use. 
In case of diarrhoea, take a dose of ten to twenty drops in 
three or four teaspoonfuls of water. No one who has this 
by him, and takes it in time, will ever have the cholera. 

Signs of Disease in Children.— In the case of a baby 
not yet able to talk, it must cry when it is ill. The colic 





























THE FAMILY PHYSICIAN. 


91 


makes a baby cry loud, long, and passionately, and shed 
tears — stopping for a moment and beginning again. 

If the chest is affected, it gives one sharp cry, breaking- 
off immediately, as if crying hurt it. 

If the head is affected, it cries in sharp, piercing shrieks, 
with low moans and wails between. Or there may be quiet 
dozing, and startings between. 

It is easy enough to perceive, where a child is attacked 
by disease, that there has some change taken place; for 
either its skin will be dry and hot, its appetite gone; it is 
stupidly sleepy, or fretful or crying; it is thirsty, or pale 
and languid, or in some way betrays that something is 
wrong. When a child vomits, or has a diarrhoea, or is 
costive and feverish, st is owing to some derangement, and 
needs attention. But these various symptoms may con¬ 
tinue for a day or two before the nature of the disease can 
be determined. A warm bath, warm drinks, etc., can do 
no harm, and may help to determine the case. On coming 
out of the bath, and being well rubbed with the hand, the 
skin will show symptoms of rash, if it is a skin disease 
which has commenced. By the appearance of the rash, 
the nature of the disease can be learned. Measles are in 
patches, dark red, and come out first about the face. If 
scarlet fever is impending, the skin will look a deep pink 
all over the body, though most so about the neck and face. 
Chicken-pox shows fever, but not so much running at the 
nose, and appearances of cold, as in measles, nor is there 
as much of a cough. Besides, the spots are smaller, and do 
not run much together, and are more diffused over the 
whole surface of the skin; and enlarge into blisters in a day 
or two. 

Howto Cure Consumption. — Take one tablespoon¬ 
ful of tar, and the yolks of three hen’s eggs, beat them well 
together. Dose, one tablespoonful morning, noon and 
night. 

Croup, Remedy for in One Minute. — This remedy is 
simply alum. Take a knife or grater, and shave or grate 
off in small particles about a teaspoonful of alum; mix it 
with about twice its quantity of sugar, to make it palatable, 
and administer as quickly as possible. Its effects will be 
truly magical, as almost instantaneous relief will be 
afforded. 

Cholera Remedy, Hartshorne’s.— Take of chloro¬ 
form, tincture of opium, spirits of camphor, and spirits of 
aromatic ammonia, each one and one-half fluid drachms; 
creosote, three drops; oil of cinnamon, eight drops; brandy, 
two fluid drachms. Dilute a teaspoonful with a wine-glass 
of water, and give two teaspoonfuls every five minutes, fol¬ 
lowed by a lump of ice. 

Cure for Dandruff. — Good mild soap is one of the 
safest remedies, and is sufficient in ordinary cases; car¬ 
bonate of potash or soda is too alkaline for the skin. Every 
application removes a portion of the cuticle, as you may 
observe by the smoothness of the skin of your hands after 
washing them with it. Borax is recommended ; but this 
is also soda combined with a weak acid, boracic acid, and 
may by protracted use also injuriously act on the scalp. 
Soap is also soda or potash combined with the weak, fatty 
acids; and when the soap contains an excess of the alkalies 
or is sharp, it is as injurious as the carbonate of potash. 
All that injures the scalp injures the growth of the hair. 
One of the best applications from the vegetable kingdom is 
the mucilaginous decoction of the root of the burdock, 
called bardane in French (botanical name. Lappa Minor). 
In the mineral kingdom the best remedy is a solution of 
flowers of sulphur in water, which may be made by the ad¬ 
dition of a very small portion of sulphide of potassium, say 
ten or twenty grains to the pint. This solution is shaken 
up with the sulphur, and the clear liquid remaining on the 


top is used. This recipe is founded on the fact that sul¬ 
phur is a poison for inferior vegetable or animal growth, 
like dandruff, itch, etc., and is not at all a poison for the 
superior animal like man. 

How to Cure Diphtheria.— A French physician ex¬ 
presses his preference for lemon juice, as a local applica¬ 
tion in diphtheria, to chlorate of potash, nitrate of silver, 
perchloride of lime water. He uses it by dipping a little 
plug of cottonwood, twisted around a wire, in the juice, 
and pressing it against the diseased surface four or five 
times daily. 

How to Cure Bad Breath. —Bad or foul breath will 
be removed by taking a teaspoonful of the following mixt¬ 
ure after each meal: One ounce liquor of potassa, one 
ounce chloride of soda, one and one-half ounces phosphate 
of soda, and three ounces of water. 

2. Chlorate of potash, three drachms; rose-water, four 
ounces. Dose, a tablespoonful four or five times daily. 

How to Cure Bunions. —A bunion is a swelling on 
the ball of the great toe, and is the result of pressure and 
irritation by friction. The treatment for corns applies 
also to bunions; but in consequence of the greater exten¬ 
sion of the disease, the cure is more tedious. When a 
bunion is forming it may be stopped by poulticing and 
carefully opening it with a lancet. 

Howto Cure Burns and Scalds.— Take half a pound 
of powdered alum, dissolve it in a quart of water; bathe 
the burn or scald with a linen rag, wetted with this mixt¬ 
ure, then bind the'wet rag on it with a strip of linen, and 
moisten the bandage with the alum water frequently, 
without removing it during two or three days. 

Tea Leaves for Burns. —Dr. Searles, of Warsaw, 
Wis., reports the immediate relief from pain in severe 
burns and scalds by the application of a poultice of tea 
leaves. 

How to Cure Cancer. —Boil down the inner bark of 
red and white oak to the consistency of molasses; apply as 
a plaster, shifting it once a week; or, burn red-oak bark to 
ashes; sprinkle it on the sore till it is eaten out; then apply 
a plaster of tar; or, take garget berries and leaves of stra¬ 
monium; simmer them together in equal parts of neatsfoot 
oil and the tops of hemlock; mix well together, and apply 
it to the parts affected; at the same time make a tea of 
winter-green (root and branch); put a handful into two 
quarts of water; add two ounces of sulphur and drink of 
this tea freely during the day. 

Castor Oil Mixture. —Castor oil, one dessert spoonful; 
magnesia, one dessert spoonful. Rub together into a 
paste. By this combination, the taste of the oil is almost 
entirely concealed, and children take it without opposition. 

How to Disguise Castor Oil.— Rub up two drops oil 
of cinnamon with an ounce of glycerine and add an ounce 
of castor oil. Children will take it as a luxury and ask 
for more. 

Castor Oil Emulsions. —Take castor oil and syrup, 
each one ounce; the yolk of an egg, and orange flower 
water, one-half ounce. Mix. This makes a very pleasant 
emulsion, which is readily taken by adults as well as chil¬ 
dren. 

How to Cure Catarrh. —Take the bark of sassafras 
root, dry and pound it, use it as a snuff, taking two or 
three pinches a day. 

How to Cure Chilblains.— Wash the parts in strong 
alum water, apply as hot as can be borne. 

How to Cure Cold. —Take three cents’ worth of liq¬ 
uorice, three of rock candy, three of gum arabic, and put 
them into a quart of water; simmer them till thoroughly 





























92 


THE FAMILY PHYSICIAN. 


dissolved, then add three cents’ worth paregoric, and a like 
quantity of antimonial wine. 

How to Cure Corns. —Boil tobacco down to an ex¬ 
tract, then mix with it a quantity of white pine pitch, and 
apply it to the corn; renew it once a week until the corn 
disappears. 

Good Cough Mixture. —Two ounces ammonia mixt¬ 
ure; five ounces camphor mixture; one drachm tincture of 
digitalis (foxglove); one-half ounce each of sweet spirits of 
nitre and syrup of poppies; two drachms solution of sul¬ 
phate of morphia. A tablespoonful of this mixture is to 
be taken four times a day. 

2. Tincture of blood-root, one ounce; sulphate of mor¬ 
phia, one and a half grains; tincture of digitalis, one-half 
ounce; wine of antimony, one-half ounce; oil of winter- 
green, ten drops. Mix. Dose from twenty to forty drops 
twice or three times a day. Excellent for a hard, dry 
cough. 

3. Common sweet cider, boiled down to one-half, makes 
a most excellent syrup for colds or coughs for children, is 
pleasant to the taste, and will keep for a year in a cool 
cellar. In recovering from an illness, the system has a 
craving for some pleasant drink. This is found in cider 
which is placed on the fire as soon as made, and allowed to 
come to a boil, then cooled, put in casks, and kej3t in a 
cool cellar. 

4. Roast a large lemon very carefully without burning; 
when it is thoroughly hot, cut and squeeze into a cup upon 
three ounces of sugar candy, finely powdered; take a spoon¬ 
ful whenever your cough troubles you. It is as good as it 
is pleasant. 

Cure for Deafness. —Take ant’s eggs and union juice. 
Mix and drop them into the ear. Drop into the ear, at 
night, six or eight drops of hot sweet oil. 

Remedies for Diarrhoea. — 1 . Take one teaspoonful 
of salt, the same of good vinegar, and a tablespoonful of 
water; mix and drink. It acts like a charm on the system, 
and even one dose will generally cure obstinate cases of 
diarrhoea, or the first stages of cholera. If the first does 
not bring complete relief, repeate the dose, as it is quite 
harmless. 2. The best rhubarb root, pulverized, 1 ounce; 
peppermint leaf, 1 ounce, capsicum, £ ounce; cover with 
boiling water and steep thoroughly, strain, and add bi¬ 
carbonate of potash and essence of cinnamon, of each % 
ounce; with brandy (or good whisky); equal in amount to 
the whole, and loaf sugar, four ounces. Dose—for an 
adult, 1 or 2 tablespoons; for a child, 1 to 2 teaspoons, 
from 3 to 6 times per day, until relief is obtained. 3. To 
half a bushel of blackberries; well mashed, add a quarter 
of a pound of allspice, 2 ounces of cinnamon, 2 ounces of 
cloves; pulverize well, mix and boil slowly until properly 
done; then strain or squeeze the juice through home-spun 
or flannel, and add to each pint of the juice 1 pound of 
loaf sugar, boil again for some time, take it off, and while 
cooling, add half a gallon of the best Cognac brandy. 

Cure for Chronic Diarrhoea. —Rayer recommends the 
association of cinchona, charcoal and bismuth in the treat¬ 
ment of chronic diarrhoea, in the following proportions: 
Subnitrate of bismuth, one drachm; cinchona, yellow, 
powdered, one-half drachm; charcoal, vegetable, one 
drachm. Make twenty powders and take two or three a 
day during the intervals between meals. 

Cures for Dysentery. —Tincture rhubarb, tincture of 
capsicum, tincture of camphor, essence of ginger and 
laudanum, equal parts. Mix; shake Avell and take from 
ten to twenty drops every thirty minutes until relief is ob¬ 
tained. This is a dose for an adult. Half the amount for 
a child under twelve years of age. 2. Take some butter 
off the churn, immediately after being churned, just as it 


is, without being salted or washed; clarify it over the fire 
like honey. Skim off all the milky particles when melted 
over a clear fire. Let the patient (if an adult) take two 
tablespoonfuls of the clarified remainder, twice or thrice 
within the day. This has never failed to effect a cure, 
and in many cases it has been almost instantaneous. 3. In 
diseases of this kind the Indians use the roots and leaves 
of the blackberry bush—a decoction of which, in hot water, 
well boiled down, is taken in doses of a gill before each 
meal, and before retiring to bed. It is an almost infallible 
cure. 4. Beat one egg in a teacup; add one tablespoonful 
of loaf sugar and half a teaspoonful of ground spice; fill the 
cup with sweet milk. Give the patient one tablespoonful 
once in ten minutes until relieved. 5. Take one table¬ 
spoonful of common salt, and mix it with two tablespoon¬ 
fuls of vinegar and pour upon it a half pint of water, 
either hot or cold (only let it be taken cool.) A wine-glass 
full of this mixture in the above proportions, taken every 
half hour, will be found quite efficacious in curing dysen¬ 
tery. If the stomach be nauseated, a wine-glass full taken 
every hour will suffice. For a child, the quantity should 
be a teaspoonful of salt and one of vinegar in a teacupful 
of water. 

Dropsy. —Take the leaves of a currant bush and make 
into tea, drink it. 

Cure for Drunkenness.— The following singular 
means of curing habitual drunkenness is employed by a 
Russian physician, Dr. Schreiber, of Brzese Litewski : It 
consists in confining the drunkard in a room, and in fur¬ 
nishing him at discretion with his favorite spirit diluted 
with two-thirds of water ; as much wine, beer and coffee as 
he desires, but containing one-third of spirit; all the food 
—the bread, meat, and the legumes are steeped in spirit 
and water. The poor devil is continually drunk and dort. 
On the fifth day of this regime he has an extreme disgust 
for spirit; he earnestly requests other diet; but his desire 
must not be yielded to, until the poor wretch no longer de¬ 
sires to eat or drink ; he is then certainly cured of his pen¬ 
chant for drunkenness. He acquires such a disgust for 
brandy or other spirits that he is ready to vomit at the very 
sight of it. 

Cure for Dyspepsia.— 1 . Take bark of white poplar 
root, boil it thick, and add a little spirit, and then lay it on 
the stomach. 

2. Take wintergreen and black cherry-tree bark and yel¬ 
low dock : put into two quarts of water ; boil down to three 
pints ; take two or three glasses a day. 

Here are two remedies for dyspepsia, said by those who 
“have tried them” to be infallible. 1 . Eat onions, 2. 
Take two parts of well-dried and pounded pods of red pep¬ 
per, mixed with one part of ground mustard, and sift it 
over everything you eat or drink. 

How to Cure Earache. —Take a small piece of cotton 
batting or cotton wool, make a depression in the center 
with the finger, and then fill it up with as much ground 
pepper as will rest on a five-cent piece; gather it into a 
ball and tie it up ; dip the ball into sweet oil and insert it 
in the ear, covering the latter with cotton wool, and use a 
bandage or cap to retain it in its place. Almost instant re¬ 
lief will be experienced ; and the application is so gentle 
that an infant will not get injured by it, but experience re¬ 
lief as well as adults. Roast a piece of lean mutton, squeeze 
out the juice and drop it into the ear as hot as it can be 
borne. Roast an onion and put into the ear as hot as it can 
be borne. 

How to Cure Erysipelas.— Dissolve five ounces of salt 
in one pint of good brandy and take two tablespoonfuls 
three times per day. 


€ 

























THE FAMILY PHYSICIAX. 


93 


Cure for Inflamed Eyes. —Pour boiling water on 
alder flowers, and steep them like tea; when cold, put 
three or four drops of laudanum into a small glass of the 
alder-tea, and let the mixture run into the eyes two or three 
times a day, and the eyes will become perfectly strong in 
the course of a week. 

Cure for Weeping* Eyes.— Wash the eyes in chamo¬ 
mile tea night and morning. 

Eyes, Granular Inflammation.—A prominent ocu¬ 
list says that the contagious Egyptian or granular inflam¬ 
mation of the eyes is spreading throughout the country, 
and that he has been able in many, and indeed in a major¬ 
ity of cases, to trace the disease to what are commonly 
called rolling towels. Towels of this kind are generally 
found in country hotels and the dwellings of the working 
classes, and, being thus used by nearly every one, are made 
the carriers of one of the most troublesome diseases of the 
eye. This being the case, it is urgently recommended that 
the use of these rolling towels be discarded, and thus one 
of the special vehicles for the spread of a most dangerous 
disorder of the eyes—one by which thousands of working¬ 
men are annually deprived of their means of support—will 
no longer exist. 

Cure for Sty in Eye. —Bathe frequently with warm 
water. When the sty bursts, use an ointment composed of 
one part of citron ointment and four of spermaceti, well 
rubbed together, and smear along the edge of the eye-lid. 

Cure for Felons. —1. Stir one-half teaspoonful of 
water into an ounce of Venice turpentine until the mix¬ 
ture appears like granulated honey. Wrap a good coating 
of it around the finger with a cloth. If the felon is only 
recent, the pain will be removed in six hours. 

2. As soon as the part begins to swell, wrap it with a 
cloth saturated thoroughly with the tincture of lobelia. An 
old physician says, that he has known this to cure scores of 
cases, and that it never fails if applied in season. 

Cure for Fever and Ague. —Take of cloves and cream 
of tartar each one-half ounce, and one ounce of Peruvian 
bark. Mix in a small quantity of tea, and take it on well 
days, in such quantities as the stomach will bear. 

Cure for Fever Sores. —Take of hoarhound, balm, 
sarsaparilla, loaf sugar, aloes, gum camphor, honey, spike¬ 
nard, spirits of turpentine, each two ounces. Dose, one 
tablespoonful, three mornings, missing three; and for a 
wash, make a strong tea of sumach, washing the affected 
parts frequently, and keeping the bandage well wet. 

Cure for Fits. —Take of tincture of fox-glove, ten 
drops at each time twice a day, and increase one drop at 
each time as long as the stomach will bear it, or it causes a 
nauseous feeling. 

Glycerine Cream. —Receipt for chapped lips: Take 
of spermaceti, four drachms; Avhite wax, one drachm; oil 
of almonds, two troy ounces ; glycerine, one troy ounce. 
Melt the spermaceti, wax and oil together, and when cool¬ 
ing stir in glycerine and perfume. 

Glycerine Lotion. —For softening the skin of the face 
and hands, especially during the commencement of cold 
weather, and also for allaying the irritation caused by the 
razor : Triturate, four and a half grains of cochineal with 
one and a half fluid ounces of boiling water, adding gradu¬ 
ally ; then add two and a half fluid ounces of alcohol. 
Also make an emulsion of eight drops of ottar of roses 
with thirty grains of gum arabic and eight fluid ounces of 
Avater ; then add three fluid ounces of glycerine, and ten 
fluid drachms of quince mucilage. Mix the two liquids. 

Fleshworms.— These specks, when they exist in any 
number, are a cause of much unsightliness. They are min¬ 
ute corks, if Ave may use the term, of coagulated lymp, Avliich 


close the orifices of some of the pores or exhalent vessels of 
the skin. On the skin immediately adjacent to them be¬ 
ing pressed Avith the finger nails, these bits of coagulated 
lymph Avill come from it in a vermicular form. They are 
vulgarly called “ flesh Avorms,” many persons fancying 
them to be living creatures. These may be got rid of and 
prevented from returning, by Avashing with tepid water, by 
proper friction with a toAvel, and by the application of a 
little cold cream. The longer these little piles are per¬ 
mitted to remain in the skin the more firmly they become 
fixed; and after a time, when they lose their moisture they 
are converted into long bony spines as dense as bristles, and 
having much of that character. They arc knoAvn by the 
name of spotted achne. With regard to local treatment, 
the following lotions are calculated to be serviceable : 1. 
Distilled rose Avater, 1 pint; sulphate of zinc, 20 to 60 
grains. Mix. 2. Sulphate of copper, 20 grains; rose- 
AA r ater, 4 ounces ; Avater, 12 ounces. Mix. 3. Oil of SAveet 
almonds, 1 ounce ; fluid potash, 1 drachm. Shake Avell to¬ 
gether and then add rose-water, 1 ounce; pure Avater, 6 
ounces. Mix. The mode of using these remedies is to rub 
the pimples for some minutes Avith a rough towel, and then 
dab them with the lotion. 4. Wash the face twice a day 
with Avarm water, and rub dry Avith a coarse towel. Then 
Avith a soft towel rub in a lotion made of two ounces of 
Avhite brandy, one ounce of cologne, and one-half ounce of 
liquor potassa. 

How to Remove Freckles. —Freckles; sc persistently 
regular in their annual return, have annoyed the fail* sex 
from time immemorial, and various means have been de¬ 
vised to eradicate them, although thus far with no decidedly 
satisfactory results. The innumerable remedies in use for 
the removal of these vexatious intruders, are either simple 
and harmless washes, such as parsley or horseradish water, 
solutions of borax, etc., or injurious nostrums, consisting 
principally of lead and mercury salts. 

If the exact cause of freckles Avere known, a remedy for 
them might be found. A chemist in Moravia, observing 
the bleaching effect of mercurial preparations, inferred that 
the groAvth of a local parasitical fungus was the cause of the 
discoloration of the skin, Avhich extended and ripened its 
spores in the warmer season. Knowing that sulpho-carbo- 
late of zinc is a deadly enemy to all parasitic vegetation 
(itself not being othenvise injurious), he applied this salt 
for the purpose of removing the freckles. The compound 
consists of two parts of sulpho-carbolate of zinc, twenty-five 
parts of distilled glycerine, tAventy-five parts of rose-Avater, 
and five parts of scented alcohol, and is to be applied twice 
daily for from half an hour to an hour, then washed off with 
cold Avater. Protection against the sun by veiling and other 
means is recommended, and in addition, for persons of pale 
complexion, some mild preparation of iron. 

Gravel. — 1. Make a strong tea of the Ioav herb called 
heart’s ease, and drink freely. 2. Make of Jacob’s ladder 
a strong tea, and drink freely. 3. Make of bean leaves a 
strong tea, and drink freely. 

Wash for the Hair. —Castile soap, finely shaved, one 
teaspoonful; spirits of hartshorn, one drachm; alcohol, five 
ounces; cologne water and bay rum, in equal quantities 
enough to make eight ounces. This should be poured on 
the head, folloAved by warm water (soft water); the result 
will be, on Avashing, a copious lather and a smarting sensa¬ 
tion to the person operated on. Rub this Avell into the hair. 
Finally, rinse with warm Avater, and afterwards Avith cold 
water. If the head is very much clogged with dirt, the hair 
will come out plentifully, but the scalp will become white 
and perfectly clean. 

Hair Restorative. —Take of castor oil, six fluid ounces; 
alcohol, tAventy-six fluid ounces. Dissolve. Then add 
































94 


THE FAMILY PHYSICIAN. 


tincture of cantharides (made with strong alcohol), one 
fluid ounce; essence of jessamine (or other perfume), one 
and a half fluid ounces. 

Cure for Heartburn. —Sal volatile combined with cam¬ 
phor is a splendid remedy. 

Sick Headache. —Take a teaspoonful of powdered char¬ 
coal in molasses every morning, and wash it down with a 
little tea, or drink half a glass of raw rum or gin, and drink 
freely of mayweed tea. 

Headache. —Dr. Silvers, of Ohio, in the Philadelphia 
Medical and Surgical Reporter, recommends ergot in head¬ 
ache, especially the nervous or sick headache. He says it 
will cure a larger proportion of cases than any other remedy. 
His theory of its action is that it lessens the quantity of 
blood in the brain by contracting the muscular fibres of the 
arterial walls. He gives ten to twenty drops of the fluid 
extract, repeated every half hour till relief is obtained, or 
four or five doses used. In other forms of disease, where 
opium alone is contra-indicated, its bad effects are moder¬ 
ated, he says, by combining it with ergot. 

Headache Drops. —For the cure of nervous, sun, and 
sick headache, take two quarts of alcohol, three ounces of 
Castile soap, one ounce camphor, and two ounces ammonia. 
Bathe forehead and temples. 

Hive Syrup. —Put one ounce each of squills and seneca 
snake-root into one pint of Avater; boil down to one-half and 
strain. Then add one-half pound of clarified honey con¬ 
taining twelve grains tartrate of antimony. Dose for a child, 
ten drops to one teaspoonful, according to age. An excel¬ 
lent remedy for croup. 

How to Clean the Hair. —From the too frequent use 
of oils in the hair, many ladies destroy the tone and color 
of their tresses. The Hindoos have a Avay of remedying 
this. They take a hand basin filled Avith cold water, and 
have ready a small quantity of pea flour. The hair is in the 
first place submitted to the operation of being washed in 
cold AA r ater, a handful of the pea flour is then applied to the 
head and rubbed into the hair for ten minutes at least, the 
servant adding fresh Avater at short intervals, until it be¬ 
comes a perfect lather. The Avhole head is then washed 
quite clean with copious supplies of the aqueous fluid, 
combed, and aftenvards rubbed dry by means of coarse 
toAvels. The hard and soft brush is then resorted to, when 
the hair will be found to be Avholly free from all encumber¬ 
ing oils and other impurities, and assume a glossy softness, 
equal to the most delicate silk. This process tends to pre¬ 
serve the tone and natural color of the hair, Avhich is so fre¬ 
quently destroyed by the too constant use of caustic cos¬ 
metics. 

How to Soften Hands. —After cleansing the hands 
with soap, rub them Avell Avith oatmeal while Avet. 

How to Remove Stains from Hands.— Damp the 
hands first in water, then rub them Avith tartaric acid, or 
salt of lemons, as you Avould with soap; rinse them and rub 
them dry. Tartaric acid, or salt of lemons, will quickly 
remove stains from A\ r liite muslin or linen. Put less than 
half a teaspoonful of salt or acid into a tablespoonful of 
water ; AA r et the stain with it, and lay it in the sun for an 
hour; wet it once or tAvice with cold water during the time; 
if this does not quite remove it, repeat the acid Avater, and 
lay it in the sun. 

How to whiten Hands.— 1. Stir i of a pound of Cas¬ 
tile soap, and place it in a jar near the fire, pour over it £ 
pint of alcohol; when the soap is dissolved and mixed with 
the spirit, add 1 ounce of glycerine, the same of oil of al¬ 
monds, with a few drops of essence of violets, or ottar of 
roses, then pour it into moulds to cool for use. 2. A wine- 
glassful of eau-de-cologne, and one of lemon-juice, two 


cakes of broken Windsor soap, mixed well together, when 
hard, will form an excellent substance. 

How to Cure Scurf in the Head. —A simple and 
effectual remedy. Into a pint of Avater drop a lump of 
fresh quicklime, the size of aAA r alnut; let it stand all night, 
then pour the Avater off clear from the sediment or deposit, 
add ^ of a pint of the best vinegar, and Avash the head with 
the mixture. Perfectly harmless; only wet the roots of the 
hair. 

How to Cure Chapped Lips. —Take 2 ounces of Avhite 
wax, 1 ounce of spermaceti, 4 ounces of oil of almonds, 2 
ounces of honey, £ of an ounce of essence of bergamot, or 
any other scent. Melt the wax and spermaceti; then add 
the honey, and melt all together, and Avhen hot add the al¬ 
mond oil by degrees, stirring till cold. 2. Take oil of al¬ 
monds 3 ounces; spermaceti, £ ounce; virgin rice, £ ounce. 
Melt these together over a sIoav fire, mixing with them a 
little powder of alkane root to color it. Keep stirring till 
cold, and then add a feAV drops of the oil of rhodium. 3. 
Take oil of almonds, spermaceti, Avhite Avax, and white 
sugar candy, equal parts. These form a good, Avhite lip 
salve. 

How to Remove Moth Patches. —Wash the patches 
with solution of common bicarbonate of soda and water 
several times during the day for two days, or until the 
patches are removed, which will usually be in forty-eight 
hours. After the process wash Avith some nice toilet soap, 
and the skin will be left nice, smooth and clear of patches. 

How to Take Care of the Nails. — The nails should 
be kept clean by the daily use of the nail brush and soap 
and Avater. After Aviping the hands, but while they are 
still soft from the action of the water, gently push back the 
skin which is apt to groAV over the nails, which will not 
only preserve them neatly rounded, but will prevent the 
skin from cracking around their roots (nail springs), and 
becoming sore. The points of the nail should be pared at 
least once a week; biting them should be avoided. 

How to Cure Hiccough. —A convulsive motion of the 
diaphragm and parts adjacent. The common causes are 
flatuency, indigestion, acidity and Avorms. It may usually 
be removed by the exhibition of Avarm carminatives, cor¬ 
dials, cold Avater, weak spirits, camphor julep, or spirits of 
sal volatile. A sudden fright or surprise will often produce 
the like effect. An instance is recorded of a delicate young 
lady that was troubled with hiccough for some months, and 
Avho Avas reduced to a state of extreme debility from the 
loss of sleep occasioned thereby, Avho Avas cured by a fright, 
after medicines and topical applications had failed. A 
pinch of snuff, a glass of cold soda-Avater, or an ice-cream, 
Avill also frequently remove this complaint. 

How to Cure Hoarseness. —Make a strong tea of 
horse-radish and yelloAv dock root, SAveetened with honey 
and drink freely. 

Remedies for Hoarseness.— Take one drachm of 
freshly scraped horse-radish root, to be infused with four 
ounces of Avatei in a close vessel for three hours, and made 
into a syrup, Avith double its quantity of vinegar. A tea¬ 
spoonful has often proved effectual. 

How to Cure Humors. —Take equal parts of saffron 
and seneca snake root, make a strong tea, drink one half¬ 
pint a day, and this will drive out all humors from the 
system. 

How to Cure Hysterics. —Take the leaves of mother¬ 
wort and thoroughAvort, and the bark of poplar root; equal 
parts. Mix them in molasses, and take four of them Avhen 
the first symptoms of disorder are felt, and they will effect¬ 
ually check it. 

How to Cure Barber’s Itch.— Moisten the parts 
affected Avith saliva (spittle) and rub it over thoroughly 


































THE FAMILY PHYSICIAN. 


95 


three times a day with the ashes of a good Havana cigar. 
This is a simple remedy, yet it has cured the most obsti¬ 
nate cases. 

Itch Ointment. —1. Take lard, one pound; suet, one 
pound; sugar of lead, eight ounces; Vermillion, two 
ounces. Mix. Scent with a little bergamot. 2. Take 
bichloride of mercury, one ounce ; lard, one pound ; suet, 
one pound; hydrochloride acid, one and a half ounces. 
Melt and well mix, and when perfectly cold, stir in essence 
of lemon, four drachms; essence of bergamot, one drachm. 

3. Take powdered chloride of lime, one ounce; lard, one 
pound. Mix well, then add essence of lemon, two drachms. 

4. Take bichloride of mercury, one part; lard, fifteen 
parts. Mix well together. 5. Take white precipitate, one 
part; lard, twelve parts. Mix. A portion of either of 
these ointments must be well rubbed on the parts affected, 
night and morning. 

How to Cure Seven-Year Itch.— 1. Use plenty of 
castile soap and water, and then apply freely iodide of 
sulphur ointment; or take any given quantity of simple 
sulphur ointment and color it to a light brown or chocolate 
color with the subcarbonate of iron, and then perfume it. 
Apply this freely, and if the case should be a severe one, 
administer mild alteratives in conjunction with the out¬ 
ward application. 2. The sulphur bath is a good remedy 
for itch or any other kind of skin diseases. Leprosy (the 
most obstinate of all) has been completely cured by it, and 
the common itch only requires two or three applications to 
completely eradicate it from the system. 3. Benzine, it is 
said, will effect a complete cure for scabies in the course of 
half to three-quarters of an hour, after which the patient 
should take a warm bath from twenty to thirty minutes. 

How to Cure Jaundice. —1. Take the whites of two 
hen’s eggs, beat them up well in a gill of water; take of 
this a little every morning; it will soon do good. It also 
creates an appetite, and strengthens the stomach. 2. Take 
of black cherry-tree bark, two ounces; blood root and gold 
thread, each half an ounce; put in a pint of brandy. 
Dose, from a teaspoonful to a tablespoonful morning and 
night. 

How to Cure Stiffened Joints. —Take of the bark of 
white oak and sweet apple trees, equal parts; boil them 
down to a thick substance, and then add the same quantity 
of goose-grease or oil, simmer all together, and then rub it 
on the parts warm. 

How to Cure Kidney Disease. —Equal parts of the 
oil of red cedar and the oil of spearmint. 

How to Cure Lame Back. —Take the berries of red 
cedar and allow them to simmer in neatsfoot oil, and use 
as an ointment. 

How to Kill Lice. —All kinds of lice and their nits 
may be got rid of by washing with a simple decoction of 
stavesacre {Delphinium staphisagria ), or with a lotion 
made with the bruised seed in vinegar, or with the tinc¬ 
ture, or by rubbing in a salve made with the seeds and 
four times their weight of lard very carefully beaten 
together. The acetic solution and the tincture are the 
cleanliest and most agreeable preparations, but all are 
equally efficacious in destroying both the creatures and 
their eggs, and even in relieving the intolerable itching 
which their casual presence leaves behind on many sensi¬ 
tive skins. The alkaloid delphinia may also be employed, 
but possesses no advantage except in the preparation of an 
ointment, when from any reason that form of application 
should be preferred. 

Rheumatic Liniment.— Olive oil, spirits of camphor 
and chloroform, of each two ounces; sassafras oil, 1 
drachm. Add the oil of sassafras to the olive oil, then the 
spirits of camphor, and shake well before putting in the 


chloroform ; shake when used, and keep it corked, as the 
chloroform evaporates very fast if it is left open. Apply 
three or four times daily, rubbing in well, and always 
toward the body. 

Sore Throat Liniment. —Gum camphor, two ounces; 
castile soap, shaved fine, one drachm; oil of turpentine and 
oil of origanum, each one-lialf ounce; opium, one-fourth 
of an ounce ; alcohol, one pint. In a week or ten days 
they will be fit for use. Bathe the parts freely two or three 
times daily until relief is obtained. 

A Wonderful Liniment. —Two ounces oil of spike, 
two ounces origanum, two ounces hemlock, two ounces 
wormwood, four ounces sweet oil, two ounces spirit of 
ammonia, two oun ces gum camphor, two ounces spirits tur¬ 
pentine. Add one quart strong alcohol. Mix well together, 
and bottle tight. This is an unequaled horse liniment, 
and of the best ever made for human ailments such as 
rheumatism, sprains, etc. 

How to Cure Sore Lips. —Wash the lips with a strong 

tea, made from the bark of the white oak. 

Liver Complaint. —Make a strong tea of syrup of 
burdock, wormwood and dandelion, equal parts, and drink 
freely. 

Lock Jaw. —It is said that the application of warm lye, 
made of ashes as strong as possible, to a wounded part, 
will prevent a locked jaw ; if a foot or hand, immerse in it; 
if another part of the body, bathe with flannels wrung out 
of the warm lye. 

Mumps. —This disease, most common among children, 
begins with soreness and stiffness in the side of the neck. 
Soon a swelling of the parotid gland takes place, which is 
painful, and continues to increase for four or five days, 
sometimes making it difficult to swallow, or open the mouth. 
The swelling sometimes comes on one side at a time, but 
commonly upon both. There is often heat, and sometimes 
fever, with a dry skin, quick pulse, furred tongue, consti¬ 
pated bowls, and scanty and high-colored urine. The dis¬ 
ease is contagious. The treatment is very simple—a mild 
diet, gentle laxative, occasional hot fomentations, and 
wearing a piece of flannel round the throat. 

How to Prevent Ingrowing Nails.— If the nail of 

your toe be hard, and apt to grow round, and into the cor¬ 
ners of your toe, take a piece of broken glass and scrape 
the top very thin; do this whenever you cut your nails, and 
by constant use it makes the corners fly up and grow flat, 
so that it is impossible they should give you any pain. 

How to Whiten Nails. —The best wash for whitening 

the nails is two drachms of diluted sulphuric acid, one 
drachm of tincture of myrrh, added to four ounces of 
spring water; first cleanse the hands, and then apply the 
wash. 

Sure Cure for Neuralgia.— l. Fill a tight-top thim¬ 
ble with cotton wool, and drop on it a few drops of strong 
spirits of hartshorn. The open mouth of the thimble is 
then applied over the seat of pain for a minute or two, 
until the skin is blistered. The skin is then rubbed off, 
and upon the denuded surface a small quantity of morphia 
(one-fourth grain) is applied. This affords almost instant 
relief. A second application of the morphia, if required, 
is to be preceded by first rubbing off the new formation 
that has sprung up over the former blistered surface. 

2. Dr. J. Knox Hodge recommends the following as an 
application which will relieve facial or any other neuralgia 
almost instantaneously: Albumen of egg, one drachm; 
rhigolene, four ounces; oil of peppermint, two ounces; 
colodion and chloroform, each one ounce. Mix. Agitate 
occasionally for twenty-four hours, and by gelatinization 
a beautiful and semi-solidified, opodeldoc-looking compound 

































96 


THE FAMILY PHYSICIAN. 



results, which will retain its consistency and hold the ingre¬ 
dients intimately blended for months. Apply by smart 
friction with the hand, or gently with a soft brush or mop 
along the course of the nerve involved. 

3. Mix one and one-half drachms iodide of potash, fif¬ 
teen grains of quinine and one ounce ginger syrup, and 
two and a half ounces water. Dose, a tablespoon ful every 
three hours. 

4. Of the Stomach. —Take of distilled water of cherry 
laurel, five parts; muriate of morphia, one-tenth part. 
Mix and dissolve. One drop on a lump of sugar immedi¬ 
ately before meals. 

Ointment for Sore Nipples. —Glycerine, rose water 
and tannin, equal weights, rubbed together into an oint¬ 
ment, is very highly recommended for sore or cracked 
nipples. 

Glycerine Ointment. —Melt together spermaceti, two 
drachms; white wax, one-half drachm; oil of sweet almonds, 
two ounces, and then add glycerine, one ounce, and stir 
briskly until cool. An admirable application for chapped 
hands, etc. 

Ointment for Itch. —White precipitate, fifteen grains; 
saltpetre, one-half drachm; flour of sulphur, one drachm; 
Mix well with lard, two ounces. Long celebrated for the 
cure of itch. 

Sulphur Ointment. —Flour of sulphur, eight ounces; 
oil of bergamot, two drachms; lard, one pound. Rub 
freely three times a day, for itch. 

Ointment for Piles. —Tannin, two drachms; water, 
two fluid drachms; triturate together, and add lard, one 
and a half drachms. An excellent application for piles. 

Ointment for Hemorrhoids. —Sulphate of morphia, 
three grains; extract of stramonia, thirty grains; olive oil, 
one drachm; carbonate of lead, sixty grains; lard, three 
drachms. 

Pains. —1 . Steep marigold in good cider vinegar and 
frequently wash the affected parts. This will afford speedy 
relief. 

2. Take half a pound of tar and the same quantity of 
tobacco, and boil them down separately to a thick sub¬ 
stance; then simmer them together. Spread a plaster and 
apply it to the affected parts, and it will afford immediate 
relief. 

Painters’ Colic. —Make of tartaric acid a syrup similar 
to that of lemon syrup; add a sufficient quantity of water, 
and drink two or three glasses a day. 

Instantaneous Pain-Killer. —Another and even more 
instant cure of pain is made as follows: Take aqua-ammonia, 
sulphuric ether and alcohol, equal parts, and apply over 
the pain. 

How to Cure Pimples.— Take a teaspoonful of the 
tincture of gum guaiacum and one teaspoonful of vinegar; 
mix well and apply to the affected parts. 

Poor Man’s Plaster. — Melt together beeswax, one 
ounce; tar, three, ounces; resin, three ounces, and spread 
on paper or muslin. 

Rheumatic Plaster.— One-fourth pound of resin and 
one-fourth pound of sulphur; melt by a slow fire, and add 
one ounce of Cayenne pepper and one-fourth of an ounce 
of camphor gum; stir well till mixed, and temper with 
neatsfoot oil. 

Strengthening* Plaster. —Litharge plasters, twenty- 
four parts; white resin, six parts; yellow wax and olive 
oil, of each three parts, and red oxide of iron, eight parts. 
Let the oxide be rubbed with the oil, and the other ingredi¬ 
ents added melted, and mix the whole well together. The 
plaster, after being spread over the leather, should be cut 


into strips two inches wide and strapped firmly around the 
joint. 

Mustard Plasters. —It is stated that in making a mus¬ 
tard plaster, no water whatever should be used, but the 
mustard mixed with the white of an egg; the result will be 
a plaster that will “draw” perfectly, but will not produce 
a blister even upon the skin of an infant, no matter how 
long it is allowed to remain upon the part. 

Bread and Milk Poultice. — Take stale bread in 
crumbs, pour boiling sweet milk, or milk and water over 
it, and simmer till soft, stirring it well; then take it from 
the fire, and gradually stir in a little glycerine or sweet 
oil, so ns to render the poultice pliable when applied. 

Linseed Poultice. — Take of linseed, powdered, four 
ounces; hot water sufficient, mix and stir well with a spoon, 
until of suitable consistence. A little oil should be added, 
and some smeared over the surface as well, to prevent its 
getting hard. A very excellent poultice, suitable for many 
purposes. 

Spice Poultice. —Powdered cinnamon, cloves and Cay¬ 
enne pepper, of each two ounces; rye meal, or flour, spirits 
and honey, of each sufficient to make of suitable con¬ 
sistence. 

Quinsy. —This is an inflammation of the tonsils, or com¬ 
mon inflammatory sore throat; commences with a slight 
feverish attack, with considerable pain and swelling of the 
tonsils, causing some difficulty in swallowing; as the attack 
advances these symptoms become more intense, there is 
headache, thirst, a painful sense of tension, and acute dart¬ 
ing pains in the ears. The attack is generally brought on 
by exposure to cold, and lasts from five to seven days, when 
it subsides naturally, or an abscess may form in tonsils and 
burst, or the tonsil may remain enlarged, the inflammation 
subsiding. 

Treatment. — The patient should remain in a warm 
room, the diet chiefly milk and good broths, some cooling 
laxative and diaphoretic medicine may be given; but the 
greatest relief will be found in the frequent inhalation of 
the steam of hot water through an inhaler, or in the old- 
fashioned way, through the spout of a teapot. 

Other Remedies for Rheumatism.— 1 . Bathe the 

parts affected with water in which potatoes have been 
boiled, as hot as can be borne, just before going to bed; by 
morning it will be much relieved, if not removed. One 
application of this simple remedy has cured the most obsti¬ 
nate of rheumatic pains. 2. Half an ounce of pulverized 
saltpetre put in half a pint of sweet oil; bathe the parts 
affected, and a sound cure will be speedily effected. 3. 
Rheumatism has frequently been cured by a persistent use 
of lemon juice, either undiluted or in the form of lemon¬ 
ade. Suck half a lemon every morning before breakfast, 
and occasionally during the day, and partake of lemonade 
when thirsty in preference to any other drink. If severely 
afflicted a physician should be consulted; but, in all cases, 
lemon juice will hasten the cure. 4. By the valerian 
bath, made simply by taking one pound of valerian root, 
boiling it gently for about a quarter of an hour in one gal¬ 
lon of water, straining and adding the strained liquid to 
about twenty gallons of water in an ordinary bath. The 
temperature should be about ninety-eight degrees, and the 
time of immersion from twenty minutes to half an hour. 
Pains must be taken to dry the patient perfectly upon get¬ 
ting out of the bath. If the inflammation remain refrac¬ 
tory in any of the joints, linseed meal poultices should be 
made with a strong decoction of valerian root and applied. 

How to Cure Ring-Worm. —To one part sulphuric 
acid, add sixteen to twenty parts water. Use a brush and 
feather, and apply it to the parts night and morning. A 
few dressings will generally cure. If the solution is too 































THE FAMILY PHYSICIAN. 


97 


strong and causes pain, dilute it with water, and if the irri¬ 
tation is excessive, rub on a little oil or other softening ap¬ 
plication, but always avoid the use of soap. 

Or, wash the head with soft soap every morning, and 
apply the following lotion every night: One-lialf drachm 
of sub-carbonate of soda dissolved in one gill of vinegar. 

Healing 1 Salve. —Sweet oil, three quarts; resin, three 
ounces; beeswax, three ounces. Melt together; then add 
powdered red lead, two pounds; heat all these together and 
when nearly cold add a piece of camphor as large as a nut¬ 
meg. Good for burns, etc. 

Salt Rheum. — 1 . Make a strong tea of elm root bark; 
drink the tea freely, and wash the affected part in the 
same. 2. Take one ounce of blue flag root, steep it in 
half a pint of gin; take a teaspoonful three times a day, 
morning, noon and night, and wash with the same. 3. 
Take one ounce of oil of tar, one drachm of oil of checker 
berry; mix. Take from five to twenty drops morning and 
night as the stomach will bear. 

Bleeding of the Stomach. —Take a teaspoonful of 
camomile tea every ten minutes until the bleeding stops. 

Sickness of Stomach. —Drink three or four times a 
day of the steep made from the bark of white poplar roots. 

Sunburn and Tan. — 1 . Take two drachms of borax, 
one drachm of Roman alum, one drachm of camphor, half 
an ounce of sugar candy, and a pound of ox-gall. Mix, 
and stir well for ten minutes or so, and repeat this stirring 
three or four times a day for a fortnight, till it appears 
clear and transparent. Strain through blotting paper, 
and bottle up for use. 2. Milk of almonds made thus: 
Take of blanched bitter almonds half an ounce, soft water 
half a pint; make an emulsion by beating the almonds and 
water together, strain through a muslin cloth, and it is 
made. 3. A preparation composed of equal parts of olive 
oil and lime water is also an excellent remedy for sunburn. 

To Produce Sweat. —Take of nitre, one-half drachm; 
snake's head (herb), saffron, camphor, snake-root, seneca, 
bark of sassafras root, each one ounce; ipecac, and opium, 
each one half ounce; put the above in three quarts of Hol¬ 
land gin, and take a tablespoonful in catnip tea every few 
minutes, till a sweat is produced. 

Teething. —Young children whilst cutting their first 
set of teeth often suffer severe constitutional disturbance. 
At first there is restlessness and peevishness, with slight 
fever, but not unfrequently these are followed by convul¬ 
sive fits, as they are commonly called, which depends on 
the brain becoming irritated; and sometimes under this 
condition the child is either cut off suddenly, or the founda¬ 
tion of serious mischief to the brain is laid. The remedy, 
or rather the safeguard, against these frightful consequences 
is trifling, safe, and almost certain, and consists merely in 
lancing the gum covering the tooth which is making its 
making its way through. When teething is about it may 
be known by the spittle constantly driveling from the 
mouth and wetting the frock. The child has its fingers in 
its mouth, and bites hard any substance it can get hold of. 
If the gums be carefully looked at, the part where the tooth 
is pressing up is swollen and redder than usual; and if the 
finger be pressed on it the child shrinks and cries, showing 
that the gum is tender. When these symptoms occur, the 
gum should be lanced, and sometimes the tooth comes 
through the next day, if near the surface; but if not so far 
advanced the cut heals and a scar forms, which is thought 
by some objectionable, as rendering the passage of the 
tooth more difficult. This, however, is untrue, for the scar 
will give w r ay much more easily than the uncut gum. If 
the tooth does not come through after two or three days, 
the lancing may be repeated; and this is more especially 
needed if the child be very fractious, and seems in much 


pain. Lancing the gums is further advantageous, because 
it empties the inflamed part of its blood, and so relieves the 
pain and inflammation. The relief children experience in 
the course of two or three hours from the operation is 
often very remarkable, as they almost immediately become 
lively and cheerful. 

Wash for Teeth and Gums. —The teeth should be 
washed night and morning, a moderately small and soft 
brush being used; after the morning ablution, pour on a 
second tooth-brush, slightly dampened, a little of the fol¬ 
lowing lotion: Carbolic acid, 20 drops; spirits of wine, 2 
drachms; distilled water, 6 ounces. After using this lotion 
a short time the gums become firmer and less tender, and 
impurity of the breath (which is most commonly caused by 
bad teeth), will be removed. It is a great mistake to use 
hard tooth-brushes, or to brush the teeth until the gums 
bleed. 

Tetter. —After a slight feverish attack, lasting two or 
three days,clusters of small, transparent pimples,filled some¬ 
times with a colorless, sometimes with a brownish lymph, 
appear on the cheeks or forehead, or on the extremities, 
and at times on the body. The pimples are about the size 
of a pea, and break after a few days, when a brown or yel¬ 
low crust is formed over them, which falls off about the 
tenth day, leaving the skin red and irritable. The erup¬ 
tion is attended with heat; itching, tingling, fever, and 
restlessness, esjiecially at night. Ringworm is a curious 
form of tetter, in which the inflamed patches assume the 
form of a ring. 

Treatment —Should consist of light diet, and gentle 
laxatives. If the patient be advanced in life, and feeble, a 
tonic will be desirable. For a wash, white vitriol, 1 
drachm; rose-water, 3 ounces, mixed; or an ointment made 
of alder-flower ointment, 1 ounce; oxide of zinc, 1 drachm. 

To Remove Tan. —Tan may be removed from the face 
by mixing magnesia in soft water to the consistency of paste, 
which should then be spread on the face and allowed to 
remain a minute or two. Then wash off with Castile soap 
suds, and rinse with soft water. 

Care of the Teeth. —The mouth has a temperature of 
98 degrees, warmer than is ever experienced in the shade 
in the latitude of New England. It is well known that if 
beef, for example, be exposed in the shade during the 
warmest of our summer days, it will very soon decompose. 
If we eat beef for dinner, the particles invariably find their 
way into the spaces between the teeth. Now, if these par¬ 
ticles of beef are not removed, they will frequently remain 
till they are softened by decomposition. In most mouths 
this process of decomposition is in constant progress. 
Ought we to be surprised that the gums and teeth against 
which these decomposing or putrefying masses lie should 
become subjects of disease? 

IIow shall our teeth be preserved? The answer is very 
simple—keep them very clean. How shall they be kept 
clean? Answer—By a toothpick, rinsing with water, and 
the daily use of a brush. 

The toothpick should be a quill, not because the metalic 
picks injure the enamel, but because the quill pick is so 
flexible it fits into all the irregularities between the teeth. 

Always after using the toothpick the mouth should be 
thoroughly rinsed. If warm water be not at hand, cold 
may be used, although warm is much better. Closing the 
lips, with a motion familiar to all, everything may be 
thoroughly rinsed from the mouth. 

Every morning (on rising), and every evening (on going 
to bed), the tooth-brush should be used, and the teeth, 
both outside and inside, thoroughly brushed. 

Much has been said pro and con., upon the use of soap 
with the tooth-brush. My ow r n experience and the 











































98 


THE FAMILY PHYSICIAN. 


experience of members of my family is highly favorable to 
the regular morning and evening use of soap. Castile or 
other good soap will answer this purpose. (Whatever is 
good for the hands and face is good for the teeth.) The 
slightly unpleasant taste which soap has when we begin to 
use it will soon be unnoticed. 

Tooth Powders. —Many persons, while laudably atten¬ 
tive to the preservation of their teeth, do them harm by too 
much officiousness. They daily apply to them some denti¬ 
frice powder, which they rub so hard as not only to injure 
the enamel by excessive friction, but to hurt the gums even 
more than by the abuse of the toothpick. The quality of 
some of the dentifrice powders advertised in newspapers is 
extremely suspicious, and there is reason to think that they 
are not altogether free from a corrosive ingredient. One 
of the safest and best compositions for the purpose is a 
mixture of two parts of prepared chalk, one of Peruvian 
bark, and one of hard soap, all finely powdered, which is 
calculated not only to clean the teeth without hurting them, 
but to preserve the firmness of the gums. 

Besides the advantage of sound teeth for their use in mas¬ 
tication, a proper attention to their treatment conduces not 
a little to the sweetness of the breath. This is, indeed, 
often affected by other causes existing in the lungs, the 
stomach, and sometimes even in the bowels, but a rotten 
state of the teeth, both from the putrid smell emitted by 
carious bones and the impurities lodged in their cavities, 
never fails of aggravating an unpleasant breath wherever 
there is a tendency of that kind. 

Remedies for Toothache. —1. One drachm of alum 
reduced to an impalpable powder, three drachms of nitrous 
spirits of ether—mix, and apply them to the tooth on cot¬ 
ton. 2. Mix a little salt and alum, equal portions, grind 
it fine, wet a little lock of cotton, fill it with the powder 
and put it in your tooth. One or two applications seldom 
fail to cure. 3. To one drachm of collodion add two 
drachms of Calvert’s carbolic acid. A gelatinous mass is 
precipitated, a small portion of which, inserted in the cav¬ 
ity of an aching tooth, invariably gives immediate relief. 
4. Saturate a small bit of clean cotton wool with a strong 
solution of ammonia, and apply it immediately to the 
affected tooth. The pleasing contrast immediately pro- 
duced in some cases causes fits of laughter, although a mo¬ 
ment previous extreme suffering and anguish prevailed. 5. 
Sometimes a sound tooth aches from sympathy of the nerves 
of the face with other nerves. But when toothache pro¬ 
ceeds from a decayed tooth either have it taken out, or put 
hot fomentations upon the face, and hot drinks into the 
mouth, such as tincture of cayenne. 

To Cure Warts. —Warts are formed by the small arte¬ 
ries, veins, and nerves united together, taking on a dispo¬ 
sition to grow by extending themselves upward, carrying 
the scarf-skin along with them, which, thickening, forms a 
wart. Corns are a similar growth, brought about by the 
friction of tight boots and shoes. 1. Take a piece of: dia¬ 
chylon plaster, cut a hole in the centre the size of the wart, 
and stick it on, the wart protruding through. Then touch 
it daily with aquafortis, or nitrate of silver. They may be 
removed by tying a string tightly around them. 2. Take 
a blacksmith’s punch, heat it red hot and burn the warts 
with the end of it. When the burn gets Avell the warts will 
be gone forever. 3. Scrape down enough dry cobwebs to 
make a ball large enough to, or a little more than, cover 
the wart and not touch the flesh around the same; lay it on 
top of the wart, ignite it and let it be until it is all burnt 
up. The wart will turn white, and in a few days come out. 
4. Pass a pin through the Avart; apply one end of the pin 
to the flame of a lamp; hold it there until the wart fries 
under the action of the heat. A Avart so treated will leave. 




Dissolve as much common Avasliing soda as the water 


-Catnip steeped, mixed with 


Avill take up; wash the warts Avith this for a minute or tAvo, 
and let them dry without wiping. Keep the water in a bot¬ 
tle and repeat the washing often, and it will take aAvay the 
largest Avarts. 6. They may be cured surely by paring them 
down until the blood comes slightly and then rubbing them 
with lunar caustic. It is needless to say this hurts a little, 
but it is a sure cure. The hydrochlorate of lime applied in 
the same Avay will cure after several applications and some 
patience; so will strong good vinegar, and so it is said will 
milk Aveed. The cures founded upon superstitious prac¬ 
tices, such as mattering some phrases OA r er the excrescence, 
stealing a piece of beef, rubbing the wart therewith and 
then burying it under the leaves to aAvait its decay, etc., 
etc., are all the remnants of a past state of ignorance and 
are of no use whatever. Warts are generally only tempo¬ 
rary and disappear as their possessors grow up. 

How to Cure White Swelling 1 . —Draw a blister on the 
inside of the leg below the knee; keep it running with oint¬ 
ment made of hen manure, by simmering it in hog’s lard 
with onions; rub the knee with the following kind of oint¬ 
ment: Bits of peppermint, oil of sassafras, checkerberry, 
juniper, one drachm each; simmer in one-half pint neats- 
foot oil, and rub on the knee three times a day. 

How to Cure Wounds.- 

fresh butter and sugar. 

How to Cure Whooping-Cough.— Take a quart of 
spring Avater, put in it a large handful of chin-cups that 
grow upon moss, a large handful of unset hyssop; boil it to 
a pint, strain it off, and sAveeten it with sugar-candy. Let 
the child, as often as it coughs, take tAvo spoonfuls at a 
time. 

How to Cure Worms in Children. — 1 . Take one 
ounce of powdered snake-head (herb), and one drachm each 
of aloes and prickly ash bark; powder these, and to one- 
half teaspoonful of this powder add a teaspoonful of boiling 
water and a teaspoonful of molasses. Take this as a dose, 
night or morning, more or less, as the symptoms may re¬ 
quire. 2. Take tobacco leaves, pound them up with honey, 
and lay them on the belly of the cliiid or grown person, at 
the same time administering a dose of some good physic. 
3. Take garden parsley, make it into a tea and let the pa¬ 
tient drink freely of it. 4. Take the scales that will fall 
around the blacksmith’s anvil, poAA r der them fine, and put 
them in SAveetened rum. Shake when you take them, and 
give a teaspoonful three times a day. 

Scalding of the Urine. —Equal parts of the oil of red 
cedar, and the orl of sj:>earmint. 

Urinary Obstructions. —Steep pumpkin seeds in gin, 
and drink about three glasses a day; or, administer half a 
drachm uva ursi every morning, and a dose of spearmint. 

Free Passage of Urine, —The leaves of the currant 
bush made into a tea, and taken as a common drink. 

Venereal Complaints.— -Equal parts of the oil of red 
cedar, combined with sarsaparilla, yelloAv dock and burdock 
made into a syrup; add to a pint of this syrup an ounce of 
gum guiaicum. Dose, from a tablespoonful to a wine-glass, 
as best you can bear. 

How to Cure Sore Throat.— “One Avho has tried it” 
communicates the following sensible item about curing sore 
throat: Let each one of your half million readers buy at 
any drug store one ounce of camphorated oil and five cents’ 
worth of chloride of potash. Whenever any soreness ap¬ 
pears in the throat, put the potash in half a tumbler of 
water, and with it gargle the throat thoroughly; then rub 
the neck thoroughly with the camphorated oil at night be¬ 
fore goingto bed, and also pin around the throat a small 
strip of Avoolen flannel. This is a simple, cheap and sure 
remedy. 










































HOUSEHOLD RECIPES. 


99 




HOUSEHOLD RECIP 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


Axle Grease. —1. Water, 1 gallon; soda, ^pound; palm 
oil, 10 pounds. Mix by heat, and stir till nearly cold. 

2. Water, rape oil, of each 1 gallon; soda, ^ pound; 
palm oil, £ pound. 

3. Water, 1 gallon; tallow, 3 pounds; palm oil, 6 pounds ; 
soda, y pound. Heat to 210 deg. Fahrenheit and stir until 
cool. 

4. Tallow, 8 pounds; palm oil, 10 pounds; plumbago, 
1 pound. Makes a good lubricator for wagon axles. 

How to Shell Beans Easy. — Pour upon the pods a 
quantity of scalding water, and the beans will slip very 
easily from the pod. By pouring scalding water on apples 
the skin may be easily slipped oft*, and much labor saved. 

How to Clean Bed-Ticks. —Apply Poland starch, by 
rubbing it on thick with a cloth. Place it in the sun. 
When dry, rub it if necessary. The soiled part will be 
clean as new. 

How to Wash Carpets. —Shake and beat it well; lay 
it upon the floor and tack it firmly; then with a clean flan¬ 
nel wash it over with a quart of bullock’s gall mixed with 
three quarts of soft, cold Avater, and rub it off with a clean 
flannel or house-cloth. Any particular dirty spot should 
be rubbed with pure gall. 

How to Clean Carpets. — Before proceeding to sweep 
a carpet a few handfuls of waste tea-leaves should be 
sprinkled over it. A stiff hair broom or brush should be 
employed, unless the carpet is very dirty, when a whisk or 
carpet-broom should be used, first followed by another made 
of hair, to take off the loose dust. The frequent use of a 
stiff carpet-broom soon wears off the beauty of the best 
carpet. An ordinary clothes brush is best adapted for su¬ 
perior carpets. When carpets are very dirty they should 
be cleaned by shaking and beating. 

Beat it well with a stick in the usual manner until all 
the dust is removed, then take out the stains, if any, with 
lemon or sorrel-juice. When thoroughly dry rub it all 
over with the crumb of a hot wheaten loaf, and if the 
weather is very fine, let hang out in the open air for a night 
or two. This treatment will revive the colors, and make 
the carpet appear equal to new. 

How to Remove Spots on Carpets.— A few drops of 
carbonate of ammonia, and a small quantity of warm rain 
water, will prove a safe and easy antacid, etc., and will 
change, if carefully applied, discolored spots upon carpets, 
and indeed, all spots, whether produced by acids or alka¬ 
lies. If one has the misfortune to have a carpet injured 
by whitewash, this will immediately restore it. 

How to Remove Ink Spots on Carpets.— As soon as 
the ink has been spilled, take up as much as you can with 
a sponge, and then pour on cold water repeatedly, still 
taking up the liquid; next rub the place with a little wet 
oxalic acid or salt of sorrel, and wash it off immediately with 
cold water, and then rub on some hartshorn. 


Cleaning* and Scouring* of Cloth. — The common 
method of cleaning cloth is by beating and brushing, un¬ 
less when very dirty, when it undergoes the operation of 
scouring. This is best done on the small SQale, as for 
articles of wearing apparel, etc., by dissolving a little curd 
soap in water, and after mixing it with a little ox-gall, to 
touch over all the spots of grease, dirt, etc., with it, and 
to rub them well with a stiff brush, until they are removed, 
after which the article may be well rubbed all over with a 
brush or sponge dipped into some warm water, to which 
the previous mixture and a little more ox-gall has been 
added. When this has been properly done, it only remains 
to thoroughly rinse the article in clean water until the lat¬ 
ter passes off uncolored, when it must be hung up to dry. 
For dark, colored cloths the common practice is to add some 
Fuller’s-earth to the mixture of soap and gall. When 
nearly dry the nap should be laid right and the article care¬ 
fully pressed, after which a brush, moistened with a drop 
or two of olive oil, is passed several times over it, which 
will give it a superior finish. 

Cloth may also be cleaned in the dry way, as follows: 
First remove the spots, as above, and when the parts have 
dried, strew clean, damp sand over it, and beat it in with a 
brush, after which brush the article with a hard brush 
when the sand will readily come out, and bring the dirt 
with it. Black cloth which is very rusty should receive a 
coat of reviver after drying, and be hung up until the next 
day, when it may be pressed and finished off as before. 
Scarlet cloth requires considerable caution. After being 
thoroughly rinsed, it should be repeatedly passed through 
cold spring water, to which a tablespoonful or two of solu¬ 
tion of tin has been added. If much faded, it should be 
dipped in a scarlet dye-bath. Buff cloth is generally 
cleansed by covering it with a paste made with pipe-clay 
and water, which, when dry, is rubbed and brushed off. 

Renovation of Cloth. — The article undergoes the 
process of scouring before described, and, after being well 
rinsed and drained, it is put on a board, and the thread¬ 
bare parts rubbed with a half-worn hatter’s card, filled with 
flocks, or with a teazle or a prickly thistle, until a nap is 
raised. It is next hung up to dry, the nap laid the right 
way with a hard brush, and finished as before. When the 
cloth is much faded, it is usual to give it a dip, as it is 
called, or to pass it through a dye-bath, to freshen up the 
color. 

How to Revive the Color of Black Cloth.— If a 

coat, clean it well, then boil from two to four ounces of 
logAvood in your copper, or boiler, for half an hour; dip 
your coat in Avarm water, and squeeze it as dry as you can; 
then put it into the copper and boil it for half an hour. 
Take it out, and add a piece of green copperas, about the 
size of a horse-bean ; boil it another half hour, then draAV 
it, and hang it in the air for an hour or tAvo; take it down, 
rinse it in tAvo or three cold Avaters ; dry it, and let it be 

















































100 


HOUSEHOLD RECIPIES. 


well brushed with a soft brush, over which a drop or two of 
the oil of olives has been rubbed, then stroke your coat reg¬ 
ularly over. 

How to Restore Crape. — Skimmed milk and water, 
with a little bit of glue in it, made scalding hot, is excel¬ 
lent to restore rusty Italian crape. If clapped and pulled 
dry like muslin, it will look as good as new; or, brush the 
veil till all the dust is removed, then fold it lengthwise, 
and roll it smoothly and tightly on a roller. Steam it till 
it is thoroughly dampened, and dry on the roller. 

How to Cleanse Feather Beds. —When feather beds 
become soiled and heavy they may be made clean and light 
by being treated in the following manner : Rub them over 
with a stiff brush, dipped in hot soap-suds. When clean 
lay them on a shed, or any other clean place where the rain 
will fall on them. When thoroughly soaked let them dry 
in a hot sun for six or seven successive days, shaking them 
up well and turning them over each day. They should be 
covered over with a thick cloth during the night; if ex¬ 
posed to the night air they will become damp and mildew. 
This way of washing the bed-ticking and feathers makes 
them very fresh and light, and is much easier than the old- 
fashioned way of emptying the beds and washing the feath¬ 
ers separately, while it answers quite as well. Care must be 
taken to dry the bed perfectly before sleeping on it. Hair 
mattresses that have become hard and dirty can be made 
nearly as good as new by ripping them, washing the tick¬ 
ing, and picking the hair free from bunches and keeping 
it in a dry, airy place several days. Whenever the ticking 
gets dry fill it lightly with the hair, and tack it together. 

How to Cut Up and Cure Pork.— Have the hog laid 
on his back on a stout, clean bench ; cut off the head close 
to the base. If the hog is large, there will come off a con¬ 
siderable collar, between head and shoulders, which, 
pickled or dried, is useful for cooking with vegetables. 
Separate the jowl from the face at the natural joint; open 
the skull lengthwise and take out the brains, esteemed a 
luxury. Then with a sharp knife remove the back-bone 
the whole length, then the long strip of fat underlying it, 
leaving about one inch of fat covering the spinal column. 

The leaf lard, if not before taken out for the housewife’s 
convenience, is removed, as is also the tenderloin—a fishy- 
shaped piece of flesh—often used for sausage, but which 
makes delicious steak. The middling or sides are now cut 
out, leaving the shoulders square-shaped and the hams 
pointed, or they may be rounded to your taste. The spare- 
ribs are usually wholly removed from the sides, with but 
little meat adhering. It is the sides of small, young hogs 
cured as hams that bear the name of breakfast bacon. 
The sausage meat comes chiefly in strips from the back¬ 
bone, part of which may also be used as steak. The lean 
trimmings from about the joints are used for sausage, the 
fat scraps rendered up with the backbone lard. 

The thick part of the backbone that lies between the 
shoulders, called griskin or chine, is separated from the 
tapering, bony part, called backbone by way of distinction, 
and used as flesh. The chines are smoked with jowls, and 
and used in late winter or spring. 

When 3 T our meat is to be pickled it should be dusted 
lightly with saltpetre sprinkled with salt, and allowed to 
drain twenty-four hours; then plunge it into pickle, and 
keep under with a weight. It is good policy to pickle a 
portion of the sides. They, after soaking, are sweeter to 
cook with vegetables, and the grease fried from them is 
much more useful than that of smoked meat. 

If your meat is to be dry salted, allow one teaspoonful of 
pulverized saltpetre to one gallon of salt, and keep the 
mixture warm beside you. Put on a hog’s ear as a mitten, 
and rub each piece of meat thoroughly. Then pack skin 


side down, ham upon ham, side upon side, strewing on 
salt abundantly. It is best to put large and small pieces in 
different boxes for the convenience of getting at them to 
hang up at the different times they will come into readi¬ 
ness. The weather has so much to do with the time that 
meat requires to take salt that no particular time can be 
specified for leaving it in. 

The best test is to try a medium-sized ham; if salt 
enough, all similar and smaller pieces are surely ready, and 
it is well to remember that the saltness increases in drying. 

Ribs and steaks should be kept in a cold, dark place, 
without salting, until ready for use. If you have many, or 
the weather is warm, they keep better in pickle than dry 
salt. Many persons turn and rub their meat frequently. 
We have never practiced this, and have never lost any. 

When the meat is ready for smoking, dip the hocks of 
the joints in ground black pepper and dust the raw surface 
thickly with it. Sacks, after this treatment, may be used 
for double security, and I think bacon high and dry is 
sweeter than packed in any substance. For sugar-cured 
hams we append the best recipe we have ever used, though 
troublesome. 

English Recipe for Sugar-Curing Hams .—So soon as the 
meat comes from the butcher’s hand rub it thoroughly with 
the salt. Repeat this four days, keeping the meat where it 
can drain. The fourth day rub it with saltpetre and a 
handful of common salt, allowing one pound of saltpetre to 
seventy pounds of meat. Now mix one pound of brown 
sugar and one of molasses, rub over the ham every day for 
a fortnight, and then smoke with hickory chips or cobs. 
Hams should be hung highest in meat-houses, because there 
they are less liable to the attacks of insects, for insects do 
not so much infest high places—unlike human pests. 

Pickle .—Make eight gallons of brine strong enough to 
float an egg ; add two pounds of brown sugar or a quart of 
molasses, and four ounces of saltpetre ; boil and skim clean, 
and pour cold on your meat. Meat intended for smoking 
should remain in pickle about four weeks. This pickle can 
be boiled over, and with a fresh cup of sugar and salt used 
all summer. Some persons use as much soda as saltpetre. 
It will correct acidity, but we think impairs the meat. 

Washing 1 Preparation.— Take a | of a pound of soap, 
a £ of a pound of soda, and a | of a pound of quicklime. 
Cut up the soap and dissolve it in 1 quart of boiling water ; 
pour 1 quart of boiling water over the soda, and 3 quarts 
of boiling water upon the quicklime. The lime must be 
quick and fresh ; if it is good it will bubble up on pouring 
the hot water upon it. Each must be prepared in separate 
vessels. The lime must settle so as to leave the water on 
the top perfectly clear ; then strain it carefully (not dis¬ 
turbing the settlings) into the washboiler with the soda and 
soap ; let it scald long enough to dissolve the soap, then 
add 6 gallons of soap water. The clothes must be put to soak 
over night, after rubbing soap upon the dirtiest parts of 
them. After having the above in readiness, wring out the 
clothes which have been put in soak, put them on to boil, 
and let each lot boil half an hour; the same water will 
answer for the whole washing. After boiling each lot half 
an hour drain them from the boiling water put them in a 
tub and pour upon them two or three pailsful of clear, hot 
water ; after this they will want very little rubbing ; then 
rinse through two waters, blueing the last. When dried 
they will be a beautiful white. After washing the cleanest 
part of the white clothes, take two pails of the suds in 
which they have been washed, put it over the fire and 
scald, and this will wash all the flannels and colored clothes 
without any extra soap. The white flannels, after being- 
well washed in the suds, will require to be scalded by turn¬ 
ing on a teakettle of boiling water. 









































HOW TO DESTROY HOUSEHOLD PESTS. 

101 


_ , «—» , _ . 

HOW TO DESTROY HOUSEHOLD PESTS 



How to Destroy Ants. —Ants that frequent houses or 
gardens may be destroyed by taking flower of brimstone 
half a pound and potash four ounces; set them in an iron 
or earthen pan over the fire till dissolved and united; after¬ 
ward beat them to a powder, and infuse a little of this 
powder in water; and wherever you sprinkle it the ants will 
die or fly the place. 

How to Destroy Black Ants. —A few leaves of green 
wormwood, scattered among the haunts of these trouble¬ 
some insects, is said to be effectual in dislodging them. 

How to Destroy Red Ants. —The best way to get rid 

of ants, is to set a quantity of cracked walnuts or shell- 
barks on plates, and put them in the closet or places where 
the ants congregate. They are very fond of these, and 
will collect on them in myriads. When they have collected 
on them make a general auto-da-fe , by turning nuts and 
ants together into the fire, and then replenish the plates 
with fresh nuts. After they have become so thinned off as 
to cease collecting on plates, powder some camphor and put 
in the holes and crevices, whereupon the remainder of them 
will speedily depart. It may help the process of getting 
them to assemble on shell-barks, to remove all edibles out 
of their way for the time. 

How to Destroy Black Bees. —Place two or three 
shallow vessels—the larger kind of flower-pot saucers will 
do—half filled with water,* on the floors where they assem¬ 
ble, with strips of cardboard running from the edge of the 
vessel to the floor, at a gentle inclination; these the un¬ 
welcome guests will eagerly ascend, and so find a watery 
grave. 

How to Destroy Bed-Bug’s.—!. When they have 
made a lodgement in the wall, fill all the apertures with a 
mixture of soft soap and Scotch snuff. Take the bedstead 
to pieces, and treat that in the same way. 2. A strong 
decoction of red pepper applied to bedsteads will either kill 
the bugs or drive them away. 3. Put the bedstead into a 
close room and set fire to the following composition, placed 
in an iron pot upon the hearth, having previously closed 
up the chimney, then shut the door, let them remain a day: 
Sulphur nine parts; saltpetre, powdered, one part. Mix. 
Be sure to open the door of the room five or six hours be¬ 
fore you venture to go into it a second time. 4. Rub the 
bedstead well withlampoil; this alone is good, but to make 
it more effectual, get ten cents worth of quicksilver and add 
to it. Put it into all the cracks around the bed, and they 
will soon disappear. The bedsteads should first be scalded 
and wiped dry, then put on with a feather. 5. Corrosive 
sublimate, one ounce; muriatic acid, two ounces; water, 
four ounces; dissolve, then add turpentine, one pint; de¬ 
coction of tobacco, one pint. Mix. For the decoction of 
tobacco boil one ounce of tobacco in a ipint of water. The 
mixture must be applied with a paint brush. This wash is 
deadly poison. 6. Rub the bedsteads in the joints with 
equal parts of spirits of turpentine and kerosene oil, and 
the cracks of the surbase in rooms where there are many. 
Filling up all the cracks with hard soap is an excellent 
remedy. 

March and April are the months when bedsteads should 
be examined to kill all the eggs. 7. Mix _ together two 
ounces spirits of turpentine, one ounce corrosive sublimate, 
and one pint alcohol. 8. Distilled vinegar, or diluted good 


vinegar, a pint; camphor one-half ounce; dissolve. 9. 
White arsenic, two ounces; lard, thirteen ounces; corrosive 
sublimate, one-fourth ounce; Venetian red, one-fourth 
ounce. (Deadly poison.) 10. Strong mercurial ointment, 
one ounce; soft soap one ounce; oil of turpentine, a pint. 
11. Gasoline and coaloil are both excellent adjuncts, with 
cleanliness, in ridding a bed or house of these pests. 

How to Destroy Caterpillars. —Boil together a quan¬ 
tity of rue, wormwood, and any cheap tobacco (equal 
parts) in common water. The liquid should be very strong. 
Sprinkle it on the leaves and young branches every morn¬ 
ing and evening during the time the fruit is ripening. 

How to Destroy Cockroaches ana Beetles.—1. 

Strew the roots of black hellebore, at night, in the places 
infested by these vermin, and they will be found in 
the morning dead or dying. Black hellebore grows 
in marshy grounds, and may be had at the herb shops. 
2. Put about a quart of water sweetened with molasses 
in a tin wash basin or smooth glazed china bowl. 
Set it at evening in a place frequented by the bugs. 
Around the basin put an old piece of carpet that 
the bugs can have easy access to the top. They will 
go down in the water, and stay till you come. 3. Take 
pulverized borax, 4 parts, flour 1 part, mix intimately and 
distribute the mixture in cupboards which are frequented 
by the roaches, or blow it, by means of a bellows, into the 
holes or cracks that are infested by them. 4. By scatter¬ 
ing a handful of fresh cucumber parings about the house. 
5. Take carbonic acid and powdered camphor in equal 
parts; put them in a bottle; they will become fluid. With 
a painter’s brush of the size called a sash-tool, put the mix¬ 
ture on the cracks or places where the roaches hide; they 
will come out at once. Then kill. 6. Mix up a quantity 
of fresh burned plaster of paris (gypsum, such as is used 
for making molds and ornaments), with wheat flour and 
a little sugar, and distribute on shallow plates and box 
boards, and place in the corners of the kitchen and pantry, 
where they frequent. In the darkness they will feast 
themselves on it. Whether it interferes with their diges¬ 
tion or not, is difficult to ascertain, but after three or four 
nights renewal of the preparation, no cockroaches will be 
found on the premises. 

How to Destroy Crickets. —Sprinkle a little quick¬ 
lime near to the cracks through which they enter the room. 
The lime may be laid down overnight, and swept away 
in the morning. In a few days they will most likely all be 
destroyed. But care must be taken that the children do 
not meddle with the lime, as a very small portion of it, 
getting into the eye, would prove exceedingly hurtful. In 
case of such an accident the best thing to do would be to 
wash the eye with vinegar and water. 

How to g-et Rid of Fleas. —Much of the largest num¬ 
ber of fleas are brought into our family circles by pet dogs 
and cats. The oil of pennyroyal will drive these insects 
off; but a cheaper method, where the herb flourishes, is to 
throw your cats and dogs into a decoction of it once a 
week. When the herb cannot be got, the oil can be pro¬ 
cured. In this case, saturate strings with it and tie them 
around the necks of the dogs and cats. These applica¬ 
tions should be repeated every twelve or fifteen days. Mint, 





















































102 


HOW TO DESTROY HOUSEHOLD PESTS. 


freshly cut, and hung round a bedstead, or on the furni¬ 
ture, will prevent annoyance from bed insects; a few drops 
of essential oil of lavender will be more efficacious. 

How to Destroy Flies. — 1 . Take an infusion of quas¬ 
sia, one pint; brown sugar, four ounces, ground pepper, 
two ounces. To be well mixed together, and put in small 
shallow dishes where required. 2. Black pepper (powdered), 
one drachm; brown sugar, one drachm; milk or cream, 
two drachms. Mix, and place it on a plate or saucer where 
the flies are most troublesome. 3. Pour a little simple 
oxymel (an article to be obtained at the druggists), into a 
common tumbler glass, and place in the glass a piece of 
cap paper, made into the shape of the upper part of a 
funnel, "with a hole at the bottom to admit the flies. At¬ 
tracted by the smell, they readily enter the trap in swarms, 
and by the thousands soon collected prove that they have 
not the wit or the disposition to return. 4. Take some 
jars, mugs, or tumblers, fill them half full with soapy 
water; cover them.as jam-pots are covered, with a piece of 
paper, either tied down or tucked under the rim. Let this 
paper be rubbed inside with wet sugar, molasses, honey, or 
jam, or any thing sweet; cut a small hole in the center, 
large enough for a fly to enter. The flies settle on the top, 
attracted by the smell of the bait; they then crawl through 
the hole, to feed upon the sweets beneath. Meanwhile the 
warmth of the weather causes the soapy water to ferment, 
and produces a gas which overpowers the flies, and they 
drop down into the vessel. Thousands may be destroyed 
this way, and the traps last a long time. 

Fly Paper. —Melt resin, and add thereto while soft, 
sufficient sweet oil, lard, or lamp oil to make it, when cold 
about the consistency of honey. Spread on writing paper, 
and place in a convenient spot. It will soon be filled with 
ants, flies, and other vermin. 

How to Expel Insects. —All insects dread pennyroyal; 
the smell of it destroys some, and drives others away. At 
the time that fresh pennyroyal cannot be gathered, get oil 
of pennyroyal; pour some into a saucer, and steep in it 
small pieces of wadding or raw cotton, and place them in 
corners, closet-shelves, bureau drawers, boxes, etc., and 
the cockroaches, ants, or other insects will soon disappear. 
It is also well to place some between the mattresses, and 
around the bed. It is also a splendid thing for brushing 
off that terrible little insect, the seed tick. 

How to Destroy Mice. —1. Use tartar emetic mingled 
with some favorite food. The mice will leave the premises. 

2. Take one part calomel, five parts of wheat flour, one 
part sugar, and one-tenth of a part of ultramarine. Mix 
together in a fine powder and place it in a dish. This is a 
most efficient poison for mice. 

3. Any one desirous of keeping seeds from the depre¬ 
dations of mice can do so by mixing pieces of camphor gum 
in with the seeds. Camphor placed in drawers or trunks 
will prevent mice from doing them injury. The little 
animal objects to the odor and keeps a good distance from 
it. He will seek food elsewhere. 

4. Gather all kinds of mint and scatter about your 
shelves, and they will forsake the premises. 

How to Drive Away Mosquitoes. —1. A camphor 
bag hung up in an open casement will prove an effectual 
barrier to their entrance. Camphorated spirits applied as 
perfume to the face and hands will prove an effectual 
preventive; but when bitten by them, aromatic vinegar is 
the best antidote. 

2. A small amount of oil of pennyroyal sprinkled 
around the room will drive away the mosquitoes. This is 
an excellent recipe. 

3. Take of gum camphor a piece about half the size of 
an egg, and evaporate it by placing it in a tin vessel and 


holding it over a lamp or candle, taking care that it does 
not ignite. The smoke will soon fill the room and expel 
the mosquitoes. 

How to Preserve Clothing 1 from Mpths.—1. Pro¬ 
cure shavings of cedar wood and enclose in muslin bags, 
which should be distributed freely among clothes. 2. 
Procure shavings of camphor wood, and enclose in bags. 
3. Sprinkle pimento (allspice) berries among the clothes. 4. 
Sprinkle the clothes with the seeds of the musk plant. 5. An 
ounce of gum camphor and one of the powdered shell of red 
pepper are macerated in eight ounces of strong alcohol for 
several days, then strained. With this tincture the furs or 
cloths are sprinkled over, and rolled up in sheets. 6. 
Carefully shake and brush woolens early in the spring, so 
as to be certain that no eggs are in them; then sew them 
up in cotton or linen wrappers, putting a piece of camphor 
gum, tied up in a bit of muslin, into each bundle, or into 
the chests and closets where the articles are to lie. No 
moth will approach while the smell of the camphor 
continues. When the gum is evaporated, it must be 
renewed. Enclose them in a moth-proof box with cam¬ 
phor, no matter whether made of white paper or white 
pine, before any eggs are laid on them by early spring 
moths. The notion of having a trunk made of some par¬ 
ticular kind of wood for this purpose, is nonsense. Furs 
or woolens, put away in spring time, before moth eggs are 
laid, into boxes, trunks, drawers, or closets even, where 
moths cannot enter, will be safe from the ravages of moth- 
worms, provided none were in them that were laid late in 
the autumn, for they are not of spontaneous production. 

How to Kill Moths in Carpets. —Wring a coarse crash 
towel out of clear water, spread it smoothly on the carpet, 
iron it dry with a good hot iron, repeating the operation on 
all parts of the carpet suspected of being infected with 
moths. No need to press hard, and neither the pile nor 
color of the carpet will be injured, and the moths will be 
destroyed by the heat and steam. 

How to Destroy Rats. —1. When a house is invested 
with rats which refuse to be caught by cheese and other 
baits, a few drops of the highly-scented oil of rhodium 
poured on the bottom of the cage will be an attraction 
which they cannot refuse. 2. Place on the floor near 
where their holes are supposed to be a thin layer of moist 
caustic potash. When the rats travel on this, it will cause 
their feet to become sore, which they lick, and their 
tongues become likewise sore. The consequence is, that 
they shun this locality, and seem to inform all the neigh¬ 
boring rats about it, and the result is that they soon aban¬ 
don a house that has such mean floors. 3. Cut some 
corks as thin as wafers, and fry, roast, or stew them in 
grease, and place the same in their track; or a dried sponge 
fried or dipped in molasses or honey, with a small quantity 
of bird lime or oil of rhodium, will fasten to their fur and 
cause them to depart. 4. If a live rat can be caught and 
smeared over with tar or train oil, and afterwards allowed 
to escape in the holes of other rats, he will cause all soon 
to take their departure. 5. If a live rat be caught, and 
a small bell be fastened around his neck, and allowed to 
escape, all of his brother rats as well as himself will very 
soon go to some other neighbor’s house. 6. Take a pan, 
about twelve inches deep, and half fill it with water; then 
sprinkle some bran on the water and set the pan in a place 
where the rats most frequent. In the morning you will 
find several rats in the pan. 7. Flour, three parts; sugar, 
one-half part; sulphur, two parts, and phosphorus, two 
parts. Smear on meat, and place near where the rats are 
most troublesome. 8. Squills are an excellent poison for 
rats. The powder should be mixed with some fatty sub¬ 
stance, and spread upon slices of bread. The pulp of 





























HOW TO DESTKOY HOUSEHOLD PESTS. 


103 


onions is also very good. Rats are very fond of either. 9. 
Take two ounces of carbonate of barytes, and mix with one 
pound of suet or tallow, place a portion of this within their 
holes and about their haunts. It is greedily eaten, pro¬ 
duces great thirst, and death ensues after drinking. This 
is a very effectual poison, because it is both tasteless and 
odorless. 10. Take one ounce of finely powdered arsenic, 
one ounce of lard; mix these into a paste with meal, put it 
about the haunts of rats. They will eat of it greedily. 11. 
Make a paste of one ounce of flour, one-half gill of water, 
one drachm of phosphorus, and one ounce of flour. Or, 
one ounce of flour, two ounces of powdered cheese crumbs, 
and one-half drachm of phosphorus; add to each of these 
mixtures a few drops of the oil of rhodium, and spread this 
on thin pieces of bread like butter; the rats will eat of this 
greedily, and it is a sure poison. 12. Mix some ground 
plaster of paris with some sugar and Indian meal. Set it 
about on plates, and leave beside each plate a saucer of wa¬ 
ter. When the rats have eaten the mixture they will drink 
the water and die. To attract them toward it, you may 
sprinkle on the edges of the plates a little of the oil of rho¬ 
dium. Another method of getting rid of rats is, to strew 
pounded potash on their holes. The potash gets Into their 


coats and irritates the skin, and the rats desert the place. 
13. The Dutch method: this is said to be used successfully 
in Holland; we have, however, never tried it. A number of 
rats are left together to themselves in a very large trap or 
cage, with no food whatever; their craving hunger will, at 
last, cause them to fight and the weakest will be eaten by 
the others; after a short time the fight is renewed, and the 
next weakest is the victim, and so it goes on till one strong 
rat is left. When this one has eaten the last remains of 
any of the others, it is set loose; the animal has now ac¬ 
quired such a taste for rat-flesh that he is the terror of rat- 
dom, going round seeking what rat he may devour. In an 
incredibly short time the premises are abandomed by all other 
rats, which will not come back before the cannibal rat has 
left or has died. 14. Catch a rat and smear him over with 
a mixture of phosphorus and lard, and then let him loose. 
The house will soon be emptied of these pests. 

Vermin, in Water.— Goto the river or pond, and with 
a small net (a piece of old mosquito bar will do) collect a 
dozen or more of the small fishes known as minnows, and 
put them in your cistern, and in a short time you will have 
clear water, the wiggle-tails and reddish-colored bugs or 
lice being gobbled up by the fishes. 





2 ? 


ACCIDENTS AND INJURIES 

. . HCO"W TO IMIT1ET THEM . . 


1 

fe¬ 

ll 



As accidents are constantly liable to occur, the import¬ 
ance of knowing how best to meet the various emergencies 
that may arise can hardly be over-estimated. In all cases, 
and under all circumstances, the best help to assist a party 
in this trying moment is presence of mind. 

Harvest Bug 1 Bites. —The best remedy is the use of 
benzine, which immediately kills the insect. A small drop 
of tincture of iodine has the same effect. 

Bites and Stings of Insects.—Such as bees, wasps, 
hornets, etc., although generally painful, and ofttimes 
causing much disturbance, yet are rarely attended with 
fatal results. The pain and swelling may generally be 
promptly arrested by bathing freely with a strong solution 
of equal parts of common salt and baking soda, in warm 
water; or by the application of spirits of hartshorn; or of 
volatile liniment (one part of spirits of hartshorn and two 
of olive oil). In the absence of the other articles, warm 
oil may be used; or, if this is not at hand, apply a paste 
made from fresh clay-earth. If the sting of the insect is 
left in the wound, as is frequently the case, it should 
always be extracted. If there is faintness, give some 
stimulant; as, a tablespoonful or two of brandy and water, 
or brandy and ammonia. 

Mad Dog Bites.— 1. Take immediately warm vinegar 
or tepid water; wash the wound clean therewith and then 
dry it; pour upon the wound, then, ten or twelve drops of 
muriatic acid. Mineral acids destroy the poison of the 
saliva, by which means the evil effects of the latter are 
neutralized. 2. Many think that the only sure preventive 
of evil following the bite of a rabid dog is to suck the 
wound immediately, before the poison has had time to cir¬ 
culate with the blood. If the person bit cannot get to the 
wound to suck it, he must persuade or pay another to do 
it for him. There is no fear of any harm following this, 


for the poison entering by the stomach cannot hurt a per¬ 
son. A spoonful of the poison might be swallowed with 
impunity, but the person who sucks the place should have 
no wound on the lip or tongue, or it might be dangerous. 
The precaution alluded to is a most important one, and 
should never be omitted prior to an excision and the appli¬ 
cation of lunar caustic in every part, especially the interior 
and deep-seated portions. No injury need be anticipated 
if this treatment is adopted promptly and effectively. The 
poison of hydrophobia remains latent on an average six 
weeks; the part heals over, but there is a pimple or wound, 
more or less irritable; it then becomes painful; and the 
germ, whatever it is, ripe for dissemination into the system, 
and then all hope is gone. Nevertheless, between the time 
of the bite and the activity of the wound previous to dis¬ 
semination, the caustic of nitrate of silver is a sure prevent¬ 
ive; after that it is as useless as all the other means. The 
best mode of application of the nitrate of silver is by intro¬ 
ducing it solidly into the wound. 

Serpents Bites. —The poison inserted by the stings and 
bites of many venomous reptiles is so rapidly absorbed, and 
of so fatal a description, as frequently to occasion death 
before any remedy or antidote can be applied; and they are 
rendered yet more dangerous from the fact that these 
wounds are inflicted in parts of the country and world 
where precautionary measures are seldom thought of, and 
generally at times when people are least prepared to meet 
them. 1. In absence of any remedies, the first best plan 
to adopt on being bitten by any of the poisonous snakes is 
to do as recommended above in Mad Dog Bites—viz., to 
wash off the place immediately; if possible get the mouth 
to the spot, and forcibly suck out all the poison, first apply¬ 
ing a ligature above the wound as tightly as can be borne. 
2. A remedy promulgated by the Smithsonian Institute is 

















































104 


ACCIDENTS AND INJURIES. 


to take 30 grs. iodide potassium, 30 grs. iodine, 1 oz. 
water, to be applied externally to the wound by saturating 
lint or batting—the same to be kept moist with the anti¬ 
dote until the cure be effected, which will be in one hour, 
and sometimes instantly. 3. An Australian physician has 
tried and recommends carbolic acid, diluted and adminis¬ 
tered internally every few minutes until recovery is certain. 
4. Another Australian physician, Professor Halford, of 
Melbourne University, has discovered that if a proper 
amount of dilute ammonia be injected into the circulation 
of a patient suffering from snake-bite, the curative effect 
is usually sudden and startling, so that, in many cases, 
men have thus been brought back, as it were, by magic, 
from the very shadow of death. 

Bleeding at the Nose. —1. Roll up a piece of paper, 
and press it under the upper lip. 2. In obstinate cases 
blow a little gum Arabic up the nostrils through a quill, 
which will immediately stop the discharge; powdered alum 
is also good. 3. Pressure by the finger over the small 
artery near the ala (wing) of the nose, on the side where 
the blood is flowing, is said to arrest the hemorrhage 
immediately. 

Bleeding from the Lungs. —A New York physician 
has related a case in which inhalation of very dry persul¬ 
phate of iron, reduced to a palpable powder, entirely 
arrested bleeding from the lungs, after all the usual reme¬ 
dies, lead, opium, etc., had failed. A small quantity was 
administered by drawing into the lungs every hour during 
part of the night and following day. 

Bleeding from the Bowels. —The most common 
cause of this, when not a complication of some disease, is 
hemorrhoids or piles. Should serious hemorrhage occur, 
rest and quiet, and cold water poured slowly over the lower 
portion of the belly, or cloths wet with cold water, or 
better, with ice water applied over the belly and thighs, 
and to the lower end of the bowels, will ordinarily arrest 
it. In some cases it may be necessary to use injections of 
cold water, or even put small pieces of ice in the rectum. 

Bleeding from the Mouth. —This is generally caused 
by sbme injury to the cheeks, gums or tongue, but it some¬ 
times occurs without any direct cause of this kind, and no 
small alarm may be caused by mistaking it for bleeding 
from the lungs. Except when an artery of some size is 
injured, bleeding from the mouth can generally be con¬ 
trolled by gargling and washing the mouth with cold water, 
salt and water, or alum and water, or some persulphate of 
iron may be applied to the bleeding surface. Sometimes 
obstinate or even alarming bleeding may follow the pulling 
of a tooth. The best remedy for this is to plug the cavity 
with lint or cotton wet with the solution of persulphate of 
iron, and apply a compress which may be kept in place by 
closing the teeth on it. 

Bleeding from the Stomach.— Vomiting blood .— 
Hemorrhage from the stomach is seldom so serious as to 
endanger life; but as it may be a symptom of some dan¬ 
gerous affection, it is always best to consult a physician 
concerning it. In the meantime, as in all other varieties 
of hemorrhage, perfect quiet should be preserved. A 
little salt, or vinegar, or lemon juice, should be taken at 
intervals, in a small glass of fresh cool water, or ice-water, 
as ice may be swallowed in small pieces, and cloths wet 
with ice-water, or pounded ice applied over the stomach. 

Bleeding from Varicose Veins. —Serious and even 
fatal hemorrhage may occur from the bursting of a large 
varicose or “broken” vein. Should such an accident 
occur, the bleeding may be best controlled, until proper 
medical aid can be procured, by a tight bandage; or a 
“stick tourniquet,” remembering that the blood comes 
toward the heart in the veins, and from it in the arteries. 


The best thing to prevent the rupture of varicose or broken 
veins is to support the limb by wearing elastic stockings, 
or a carefully applied bandage. 

Burns and Scalds. —There is no class of accidents that 
cause such an amount of agony, and none which are followed 
with more disastrous results. 

1. By putting the burned part under cold water, milk, 
or other bland fluid, instantaneous and perfect relief from 
all pain will be experienced. On withdraAval, the burn 
should be perfectly covered with half an inch or more of 
common Avheaten flour, put on with a dredging-box, or in 
any other Avay, and allowed to remain until a cure is 
effected, when the dry, caked flour will fall off, or can be 
softened with Avater, disclosing a beautiful, neAV and 
healthy skin, in all cases Avhere the burns have been super- 
fical. 2. Dissolve white lead in flaxseed oil to the con¬ 
sistency of milk, and apply over the entire burn or scald 
every five minutes. It can be applied with a soft feather. 
This is said to give relief sooner,' and to be more per¬ 
manent in its effects, than any other application. 3. 
Make a saturated solution of alum (four ounces to a 
quart of hot water). Dip a cotton cloth in this solution 
and apply immediately on the burn. As soon as it becomes 
hot or dry, replace it by anothei, and continue doing so as 
often as the cloth dries, which at first will be every feAV 
minutes. The pain will immediately cease, and after 
twenty-four hours of this treatment the burn will be 
healed; especially if commenced before blisters are formed. 
The astringent and drying qualities of the alum Avill 
entirely prevent their formation. 4. Glycerine, five 
ounces; Avhite of egg, four ounces; tincture of arnica, 
three ounces. Mix the glycerine and white of egg 
thoroughly in a mortar, and gradually add the arnica. 
Apply freely on linen rags night and morning, Avashing 
previously with warm castile soap-suds. 5. Take one 
drachm of finely powdered alum, and mix thoroughly with 
the Avhite of two eggs and one teacup of fresh lard ; spread 
on a cloth, and apply to the parts burnt. It gives almost 
instant reliei from pain, and, by excluding the air, pre¬ 
vents excessive inflammatory action. The application 
should be changed at least once a day. 6. M. Joel, of 
the Children’s Hospital, Lausanne, finds that a tepid bath, 
containing a couple of pinches of sulphate of iron, gives 
immediate relief to young children Avho have been exten¬ 
sively burned. In a case of a child four years old, a bath 
repeated twice a day—twenty minutes each bath—the sup¬ 
puration decreased, lost its odor, and the little sufferer Avas 
soon convalescent. 7. For severe scalding, carbolic acid 
has recently been used Avith marked benefit. It is to be 
mixed with thirty parts of the ordinary oil of lime 
water to one part of the acid. Linen rags satured in the 
carbolic emulsion are to be spread on the scalded parts, 
and kept moist by frequently smearing Avith the feather 
dipped in the liquid. Two advantages of this mode of 
treatment are, the exclusion of air, and the rapid healing 
by a natural restorative action without the formation of 
pus, thus preserving unmarred and personal appearance 
of the patient—a matter of no small importance to some 
people. 

Choking’. —In case of Choking, a violent slap with the 
open hand between the shoulders of the sufferer will often 
effect a dislodgment. In case the accident occurs Avith a 
child, and the slapping process doos not afford instant re¬ 
lief, it should be grasped by the feet, and placed head 
doAvnAvards, and the slapping betAveen the shoulders re¬ 
newed; but in case this induced violent suffocative par¬ 
oxysms it must not be repeated. If the substance, Avhat- 
ever it may be, has entered the windpipe, and the coughing 
and inverting the body fails to dislodge it, it is probable 
that nothing but cutting open the windpipe will be of any 























ACCIDENTS AND INJURIES. 


105 


avail; and for this the services of a surgeon should always 
be procured. If food has stuck in the throat or gullet, 
the forefinger should be immediately introduced; and if 
lodged at the entrance of the gullet, the substance may be 
reached and extracted, possibly, with the forefinger alone, 
or may be seized with a pair of pincers, if at hand, or a 
curling tongs, or anything of the kind. This procedure 
may be facilitated by directing the person to put the tongue 
well out, in which position it may be retained by the in¬ 
dividual himself, or a bystander by grasping it, covered 
with a handkerchief or towel. Should this fail, an effort 
should be made to excite retching or vomiting by pass¬ 
ing the finger to the root of the tongue, in hopes that 
the offending substance may in this way be dislodged ; or 
it may possibly be effected by suddenly and unexpectedly 
dashing in the face a basin of cold water, the shock sud¬ 
denly relaxing the muscular spasm present, and the invol¬ 
untary gasp at the same time may move it up or down. 
If this cannot be done, as each instant’s delay is of vital 
importance to a choking man, sieze a fork, a spoon, a pen¬ 
holder, pencil, quill, or anything suitable at hand, and 
endeavor to push the article down the throat. If it be 
low down the gullet, and other means fail, its dislodgment 
may sometimes be effected by dashing cold water on the 
spine, or vomiting may be induced by an emetic of sulphate 
of zinc (twenty grains in a couple of tablespoonfuls of 
warm water), or of common salt and mustard in like man¬ 
ner, or it may be pushed into the stomach by extemporiz¬ 
ing a probang, by fastening a small sponge to the end of 
a stiff slrip of whalebone. If this cannot be done, a sur¬ 
gical operation will be necessary. Fish bones or other 
sharp substances, when they cannot be removed by the 
finger or forceps, may sometimes be dislodged by swallow¬ 
ing some pulpy mass, as masticated bread, etc. Irregularly 
shaped substances, a plate with artificial teeth for instance, 
can ordinarily be removed only by surgical interference. 

Colic. —Use a hot fomentation over the abdomen, and a 
small quantity of ginger, pepermint or common tea. If 
not relieved in a few minutes, then give an injection of a 
quart of warm water with twenty or thirty drops of 
laudanum, and repeat it if necessary. A half teaspoonful 
of chloroform, in a tablespoonful of sweetened water, 
with or without a few drops of spirits of lavender or 
essence of peppermint, will often give prompt relief. 

Convulsions. —In small children convulsions frequently 
happen from teething, sometimes from worms or from 
some irritating substance within the stomach or bowels, 
and sometimes from some affection of the brain. 

When a child has convulsions, place it immediately in a 
warm of hot bath, and sponge its head with cold water. 
Then apply a hot mustard plaster to the wrists, ankles and 
soles of the feet, or, in case a plaster cannot be obtained, 
apply a cloth wrung out of hot mustard water. Allow 
these to remain until the skin reddens, and use care that 
the same do not blister. After the fit has subsided, use 
great care against its return by attention to the cause 
which gave rise to it. 

Convulsions in adults must be treated in accordance 
with the manner which gave rise to them. During the 
attack great care should be taken that the party does not 
injure himself, and the best preventive is a cork or a soft 
piece of wood, or other suitable substance, placed between 
the teeth to prevent biting the tongue and cheeks: tight 
clothing must be removed or loosened ; mustard poultices 
should be applied to the extremities and over the abdomen ; 
\ abundance of fresh air should be secured by opening 
J windows and doors, and preventing unnecessary crowding 
1 of persons around ; cold water may be dashed on the face 
\ and chest; and if there be plethora, with full bounding 


pulse, with evidence of cerebral or other internal conges¬ 
tion, the abstraction of a few ounces of blood may be bene¬ 
ficial. 

Cramp. —Spasmodic or involuntary contractions of the 
muscles generally of the extremities, accompained with great 
pain. The muscles of the legs and feet are the most com¬ 
monly affected with cramp, especially after great exertion. 
The best treatment is immediately to stand upright, and to 
well rub the part with the hand. The application of 
strong stimulants, as spirits of ammonia, or of ano- 
dines, as opiate liniments, has been recommended. When 
cramp occurs in the stomach, a teaspoonful of sal volatile in 
water, or a dram glassful of good brandy, should be swal¬ 
lowed immediately. When cramp comes on during cold 
bathing, the limb should be thrown out as suddenly and 
violently as possible, which will generally remove it, care 
being also taken not to become flurried nor frightened, as 
presence of mind is very essential to personal safety on 
such an occasion. A common cause of cramp is indiges¬ 
tion, and the use of acescent liquors; these should be 
avoided. 

Cuts. —In case the flow of blood is trifling, stop the 
bleeding by bringing the edges of the wound together. If 
the flow of blood is great, of a bright Vermillion color, and 
flows in spurts or with a jerk, an artery is severed, and at 
once should pressure be made on the parts by the finger 
(between the cut and the heart), until a compress is 
arranged by a tight ligature above the wounded part. 
Then the finger may be taken off, and if the blood still 
flows, tighten the handkerchief or other article that forms 
the ligature, until it ceases. If at this point the attend¬ 
ance of a physician or surgeon cannot be secured, take 
strong silk thread, or wax together three or four threads, 
and cut them into lengths of about a foot long. Wash the 
parts with warm water, and then with a sharp hook or 
small pair of pincers in your hand, fix your eye steadfastly 
upon the wound, and directing the ligature to be slightly 
released, you will see the mouth of the artery from which 
the blood springs. At once seize it, draw it out a little, 
while an assistant passes a ligature round it, and ties it up 
tight with a double knot. In this way take up in succes¬ 
sion every bleeding vessel you can see or get hold of. If 
the wound is too high up in a limb to apply the ligature, 
do not lose your presence of mind. If it is the thigh, press 
firmly on the groin; if in the arm, with the hand-end or 
ring of a common door-key make pressure above the collar¬ 
bone, and about its middle, against its first rib, which lies 
under it. The pressure should be continued until assist¬ 
ance is procured and the vessel tied up. If the wound is 
on the face, or other place where pressure cannot effectually 
be made, place a piece of ice directly over the wound, 
allowing it to remain thereuntil the blood coagulates, when 
it may be removed, and a compress and bandage be applied. 

After the bleeding is arrested the surrounding blood 
should be cleared away, as well as any extraneous matter; 
then bring the sides of the wound into contact throughout 
the whole depth, in order that they may grow together as 
quickly as possible, retaining them in their position by 
strips of adhesive plaster. If the wound be deep and ex¬ 
tensive, the wound itself and the adjacent parts must be 
supported by proper bandages. The position of the patient 
should be such as will relax the skin and muscles of the 
wounded part. Rest, low and unstimulating diet, will 
complete the requirements necessary to a speedy recovery. 

How to Distinguish Death.— As many instances occur 
of parties being buried alive, they being to all appearance 
dead, the great importance of knowing how to distinguish 
real from imaginary death need not be explained. The 
appearances which mostly accompany death, are an entire 







































106 


ACCIDENTS AND INJURIES. 


stoppage of breathing, of the heart’s action; the eyelids 
are partly closed, the eyes glassy, and the pupils usually 
dilated; the jaws are clenched, the fingers partially con¬ 
tracted, and the lips and nostrils more or less covered with 
frothy mucus, with increasing pallor and coldness of sur¬ 
face, and the muscles soon become rigid and the limbs fixed 
in their position. But as these same conditions may also 
exist in certain other cases of suspended animation, great 
care should be observed, whenever there is the least doubt 
concerning it, to prevent the unnecessary crowding of the 
room in which the corpse is, or of parties crowding around 
the body; nor should the body be allowed to remain lying 
on the back without the tongue being so secured as to pre¬ 
vent the glottis or orifice of the windpipe being closed by 
it; nor should the face be closely covered; nor rough usage 
of any kind be allowed. In case there is great doubt, the 
body should not be allowed to be inclosed in the coffin, and 
under no circumstances should burial be allowed until there 
are unmistakable signs of decomposition. 

Of the numerous methods proposed as signs for real 
death, we select the following: 1. So long as breathing 
continues, the surface of a mirror held to the mouth and 
nostrils will become dimmed with moisture. 2. If a strong 
thread or small cord be tied tightly round the finger of a 
living person, the portion beyond the cord or thread will 
become red and swollen—if dead, no change is produced. 
3. If the hand of a living person is held before a strong- 
light a portion of the margin or edges of the fingers is trans¬ 
lucent—if dead, every part of it is opaque. 4. A coal of 
fire, a piece of hot iron, or the flame of a candle, applied to 
the skin, if life remains, will blister—if dead it will merely 
sear. 5. A bright steel needle introduced and allowed to 
remain for half an hour in living flesh will be still bright— 
if dead, it will be tarnished by oxydation. 6. A few drops 
of a solution of atropia (two grains to one-half ounce of 
water) introduced into the eye, if the person is alive, will 
cause the pupils to dilate—if dead, no effect will be pro¬ 
duced. 7. If the pupil is already dilated, and the person 
is alive, a few drops of tincture of the calabar bean will 
cause it to contract—if dead, no effect will be produced. 

Dislocations.— These injuries can mostly be easily recog¬ 
nized; 1. By the deformity that the dislocation gives rise 
to by comparing the alteration in shape with the other side 
of the body. 2. Loss of some of the regular movements 
of the joints. 3. In case of dislocation, surgical aid should 
be procured at once. While waiting the arrival of a phy¬ 
sician, the injured portion should be placed in the position 
most comfortable to the patient, and frequent cold bathing 
or cloths wrung out of cold water, applied to the parts 
affected, so as to relieve suffering and prevent inflamma¬ 
tion. 

Foreign Bodies in Ears. —Great care should be taken 
in removing foreign bodies from the ear, as serious injury 
may be inflicted. Most foreign bodies, especially those of 
small size, can be easily removed by the use of a syringe 
with warm water, and in most cases no other means should 
be used. Should the first efforts fail, repeat the operation. 
A syringe throwing a moderately small and continuous 
stream is the best adapted for the purpose, and the removal 
may generally be facilitated by inclining the ear downward 
while using the syringe. Severe inflammation may be ex¬ 
cited, and serious injury done, by rash attempts to seize a 
foreign body in the ear, with a forceps or tweezers, or try¬ 
ing to pick it out with a pin or needle, or with an ear 
scoop. Should it be necessary from any cause to use in¬ 
struments, great care should be observed, and but very 
little force exerted. It has lately been recommended, when 
foreign bodies cannot be removed by syringing the ear, to 
introduce a small brush or swab of frayed linen or muslin 
cloth, or a bit of sponge, moistened with a solution of glue. 


and keep it in contact with the foreign body until the glue 
adheres, when the body may be easily removed. 

Insects in the Ear. —Insects in the ear may be easily 
killed by pouring oil in the ear, after which remove by 
syringing. (See foreign bodies in ear.) 

To Remove Hardened Ear Wax.— Hardened ear wax 
may be softened by dropping into the ear some oil or glycer¬ 
ine, and then syringing. (See foreign bodies in ear.) 

Foreign Bodies in Eye. —To remove small particles 
from the eye, unless they have penetrated the globe, or be¬ 
come fixed in the conjunctiva, do as follows: 

Grasp the upper lid between the thumb and forefinger, 
lift it from the eyeball, and having drawn it down as far as 
possible outside the lower lid, let it slide slowly back to its 
place, resting upon the lower lid as it goes back; and then 
wipe the edges of the lids with a soft handkerchief to re¬ 
move the foreign substance. This may be repeated a num¬ 
ber of times, if necessary, without injury. Should this 
means fail, evert the lids and remove the foreign substance 
by touching it lightly with the fold of a handkerchief, or 
with the point of a roll of paper made like a candle-lighter; 
or, if necessary, with a small pair of forceps. A drop of 
sweet oil instilled in the eye, while perfectly harmless, pro¬ 
vokes a flow of tears that will frequently wash away any 
light substance. 

Bits of metal, sharp pieces of sand, etc., sometimes pen¬ 
etrate the globe of the eye, and, unless removed, may excite 
so much inflammation as to destroy the eye. They should 
be removed by a competent surgeon. 

Fainting'. —Lay the person who has fainted in a current 
of air, or in such a position that the air from an open win¬ 
dow or door will have full play upon the face. Do not 
allow parties to crowd closely around, but give the sufferer 
plenty of room. Recovery will take place in a few min¬ 
utes. The clothes also may be opened, and cold water 
sprinkled upon the face, hands and chest; and some 
pungent substance, as smelling salts, camphor, aromatic 
vinegar, etc., may be applied to the nostrils ; and as soon 
as able to swallow, a little fresh water, or spirits and 
water, may be given. Persons who faint easily should 
avoid crowded rooms and places where the air is close. 

Fits. —See Convulsions. 

Clothing 1 on Fire. —If a woman’s clothes catch on fire, 
let her instantly roll herself over and over on the ground. 
In case any one be present, let them throw her down and 
do the like, and then wrap her up in a table-cloth, rug, 
coat, or the first woolen article that can be found. 

Fractures. —As we can only give general rules for 
treating the various fractures, we would advise any one 
suffering from such to immediately apply to the nearest 
surgeon, and not rely upon an inexperienced party. 

Frost-Bite. —Place the party suffering in a room with¬ 
out fire, and rub the frozen or frosted parts with snow, or 
pour ice-water over them until sensation begins to return. 
As soon as a stinging pain is felt, and a change of color 
appears, then cease the rubbing, and apply clothes wet 
with ice-water, and subsequently, if active inflammation 
follow and suppuration results, a solution of carbolic acid 
in water, one part to thirty, should be applied. If morti¬ 
fication set in, amputation is generally necessary. Where 
persons suffer from the constitutional effects of cold, hot 
stimulants should be given internally, and the body rubbed 
briskly with the hands and warm flannel. 

Poisons, Their Symptoms and Antidotes.—When 
a person has taken poison, the first thing to do is to com¬ 
pel the patient to vomit, and for that purpose give any 
emetic that can be most readily and quickly obtained, and 
which is prompt and energetic, but safe in its action. 































ACCIDENTS AND INJURIES. 


107 


For this purpose there is, perhaps, nothing better than a 
large teaspoonful of ground mustard in a tumblerful of 
warm water, and it has the advantage of being almost 
always at hand. If the dry mustard is not to be had, use 
mixed mustard from the mustard pot. Its operation may 
generally be facilitated by the addition of a like quantity 
of common table salt. If the mustard is not at hand, give 
two or three teaspoonfuls of powdered alum in syrup or 
molasses, and give freely of warm water to drink ; or give 
ten to twenty grains of sulphate of zinc (white vitriol), or 
twenty to thirty grains of ipecac, with one or two grains 
of tartar emetic, in a large cup of warm water, and repeat 
every ten minutes until three or four doses are given, 
unless free vomiting is sooner produced. After vomiting 
has taken place, large draughts of warm water should be 
given the patient, so that the vomiting will continue until 
the poisonous substances have been thoroughly evacuated, 
and then suitable antidotes should be given. If vomiting 
cannot be produced, the stomach-pump should be used. 
When it is known what particular kind of poison has been 
swallowed, then the proper antidote for that poison should 
be given, but when this cannot be ascertained, as is often 
the case, give freely of equal parts of calcined magnesia, 
pulverized charcoal, and sesquioxide of iron, in sufficient 
quantity of water. This is a very harmless mixture, and 
is likely to be of great benefit, as the ingredients, though 
very simple, are antidotes for the most common and active 
poisons. In case this mixture cannot be obtained, the 
stomach should be soothed and protected by the free 
administration of demulcent, mucilaginous or oleaginous 
drinks, such as the whites of eggs, milk, mucilage of gum 
arabic, or slippery elm bark, fiaxseed tea, starch, wheat, 
flour, or arrow-root mixed in water, linseed or olive oil, or 
melted butter or lard. Subsequently the bowels should be 
moved by some gentle laxative, as a tablespoonful or two 
of castor oil, or a teaspoonful of calcined magnesia; and 
pain or other evidence of inflammation must be relieved 
by the administration of a few drops of laudanum, and 
the repeated application of hot poultices, fomentations and 
mustard plasters. The following are the names of the 
articles that may give rise to poisoning, most commonly 
used, and their antidote : 

Mineral Acids—Sulphuric Acid (Oil of Vitriol), 
Nitric Acid (Aqua Fortis), Muriatic Acid (Spirits of 
Salts). —Symptoms : Acid, burning taste in the mouth, 
acute pain in the throat, stomach and bowels; frequent 
vomiting, generally bloody, mouth and lips excoriated, 
shriveled, white or yellow; hiccough, copious stools, more 
or less bloody, with great tenderness in the abdomen; 
difficult breathing, irregular pulse, excessive thirst, while 
drink increases the pain and rarely remains in the stomach; 
frequent but vain efforts to urinate; cold sweats, altered 
countenance; convulsions generally preceding death; 
nitric acid causes yellow stains; sulphuric acid, black 
ones. Treatment: Mix calcined magnesia in milk or 
water to the consistence of cream, and give freely to drink 
a glassful every couple of minutes, if it can be swal¬ 
lowed. Common soap (hard or soft), chalk, whiting, or 
even mortar from the wall mixed in water, may be given, 
until magnesia can be obtained. Promote vomiting by 
tickling the throat, if necessary, and when the poison is 
got rid of, flaxseed or elm tea, gruel, or other mild drinks. 
The inflammation which always follows wants good treat¬ 
ment to save the patient's life. 

Vegetable Acids—Acetic, Citric, Oxalic, Tar¬ 
taric. —Symptoms: Intense burning pain of mouth, 
throat and stomach; vomiting blood which is highly acid, 
violent purging, collapse, stupor, death. 


Oxalic Acid is frequently taken in mistake for Epsom 
salts, to which in shops it often bears a strong resem¬ 
blance. Treatment: Give chalk or magnesia in a large 
quantity of water, or large draughts of lime water. If 
these are not at hand, scrape the wall or ceiling, and give 
the scrapings, mixed with water. 

Prussic or Hydrocyanic Acid—Laurel Water, 
Cyanide of Potassium, Bitter Almond Oil, etc.— 

Symptoms: In large doses almost invariably instantane¬ 
ously fatal, when not immediately fatal, sudden loss of 
sense and control of the voluntary muscles; the odor of 
the poison generally susceptible on the breath. Treat¬ 
ment: Chlorine, in the form of chlorine water, in doses 
of from one to four fluid drachms, diluted, Weak solu¬ 
tion of chloride lime of soda; water of ammonia (spirits 
of hartshorn) largely diluted may be given, and the vapor 
of it cautiously inhaled. Cold affusion, and chloroform 
in half to teaspoonful doses in glycerine or mucilage, 
repeated every few minutes, until the symptoms are 
ameliorated. Artificial respiration. 

Aconite — Monkshood, Wolfsbane. — Symptoms: 
Numbness and tingling in the mouth and throat, and 
afterwards in other portions of the body, with sore throat, 
pain over the stomach, and vomiting; dimness of vision, 
dizziness, great prostration, loss of sensibility and delir¬ 
ium. Treatment: An emetic and then brandy in table¬ 
spoonful doses, in ice-water, every half hour; spirits of 
ammonia in half teaspoonful doses in like manner; the 
cold douche over the head and chest, warmth to the 
extremities, etc. 

Alkalies and their Salts—Concentrated Lye, 
Woodash Lye, Caustic Potash, Ammonia, Harts¬ 
horn. —Symptoms : Caustic, acrid taste, excessive heat in 
the throat, stomach and intenstines ; vomiting of bloody 
matter, cold sweats, hiccough, purging of bloody stools.— 
Treatment: The common vegetable acids. Common vin¬ 
egar being always at hand, is most frequently used. The 
fixed oils, as castor, flaxseed, almond and olive oils form 
soaps with the alkalies and thus also destroy their caustic 
effect. They should be given in large quantity. 

Alcohol, Brandy, and other Spirituous Liquors. 

—Symptoms: Confusion of thought, inability to walk or 
stand, dizziness, stupor, highly flushed or pale face, noisy 
breathing.—Treatment: After emptying the stomach, 
pour cold water on the head and back of the neck, rub or 
slap the wrists and palms, and the ankles and soles of the 
feet, and give strong, hot coffee, or aromatic spirits of 
hartshorn, in teaspoonful doses in water. The warmth of 
the body must be sustained. 

Antimony, and its Preparations. Tartar Emetic, 
Antimonial Wine, Kerme’s Mineral.— Symptoms: 
Faintness and nausea, soon followed by painful and con¬ 
tinued vomiting, severe diarrhoea, constriction and burn¬ 
ing sensation in the throat, cramps, or spasmodic twitch- 
ings, with symptoms of nervous derangement, and great 
prostration of strength, often terminating in death.—Treat¬ 
ment : If vomiting has not been produced, it should be 
effected by tickling the fauces, and administering copious 
draughts of warm water. Astringment infusions, such as 
of gall, oak bark, Peruvian bark, act as antidotes, and 
should be given promptly. Powdered yellow bark may be 
used until the infusion is prepared, or very strong green 
tea should be given. To stop the vomiting, should it con¬ 
tinue, blister over the stomach by applying a cloth wet 
with strong spirits of hartshorn, and then sprinkle on the 
one-eighth to one-fourth of a grain of morphia. 

Arsenic and its Preparations—Ratsbane, Fow¬ 
ler’s Solution, etc. —Symptoms : Generally within an 
hour pain and heat are felt in the stomach, soon followed 
































108 


ACCIDENTS AND INJURIES. 


by vomiting, with a burning dryness of the throat and 
great thirst; the matters vomited are generally colored, 
either green yellow, or brownish, and sometimes bloody. 
Diarrhoea or dysentery ensues, while the pulse becomes 
small and rapid, yet irregular. Breathing much oppressed; 
difficulty invomiting may occur, while cramps, convulsions, 
or even paralysis often precede death, which sometimes 
takes place within five or six hours after arsenic has been 
taken.—Treatment: Give a prompt emetic, and then 
hydrate of peroxide of iron (recently prepared) in table¬ 
spoonful doses every ten or fifteen minutes until the urgent 
symptoms are relieved. In the absence of this, or while it 
is being prepared, give large draughts of new milk and 
raw eggs, limewater and oil, melted butter, magnesia in a 
large quantity of water, or even if nothing else is at hand, 
flour and water, always, however, giving an emetic the 
first thing, or causing vomiting by tickling the throat with 
a feather, etc. The inflammation of the stomach which fol¬ 
lows must be treated by blisters, hot fomentations, mucil¬ 
aginous drinks, etc., etc. 

Belladonna or Deadly Night Shade.— Symptoms: 
Dryness of the mouth and throat, great thirst, difficulty of 
swallowing, nausea, dimness, confusion or loss of vision, 
great enlargement of the pupils, dizziness, delirium and 
coma.—Treatment: There is no known antidote. Give a 
prompt emetic and then reliance must be placed on con¬ 
tinual stimulation with brandy, whisky, etc., and to neces¬ 
sary artificial respiration. Opium and its preparations, as 
morphia, laudanum, etc., are thought by some to counter¬ 
act the effect of belladonna, and may be given in small and 
repeated doses, as also strong black coffee and green tea. 

Blue Vitriol, or Blue Stone. —See Copperas. 

Cantharides (Spanish or Blistering Fly) and 
Modern Potato Bug. —Symptoms: Sickening odor of 
the breath, sour taste, with burning heat in the throat, 
stomach, and bowels; frequent vomiting, often bloody; 
copious bloody stools, great pain in the stomach, with 
burning sensation in the bladder and difficulty to urinate, 
followed with terrible convulsions, delirium and death.— 
Treatment: Excite vomiting by drinking plentifully of 
sweet oil or other wholesome oils, sugar and water, milk, 
or slippery elm tea; give injections of castor oil and 
starch, or warm milk. The inflammatory symptoms which 
generally follow must be treated by a medical man. Cam¬ 
phorated oil or camphorated spirits should be rubbed over 
the bowels, stomach and thighs. 

Caustic Potash. —See Alkalies. 

Cobalt, or Fly-Powder. —Symptoms : Heat and pain 
in the throat and stomach, violent retching and vomiting, 
cold and clammy skin, small and feeble pulse, hurried and 
difficult breathing, diarrhoea, etc.—Treatment: An emetic, 
followed by the free administration of milk, eggs, wheat 
flour and water, and mucilaginous drinks. 

Copper—Blue Vitriol, Verdigris or Pickles or 
Food Cooked in Soul Copper Vessels.— Symptoms: 
General inflammation of the alimentary canal, suppression 
of urine ; hiccough, a disagreeable metallic taste, vomiting, 
violent colic, excessive thirst, sense of tightness of the 
throat, anxiety ; faintness, giddiness, and cramps and con¬ 
vulsions generally precede death.—Treatment : Large 
doses of simple syrup as warm as can be swallowed, until 
the stomach rejects the amount it contains. The whites of 
eggs and large quantities of milk. Hydrated peroxide of 
iron. 

Copperas.— See Iron. 

Creosote.—Carbolic Acid. —Symptoms : Burning 
pain, acrid, pungent taste, thirst, vomiting, purging, etc. 
—Treatment: An emetic, and the free administration of 


albumen, as the whites of eggs, or in the absence of these, 
milk, or flour and water. 

Corrosive Sublimate. —See Mercury. 

Deadly Night-Shade. —See Belladonna. 

Fox-Glove, or Digitalis. —Symptoms: Loss of 
strength, feeble, fluttering pulse, faintness, nausea, and 
vomiting and stupor; cold perspiration, dilated pupils, 
sighing, irregular breathing, and sometimes convulsions. 
—Treatment: After vomiting, give brandy and ammonia 
in frequently repeated doses, apply warmth to the extrem¬ 
ities, and if necessary resort to artificial respiration. 

Gases—Carbonic Acid, Chlorine, Cyanogen, Hy- 
drosulphuric Acid, etc. —Symptoms: Great drowsi¬ 
ness, difficult respiration, features swollen, face blue as in 
strangulation.—Treatment: Artificial respirations, cold 
douche, frictions with stimulating substances to the surface 
of the body. Inhalation of steam containing preparations 
of ammonia. Cupping from nape of neck. Internal use 
of chloroform. 

Green Vitriol. —See Iron. 

Hellebore, or Indian Poke. —Symptoms: Violent 
vomiting and purging, bloody stools, great anxiety, tremors, 
vertigo, fainting, sinking of the pulse, cold sweets and con¬ 
vulsions.—Treatment : Excite speedy vomiting by large 
draughts of warm water, molasses and water, tickling the 
throat with the finger or a feather, and emetics ; give oily 
and mucilaginous drinks, oily purgatives, and clysters, 
acids, strong coffee, camphor and opium. 

Hemlock (Conium). —Symptoms: Dryness of the 
throat, tremors, dizziness, difficulty of swallowing, prostra¬ 
tion and faintness, limbs powerless or paralyzed, pupils 
dilated, pulse rapid and feeble; insensibility and convul¬ 
sions sometimes precede death.—Treatment: Empty the 
stomach and give brandy in tablespoonful doses, with half 
teaspoonful of spirits of Ammonia, frequently repeated, 
and if much pain and vomiting, give bromide of ammon¬ 
ium in five-grain doses every half hour. Artificial respira¬ 
tion may be required. 

Henbane or Hyoseyamus. —Symptoms: Muscular 
twitching, inability to articulate plainly, dimness of vis¬ 
ion and stupor; later, vomiting and purging, small, inter¬ 
mittent pulse, convulsive movement of the extremities and 
coma. Treatment: Similar to Opium Poisoning, which 
see. 

Iodine. —Symptoms: Burning pain in throat, lacerating 
pain in the stomach, fruitless effort to vomit, excessive 
tenderness of the epigastrium. Treatment: Free emesis, 
prompt administration of starch, wheat flour, or arrow- 
root, beat up in water. 

Lead.—Acetate of Lead, Sugar of Lead, Dry 
White Lead, Red Lead, Litharge, or Pickles, Wine, 
or Vinegar, Sweetened by Lead.— Symptoms: When 
taken in Targe doses, a sweet but astringent metallic taste 
exists, with constriction in the throat, pain in the region 
of the stomach, painful, obstinate, and frequently bloody 
vomitings, hiccough, convulsions or spasms, and death. 
When taken in small but long-continued doses, it produces 
colic, called painter’s colic; great pain, obstinate constipa¬ 
tion, and in extreme cases paralytic symptoms, especially 
wrist-drop, with a blue line along the edge of the gums. 
Treatment: To counteract the poison, give alum in water, 
one and a half ounce to a quart; or, better still, Epsom 
salts or Glauber salts, an ounce of either in a quart of 
water; or dilute sulphuric acid, a teaspoonful to a quart 
of water. If a large quantity of sugar of lead has been re¬ 
cently taken, empty the stomach by an emetic of sulphate 
of zinc (one drachm in a quart of water), giving one-fourth 



































ACCIDENTS AND INJURIES. 


109 


to commence, and repeating smaller doses until free vomit¬ 
ing is produced; castor oil should be given to clear the 
bowels, and injections of oil and starch freely administered. 
If the body is cold, use the warm bath. 

Meadow Saffron.— See Belladonna. 

Laudanum.— See Opium. 

Lunar Caustic.— See Silver. 

Lobelia. —Indian Poke.—Symptoms : Excessive vom¬ 
iting and purging, pains in the bowels, contraction of the 
pupils, delirium, coma, and convulsions. Treatment: Mus¬ 
tard over the stomach, and brandy and ammonia. 

Mercury.—Corrosive Sublimate (hug poisons fre¬ 
quently contain this poison), Red Precipitate, Chinese 
or English Vermillion. —Symptoms: Acrid, metallic 
taste in the mouth, immediate constriction and burn¬ 
ing in the throat, with anxiety and tearing pains in both 
stomach and bowels, sickness, and vomiting of various col¬ 
ored fluids, and sometimes bloody and profuse diarrhoea, 
with difficulty and pain in urinating; pulse quick, small 
and hard ; faint sensations, great debility, difficult breath¬ 
ing, cramps, cold sweats, syncope and convulsions. Treat¬ 
ment : If vomiting does not already exist, emetics must be 
given immediately—albumen of eggs in continuous large 
closes, and infusion of catechu afterwards, sweet milk, mix¬ 
tures of flour and water in successive cupfuls, and to check 
excessive salivation put a half ounce of chlorate of potash 
in a tumbler of water, and use freely as a gargle, and swal¬ 
low a tablespoonful every hour or two. 

Monkshood. —See Arnica. 

Morphine. —See Opium. 

Nitrate of Silver (Lunar Caustic.) —Symptoms: In¬ 
tense pain and vomiting and purging of blood ; mucus and 
shreds of mucus membranes; and if these stand they be¬ 
come dark. Treatment: Give freely of a solution of com¬ 
mon salt in water, which decomposes the poison, and after¬ 
wards flax-seed or elm bark tea, and after a while a dose of 
castor oil. 

Nux Vomica. —See Strychnine. 

Opium and all its Preparations—Morphine, Lau¬ 
danum, Paregoric, etc. —Symptoms: Giddiness, drowsi¬ 
ness, increasing to stupor, and insensibility; pulse usually, 
at first, quick and irregular, and breathing hurried, and 
afterwards pulse slow and feeble, and respiration slow and 
noisy; the pupils are contracted and the eyes and face 
congested, and later, as death approaches, the extremities 
become cold, the surface is covered with cold, clammy per¬ 
spiration, and the sphincters relax. The effects of opium 
and its preparations, in poisonous doses, appear in from a 
half to two hours from its administration. Treatment: 
Empty the stomach immediately with an emetic or with 
the stomach pump. Then give very strong coffee without 
milk; put mustard plasters on the wrist and ankles; use 
the cold douche to the head and chest, and if the patient is 
cold and sinking give brandy, or whisky and ammonia. 
Belladonna is thought by many to counteract the poisonous 
effects of opium, and nmy be given in doses of half to a tea¬ 
spoonful of the tincture, or two grains of the extract, every 
twenty minutes, until some effect is observed in causing 
the pupils to expand. Use warmth and friction, and if 
possible prevent sleep for some hours, for which purpose 
the patient should be walked about between two persons, 
and if necessary a bunch of switches may be freely used. 
Finally, as a last resort, use artificial respiration, and a per- 
sistance in it will sometimes be rewarded with success in 
apparently hopeless cases. Galvanism should also be tried. 

Oxalic Acid.— See Acids. 

Phosphorus—Found in Lucifer Matches and some 
Rat Poisons, —Symptoms: Symptoms of irritant poi¬ 


soning; pain in the stomach and bowels; vomiting; diar¬ 
rhoea; tenderness and tension of the abdomen. Treatment: 
An emetic is to be promptly given; copious draughts con¬ 
taining magnesia in suspension; mucilaginous drinks. 
General treatment for inflammatory symptoms. 

Poisonous Fish. —Symptoms: In an hour or two—often 
in much shorter time—after the fish has been eaten, a 
weight at the stomach comes on, with slight vertigo and 
headache; sense of heat about the head and eyes; consider¬ 
able thirst, and often an eruption of the skin. Treatment: 
After full vomiting, an active purgative should be given to 
remove any of the noxious matter from the intestines. 
Vinegar and water may be drunk after the above remedies 
have operated, and the body may be sponged with the same. 
Water made very sweet with sugar, with aromatic spirits 
of ammonia added, may be drunk freely as a corrective. A 
solution of cholorate of potash, or of alkali, the latter weak, 
may be given to obviate the effect of the poison. If spasms 
ensue after evacuation, laudanum in considerable doses is 
necessary. If inflammation should occur, combat in the 
usual way. 

Poisonous Mushrooms. —Symptoms : Nausea, heat 
and pains in the stomach and bowels ; vomiting and purg¬ 
ing, thirst, convulsions and faintings, pulse small and fre¬ 
quent, dilated pupil and stupor, cold sweats and death. 

Treatment: The stomach and bowels are to be cleared 
by an emetic of ground mustard or sulphate of zinc, fol¬ 
lowed by frequent doses of Glauber of Epsom salts, and 
large stimulating clysters. After the poison is evacuated, 
either may be given with small quantities of brandy and 
water. But if inflammatory symptoms manifest themselves, 
such stimuli should be avoided, and these symptoms appro¬ 
priately treated. 

Potash. —See Alkali. 

Prussic Acid, Hydrocyanic.— See Acids. 

Poison Ivy. —Symptoms. Contact with, and with 
many persons the near approach to the vine, gives rise to 
violent erysipelatous inflammation, especially of the face 
and hands, attended with itching, redness, burning and 
swelling, with watery blisters. 

Treatment: Give saline laxatives, and apply weak lead 
and laudanum, or limewater and sweet oil, or bathe the 
parts freely with spirits of nitre. Anointing with oil will 
prevent poisoning from it. 

Saltpetre, Nitrate of Potash.— Symptoms. Only 
poisonous in large quantities, and then causes nausea, pain¬ 
ful vomiting, purging, convulsions, faintness, feeble pulse, 
cold feet and hands, with tearing pains in stomach and 
bowels. 

Treatment: Treat just as is directed for arsenic, fo r 
there is no antidote known, and emptying the stomach and 
bowels with mild drinks must be relied on. 

Savine. —Symptoms: Sharp pains in the bowels, hot 
skin, rapid pulse, violent vomiting and sometimes purging, 
with great prostration. Treatment: Mustard and hot 
fomentations over the stomach and bowels, and ice only 
allowed in the stomach until the inflammation ceases. If 
prostration comes on, food and stimulants must be given 
by injection. 

Stramonium, Thorn-apple or Jamestown Weed. 

—Symptoms: Vertigo, headache, perversion of vision, 
slight delirium, sense of suffocation, disposition to sleep, 
bowels relaxed and all secretions augmented. Treatment: 
Same as Belladonna. 

Strychnine and Nux Vomica.—Symptoms: Muscu¬ 
lar twitching, constriction of the throat, difficult breathing 
and oppression of the chest; violent muscular spasms then 
occur, continuous in character like lock-jaw, with the body 
































n 


110 ACCIDENTS AND INJURIES. 


bent backwards, sometimes like a bow. Treatment: Give, 
if obtainable, one ounce or more of bone charcoal mixed 
with water, and follow with an active emetic; then give 
chloroform in teaspoonful doses, in flour and water or 
glycerine, every few minutes while the spasms last, and 
afterwards brandy and stimulants, and warmth of the 
extremities if necessary. Recoveries have followed the 
free and prompt administration of oils or melted butter or 
lard. In all cases empty the stomach if possible. 

Sulphate of Zinc, White Vitriol.— See Zinc. 

Tin—Chloride of Tin, Solution of Tin (Used by 
Dyers), Oxide of Tin or Putty Powder. —Symptoms: 
Vomiting, pains in the stomach, anxiety, restlessness, fre¬ 
quent pulse, delirium, etc. Treatment: Empty the 
stomach, and give whites of eggs in water, milk in large 
quantities, or flour beaten up in water, with magnesia or 
chalk. 

Tartar Emetic. —See Antimony. 

Tobacco. — Symptoms: Vertigo, stupor, fainting, 
nausea, vomiting, sudden nervous debility, cold sweat, 
tremors, and at times fatal prostration. Treatment: After 
the stomach is empty apply mustard to the abdomen and 
to the extremities, and give strong coffee, with brandy and 
other stimulants, with warmth to the extremities. 

Zinc—Oxide of Zinc, Sulphate of Zinc, White 
Vitriol, Acetate of Zinc. —Symptoms: Violent vomit¬ 
ing, astringent taste, burning pain in the stomach, pale 
countenance, cold extremities, dull eyes, fluttering pulse. 
Death seldom ensues, in consequence of the emetic effect. 
Treatment: The vomiting may be relieved by copious 
draughts of warm water. Carbonate of soda, administered 
in solution, will decompose the sulphate of zinc. Milk and 
albumen will also act as antidotes. General principles to 
be observed in the subsequent treatment. 

Woorara. —Symptoms: When taken into the stomach 
it is inert; when absorbed through a wound it causes sud¬ 
den stupor and insensibility, frothing at the mouth and 
speedy death. Treatment: Suck the wound immediately, 
or cut it out and tie a cord around the limb between the 
wound and the heart. Apply iodine, or iodide of potas¬ 
sium, and give it internally, and try artificial respiration. 

Scalds. —See Burns and Scalds. 

Sprains. —The portions most frequently implicated are 
the wrist and ankle; no matter which portion it may be, 


however, rest and quietness is a very important part of the 
treatment, and, when possible, in an elevated position. If 
the wrist is sprained it should be carried in a sling; if the 
ankle, it should be supported on a couch or stool. Cold 
lotions (see Bruises) should be freely applied, and irriga¬ 
tion by pouring water from a pitcher or tea-kettle resorted 
to several times a day to prevent inflammation. Later, 
frictions with opodeldoc, or with some stimulating liniment, 
and supporting the parts by pressure made with a flannel 
roller, or laced stocking when the ankle is involved, will 
be useful'to restore tone; or strips of adhesive plaster 
properly applied will be useful for the same purpose. Re¬ 
covery from severe sprains is always tedious. It is an old 
saying “that a bad sprain is worse than a broken bone.” 

Sting’S of Bees and Wasps. —See Bites and Stings. 

Suffocation from Noxious Gases, Foul Air, Fire 
Damp, Etc. —Remove to fresh air and dash cold water 
over the head, neck and chest; carefully apply hartshorn, 
or smelling salts to the nostrils, and when the breathing is 
feeble or has ceased, resort immediately to artificial respi¬ 
ration (see Asphyxia and Drowning). Keep up the 
warmth of the body, and as soon as the patient can swal¬ 
low give stimulants in small quantities. 

Sunstroke. —This is caused by long exposure in great 
heat, especially when accompanied with great fatigue and 
exhaustion. Though generally happening from exposure 
to the sun’s rays, yet precisely similar effects may be and 
are produced from any undue exposure to great and ex¬ 
haustive heat, such as workmen are exposed to in foundries, 
gas factories, bakeries, and other similar employments. 
Its first symptom is pain in the head and dizziness, quickly 
followed by loss of consciousness, and resulting in complete 
prostration; sometimes, however, the attack is sudden, as 
in apoplexy. The head is generally burning hot, the face 
dark and swollen, the breathing labored and snoring, and 
the feet and hands cold. Remove the patient at once to a 
cool and shady place, and lay him down with his head a 
little raised; apply ice or iced water to the head and face; 
loosen all cloths around the neck or waist; bathe the chest 
with cold water, apply mustard plasters, or cloths wetted 
with turpentine, to the calves and soles of the feet, and as 
soon as the patient can swallow, give weak brandy or 
whisky and water. 


HOW TO CURE. STORE * PRESERVE 

MEATS AND VEGETABLES 




HOW to Keep Apples. —The following is a good plan: 
The apples should be placed in glazed earthen vessels, each 
containing about a gallon, and surrounding the fruit with 
paper. The vessels being perfect cylinders, about a foot 
each in height, stand very conveniently upon each other, 
and thus present the means of preserving a large quantity 
of fruit in a very small room. If the space between the 
top of one vessel and the base of another be filled with cem¬ 
ent, composed of two parts of the curd of skimmed milk 


and one of lime, by which the air will be excluded, the 
winter kind of apples will be preserved with little change 
in their appearance from October to March. A dry and 
cold place in which there is little change of temperature is 
the best. 

How to Dry Apples.— The most general method 
adopted in drying apples is, after they are pared, to cut 
them in slices, and spread them on cloths, tables or boards, 
and then dry them out-doors. In clear and dry weather 




































































MEATS AND VEGETABLES. 


Ill 


this is, perhaps, the most expeditious and best way; but in 
cloudy and stormy weather this way is attended with much 
inconvenience, and sometimes loss, in consequence of the 
apples rotting before they dry. To some extent they may 
be dried in this way in the house, though this is attended 
with much inconvenience. The best method that we have 
ever used to dry apples is to use frames. These combine 
the most advantages with the least inconvenience of any 
way, and can be used with equal advantage either in dry¬ 
ing in the house or out in the sun. In pleasant weather, 
the frames can be set out doors against the side of the 
building, or any other support, and at night, or in cloudy 
and stormy days, they can be brought into the house, and 
set against the side of the room near the stove or fireplace. 
Frames are made in the following manner: Two strips of 
board, 7 feet long, 2 to 2% inches wide—two strips 3 feet 
long, inches wide, the whole f of an inch thick—nail 
the short strips across the ends of the long ones, and it 
makes a frame 3 by 7 feet, which is a convenient size for 
all purposes. On one of the long strips nails are driven 3 
inches apart, extending from the top to the bottom. After 
the apples are pared they are quartered and cored, and 
with a needle and twine, or stout thread strung into 
lengths long enough to reach twice across the frame ; the 
ends of the twine are then tied together, and the strings 
hung on the nails across the frame. The apples will soon 
dry so that the strings can be doubled on the nails, and 
fresh ones put on or the whole of them removed, and 
others put in their place. As fast as the apples become 
sufficiently dry, they can be taken from the strings, and 
the same strings used to dry more on. If large apples are 
used to dry, they can be cut in smaller pieces. Pears and 
quinces, and other fruits that can be strung, may be dried 
in this way. 

How to Pack Apples in Barrels.— When the farmers 
find out that the manner of packing apples in barrels 
greatly influences the price of the same, they will take 
more care than they usually do. A neatly packed barrel 
will bring from one to two dollars more than one in which 
the apples are thrown in without any effort to make a good 
show. When you begin to pack the barrel turn it upside 
down, the head resting on the ground or floor; then take 
the bottom out, leaving the head in. Then choose about a 
peck of your prettiest and finest apples ; wipe them clean, 
being certain that there are no spots on them, or in any 
other manner disfigured; then place them in the barrel 
with their stems down, first placing them around the rim 
of the barrel, entirely round the same, after which make 
another ring, until the whole is covered. Then throw in 
your apples, and when your barrel is full, press them down 
and put in the bottom, after which turn them head up¬ 
wards. When the barrel is opened from the top, your 
apples will be found in good condition, even and nicely 
packed. 

Apple Butter. —Select two bushels of sour apples, and 
peel, core and quarter them. Take a barrel of good, sweet 
apple cider, and boil it in a copper kettle until all the im¬ 
purities have arisen to the surface. After this is done, and 
the impurities skimmed off, take out two-thirds of the 
cider. Then put in the apples, and as the quantity boils 
down put in the rest of the cider. After putting in the 
apples the butter must be stirred without interruption 
until it is taken off. It will take about five hours* boiling 
after the apples are put into the cider. It should be boiled 
until the whole mass becomes smooth and of the same 
consistency, and of a dark brown color. Spice with ground 
cloves and cinnamon to taste. The butter can then be 
taken off and put into vessels for use. Earthen crocks are 
best for this purpose. Tie the vessels over with heavy 


paper and set them away in a dry place. The butter will 
keep a year if wanted. 

How to Keep Beans Fresh for Winter.— Procure a 
wide-mouthed stone jar, lay on the bottom of it some 
freshly-pulled French beans, and over them put a layer of 
salt; fill the jar up in this manner with alternate layers 
of beans and salt. The beans need not all be put in at the 
same time, but they are better if the salt be put on while 
they are quite fresh. They will keep good all through the 
winter. When going to use them, steep for some hours in 
fresh cold water. 

How to Dry String Beans. —Dried string beans are 
very excellent in winter. Cut the beans up in the usual 
lengths, dry them, put them in a bag. In winter, soak 
them and cook them in the usual way. 

How to Pickle Beef. —Rub each piece of beef very 
lightly with salt; let them lie singly on a tray or board for 
twenty-four hours, then wipe them very dry. Pack them 
closely in a tub, taking care that it is perfectly sweet and 
clean. Have the pickle ready, made thus : Boil four gal¬ 
lons of soft water with ten pounds of coarse salt, four 
ounces of saltpeter, and two pounds of coarse brown sugar; 
let it boil fifteen minutes, and skim it while boiling very 
clean. When perfectly cold pour it on the beef, laying a 
weight on the top to keep the meat under the pickle. 
This quantity is sufficient for 100 pounds of beef if closely 
packed. 

How to Preserve Butter. — 1 . The best method to 
preserve butter from the air is to fill the pot to within an 
inch of the top, and to lay on it common coarse-grained 
salt, to the depth of one-half an inch or three-quarters of 
an inch, then to cover the pot up with any flat article that 
may be convenient. The salt by long keeping will run to 
brine, and form a layer on the top of the butter, which 
will effectually keep out the air, and may at any time be 
very easily removed by turning the pot on one side. 

2. Fresh butter, sixteen pounds; salt, one pound. 

3. Fresh butter, eighteen pounds ; salt, one pound ; salt¬ 
peter, one and one-fourth ounces; honey or fine brown 
sugar, two ounces. 

How to Make Pennsylvania Apple Butter. —Let 

three bushels of fair sweet apples be pared, quartered, and 
the cores removed. Meanwhile let two barrels of new 
cider be boiled down to one-lialf. When this is done, 
commit the prepared apples to the cider, and let the boiling- 
go on briskly and systematically, stirring the contents 
without cessation, that they do not become attached to the 
side of the kettle and be burned. Let the stirring go on 
till the amalgamated cider and apples become as thick as 
hasty-pudding; then throw in pulverized allspice, when it 
may be considered as finished, and committed to pots for 
future use. 

How to Pack and Preserve Butter.— Packing but¬ 
ter that is gathered up at country stores is a nice operation, 
and needs to be carefully performed. As it is of all shades 
of color, from white to pale yellow generally, a coloring 
may be prepared by melting some of the butter and dis¬ 
solving in it the prepared annatto, which may be procured 
at any drug store. This should be kept for use as it is want¬ 
ed. To use it, take a quantity of the butter to be colored 
in the mixing-bowl, cut into it gashes with the butter ladle 
(don’t touch it with the hands), place a small portion of 
the coloring preparation in each of these gashes, and mix 
until the color is evenly spread and no streaks are to be 
seen. Then gash it once more with the ladle, sprinkle one 
ounce of salt to the pound of butter, and leave it twenty- 
four hours. Then pour off any water collected on it, and 
pack it in a new oak tub that has been soaked with brine 
for a day and night. Water should never be used for 
working butter at any time. 


U 




































MEATS AND VEGETABLES. 


How to Preserve Birds. —Birds may be preserved in 
a fresh state for some time by removing the intestines, 
wiping the inside out quite dry with a towel, and then flour¬ 
ing them. A piece of blotting paper, on which one or two 
drops of creoste have been placed, is now to be put inside 
them, and a similarly prepared piece of paper tied around 
them. They should then be hung up in a cool dry place, 
and will be found to keep much longer than without under¬ 
going this process. 

How to Keep Cabbage. —Gather them before the 
severe fall frosts. Let the coarse outside leaves remain on 
them. Fix a strong string around the stalk, and suspend 
the cabbage from the timbers of the ceiling, heads down¬ 
ward. The cellar should be cool and dry. This will pre¬ 
serve them with a certainty. 

Another good method is to cut the cabbage from the 
stump, pack close in a cask, taking care to fill up all the 
vacancies with dry chaff, or bran, and keep in a dry cellar. 

How to Keep Cauliflower. —They can be kept in a 
cellar by covering the roots and stalks with earth, till Feb¬ 
ruary. Or they may be placed in a trench in the garden, 
roots down, and covered with earth, up close to the heads, 
and then cover with hay or straw, four or five inches thick, 
placing just enough soil on the straw to keep it in its posi¬ 
tion. This method does well in the latitude of New York; 
but in colder climates a thicker covering would be re¬ 
quired. 

How to Keep Celery. —This may be kept in good con¬ 
dition through the winter in a cool, dry cellar, by hav¬ 
ing it set in earth. When a small quantity only is wanted, 
take a box and stand the celery up in it, placing a little 
earth about the roots. The farmers who raise quantities of 
it often keep it in their old hot-beds; standing it up, and 
protecting it from frosts. There is no vegetable more rel¬ 
ished than this, and every person who has a garden should 
raise enough for his own use, if no more. 

How to Keep Sweet Cider. —Use only sound apples. 
Make the cider when tbe weather is almost cold enough to 
freeze the apples. Expose the cider during freezing 
weather, and stir it till the whole of it is reduced as near 
the freezing point as possible without freezing. Then bar¬ 
rel it, bung up tight, and place in a cellar kept nearly 
down to the freezing point. As long as you can keep it 
cold enough it will not ferment, and as long as it does not 
ferment it will remain sweet. 

How to Dry Cherries. —Take the stems and stones 
from ripe cherries; spread them on flat dishes, and dry 
them in the hot sun or warm oven; pour whatever juice 
may have run from them, a little at a time, over them, stir 
them about that they may dry evenly. When they are per¬ 
fectly dry, line boxes or jars with white paper, and pack 
them close in layers; strew a little brown sugar, and fold 
the paper over, and keep them in a dry place; or put them 
in muslin bags, and hang them in an airy place. 

How to Store Egg’S. —Wright’s illustrated Book of 
Poultry says that a systematic trial for two seasons has 
shown that, tor purposes of long keeping for eating or 
breeding, eggs should be packed with the large end down¬ 
ward, instead of placing them on the small end, as is com¬ 
monly done. The longer the eggs are kept the greater 
difference will be found in the results of the two methods. 
Experiment has proved that eggs placed as recommended 
may be set and successfully hatched, with remarkable uni¬ 
formity, at ages which with the usual method of storing 
would Vender success almost hopeless. The practical phi¬ 
losophy of the case is alleged to consist in delaying the 
spread of the air bubble and its detachment from the mem¬ 
braneous lining of the egg, thus retarding alterations de¬ 
structive to vitality. 




How to Dry Eggs. —The eggs are beaten to uniform 
consistency, and spread out in thin cakes on batter plates. 
This dries them in a paste, which is to be packed in close 
cans and sealed. When required for use, the paste can be 
dissolved in water and beaten to a foam like fresh eggs. 
It is said that eggs can be preserved for years in this way, 
and retain their flavor. 

How to Pickle Eggs. —The jar is to be of moderate 
size—wide-mouthed earthen jar, sufficient to hold one 
dozen eggs; let the latter be boiled quite hard; when fully 
done, place the same, after taking them up, into a pan of 
cold water. Remove the shells from them and deposit 
them carefully in the jar. Have on the fire a quart or 
more of good white vinegar, into which put one ounce of 
raw ginger, two or three blades of sweet mace, one ounce of 
allspice, half an ounce of whole black pepper and salt, half 
an ounce of mustard seed, with four cloves of garlic. 
When it has simmered down, take it up and pour the con¬ 
tents into the jar, taking care to observe that the eggs are 
wholly covered. When quite cold, stopper it down for use. 
It will be ready after a month. When cut into quarters, 
they serve as a garnish, and afford a nice relish to cold 
meat of any kind. 

How to Keep Eggs. —1. Parties in the egg business in 
a large way build brick vats made water-tight, in which is 
lime water, made by putting lime in water, and when it is 
slacked and settled to the bottom, drawing off the liquor. 
Into this liquor the eggs are placed and kept beneath the 
surface. They are kept as cool as possible. These are the 
limed eggs with which the market is supplied during the 
winter. 

2. Another mode of keeping eggs, tested by the Agricult¬ 
ural Department, is as follows: Rub the eggs with flax¬ 
seed (linseed) oil, and place them, small end downwards, 
in sand. Eggs so prepared were found at the end of six 
months to have the same taste and smell of perfectly fresh 
eggs, and to have lost in weight only three per cent. 
Greasing eggs with lard or tallow has not been successful in 
preserving them, except for short periods. 

3. Take a thin board of any convenient length and width 
and pierce it full of holes (each one and a half inches in 
diameter) as you can. A board two feet and six inches in 
length and one foot wide, has five dozen holes in it, say 
twelve rows of five each. Then take four strips two inches 
broad and nail them together edgewise into a rectangular 
frame of the same size as your other board. Nail this 
board upon a frame and the work is done unless you choose 
to nail a heading around the top. Put your eggs in this 
board as they come from the poultry house, the small ends 
down, and they will keep good for six months, if you take 
the following precautions: Take care that the eggs do not 
get wet, either in the nest or afterwards. Keep them in a 
cool room in summer, and out of the reach of frost in win¬ 
ter. If two boards be kept, one can be filling while the 
other is emptying. 

4. Eggs can easily be kept from October to March in the 
following manner: A piece of lime, as large as a quart dip¬ 
per, is put in five gallons of water, and salt added until an 
egg will float. This is strained and put into a clean keg, 
into which a loose head is made to fit easily; a knob is 
fitted to the head for a handle. The eggs are put, as they 
are gathered, into the liquid, and the loose head placed on 
them to keep them below the surface. The keg should be 
kept in a cool place in the cellar. The liquor will not 
freeze except at a lower temperature than freezing point. 
Eggs thus preserved will sell readily as limed eggs until 
fresh eggs come, and are almost as good as fresh ones. 

5. Take one quart of unslacked lime, pour to it water 
enough to make it the consistency of whitewash, add one 



































MEATS AND VEGETABLES. 


113 


teaspoon of cream tartar; let this be in a wooden or stone 
vessel, and put the eggs into it. 

6. Hang them by hooks in strong cabbage nets, and 
every day hook them on a fresh mesh, so as thereby to 
turn the eggs. 

7. Apply with a brush a solution of gum arabic to the 
shells, or immerse the eggs therein, let them dry, and 
afterwards pack them in dry charcoal dust. This prevents 
their being affected by alterations of temperature. 

8. Mix together in a tub, or vessel, one bushel Win¬ 
chester measure of quick lime, thirty-two ounces of salt, 
eight ounces of cream of tartar, with as much water as will 
reduce the composition to a sufficient consistence to float 
an egg. Then put and keep the eggs therein, which will 
preserve them perfectly sound for tw r o years at least. 

9. Eggs can be preserved by keeping them at a temper¬ 
ature of forty degrees or less in a refrigerator. Eggs 
have been tested when kept in this manner for two years 
and found to be perfectly good. 

10. Dissolve three or four ounces of beeswax in seven 
ounces of warm olive oil; put in this the tip of your finger 
and anoint the egg all over. Keep the eggs in a cool place 
and they will keep fresh for five years. 

How to Can Fruit. —The principle should be under¬ 
stood, in order to work intelligently. The fruit is pre¬ 
served by placing it in a vessel from which the external air 
is entirely excluded. This is effected by surrounding the 
fruit by liquid, and by the use of heat to rarefy and expel the 
air that may be entangled in the fruit or lodged in its 
pores. The preservation does not depend upon sugar, 
though enough of this is used in the liquid which covers 
the fruit to make it palatable. The heat answers another 
purpose; it destroys the ferment which fruits naturally 
contain, and as long as they are kept from contact with 
the external air they do not decompose. 

The vessels in which fruits are preserved are tin, glass, 
and earthenware. Tin is used at the factories where large 
quantities are put up for commerce, but is seldom used in 
families, as more skill in soldering is required than most 
people possess. Besides, the tins are not generally safe to 
use more than once. Glass is the preferable material, as 
it is readily cleaned and allows the interior to be frequently 
inspected. Any kind of bottle or jar that has a mouth 
wide enough to admit the fruit and that can be securely 
stopped, positively air-tight—which is much closer than 
water-tight—wall answer jars of various patterns and 
patents are made for the purpose, and are sold at the crock¬ 
ery and grocery stores. These have wide mouths, and a 
glass or metallic cap which is made to fit very tightly by an 
India-rubber ring between the metal and the glass. The 
devices for these caps are numerous, and much ingenuity 
is displayed in inventing them. We have used several 
patterns without much difference in success, but have 
found there was some difference in the facility with which 
the jars could be opened aud closed. The best are those 
in which atmospheric pressure helps the sealing, and where 
the sole dependence is not upon screws or clamps. To 
test a jar, light a slip of paper and hold it within it. The 
heat of the flame will expand the air and drive out a por¬ 
tion of it. Now put on the cap, when the jar becomes 
cool the air within will contract, and the pressure of the 
external air should hold the cover on so firmly that it can¬ 
not be pulled off without first letting in the air by pressing 
aside the rubber or by such other means as is provided in 
the construction of the jar. When regular fruit jars are 
not used, good corks and cement must be provided. 

Cement is made by melting ounce of tallow with 1 
pound of rosin. The stiffness of the cement may be gov¬ 
erned by the use of more or less tallow. After the jar is 
corked, tie a piece of stout drilling over the mouth. Dip 


the cloth on the mouth of the jar into the melted cement, 
rub the cement on the cloth with a stick to break up the 
bubbles, and leave a close covering. 

The process. Everything should be in readiness, the 
jars clean, the covers well fitted, the fruit picked over or 
otherwise prepared, and the cement and corks, if these are 
used, at hand. The bottles or jars are to receive a very 
hot liquid, and they must be gradually warmed beforehand, 
by placing warm water in them, to which boiling water is 
gradually added. Commence by making a syrup in the 
proportion of a pound of white sugar to a pint of water, 
using less sugar if this quantity will make the fruit too 
sweet. When the syrup boils, add as much fruit as it will 
cover, let the fruit heat in the syrup gradually, and when 
it comes to a boil, ladle it into the jars or bottles which 
have been warmed as above directed. Put in as much 
fruit as possible, and then add the syrup to fill up the in¬ 
terstices among the fruit; then put on the cover or insert 
the stopper as soon as possible. Have a cloth at hand damp¬ 
ened in hot water to wipe the necks of the jars. W hen one lot 
has been bottled, proceed with more, adding more sugar and 
water if more syrup is required. Juicy fruits will diminish 
the syrup much less than others. When the bottles are cold, 
put them away in a cool, dry and dark place. Do not 
tamper with the covers in any way. The bottles should be 
inspected every day for a w r eek or so, in order to discover 
if any are imperfect. If fermentation has commenced, 
bubbles will be seen in the syrup, and the covers will be 
loosened. If taken at once, the contents may be saved by 
thoroughly reheating. Another way is to prepare a syrup 
and allow "it to cool. Place the fruit in the bottles, cover 
with the syrup and then set the bottles nearly up to their 
rims in a boiler of cold water. Some wooden slats should 
be placed at the bottom of the boiler to keep the bottles 
from contact with it. The water in the boiler is then 
heated and kept boiling until the fruit in the bottles is 
thoroughly heated through, when the covers are put on, 
and the bottles allowed to cool. It is claimed that the 
flavor of the fruit is better preserved in this way than by 
the other. 

What may be preserved.—All the fruits that are used in 
their fresh state or for pies etc., and rhubarb, or pie-plant, 
and tomatoes. Green peas, and corn, cannot be readily 
preserved in families as they require special apparatus. 
Strawberries—hard-fleshed sour varieties, such as the Wil¬ 
son, are better than the more delicate kinds. 

Currants need more sugar than the foregoing. Black¬ 
berries and huckleberries are both very satisfactorily pre¬ 
served, and make capital pies. Cherries and plums need 
only picking over. Peaches need peeling and quarter¬ 
ing. The skin may be removed from ripe peaches by scald¬ 
ing them in water or weak lye for a few seconds, and then 
transferring them to cold water. Some obtain a strong 
peach flavor by boiling a few peach meats in the syrup. 
We have had peaches keep three years, and were better 
then than those sold at the stores. Pears are pared and 
halved, or quartered, and the core removed. The best, 
high-flavored and melting varieties only should be used. 
Coarse baking pears are unsatisfactory. Apples—very few 
put up these. Try some high-flavored ones, and you will 
be pleased with them. Quinces—there is a great contrast 
between quinces preserved in this way and those done up 
in the old way of pound for pound. They do not become 
hard, and they remain of a fine light color. Tomatoes re¬ 
quire cooking longer than the fruits proper. Any intelli¬ 
gent person who understands the principle upon which 
fruit is preserved in this way, will soon find the mechanical 
part easy of execution and the results satisfactory. 

How to Protect Dried Fruit From the Worms.— 

It is said that dried fruit put away with a little bark 

































114 


MEATS AND VEGETABLES. 


sassafras (say a large handful to the bushel) will save for 
years, unmolested by those troublesome little insects, 
which so often destroy hundreds of bushels in a single 
eason. The remedy is cheap and simple, but we venture 
to say a good one. 

How to Keep Canned Fruit.— The preservation of 
canned fruits depends very much on the place where they are 
stored. If put in a cellar, unless it is exceptionally dry, 
they will gather mould and loose all the fine, fresh flavor 
it is so desirable to retain. If kept in too warm a spot, 
they will ferment and burst the cans, and in that case, even 
if the fauit has not been spilled over the shelvor, it will 
have been made so sour that no re-scalding, etc., can make 
it good. Severe cold does not injure it unless the weather 
is below zero. 

One stinging cold morning we entered our milk room to 
find long rows of grenadiers in red coats, standing trium¬ 
phantly amid the fragments of numerous defeated bottles. 

The tomatoes being preserved entirely without sugar or 
spice were frozen to a solid red ice, but the fruits put up 
with a small quantity of sugar were only slightly frozen, 
and as we immediately immersed the jars in cold water 
until the frost was extracted, they did not burst. The 
tomatoes were saved by an immediate re-bottling. 

A double-walled closet in a fireless room on the second 
floor is one of the best places for storing canned fruits in 
the winter; and in summer a cool milk-room will be found 
safe. 

How to Dry Gooseberries. —To seven pounds of red 
gooseberries add a pound and a half of powdered sugar, 
which must be stewed over them in the preserving pan; let 
them remain at a good heat over a slow fire till they begin 
to break; then remove them. Repeat this process for two 
or three days; then take the gooseberries from the syrup, 
and spread them out on sieves near the fire to dry. This 
syrup may be used for other preserves. When the goose¬ 
berries are quite dry, store them in tin boxes or layers of 
paper. 

Howto Keep Red Gooseberries.— Pick Gooseberries 
when fully ripe, and for each quart take a quarter of a 
pound of sugar and a gill of water; boil together until quite 
a syrup; then put in the fruit, and continue to boil gently 
for fifteen minutes; then put them into small stone jars; 
when cold, cover them close; keep them for making tarts 
or pies. 

How to Keep Grapes. —1 . They must not be too ripe. 
Take off any imperfect grapes from the bunches. On the 
bottom of a keg put a layer of bran that has been well 
dried in an oven, or in the sun. On the bran put a layer 
of grapes, with bran between the bunches so that they may 
not be in contact. Proceed in the same way with alternate 
layers of grapes and bran, till the keg is full; then close the 
keg so that no air can enter. 2. In a box first lay a paper, 
then a layer of grapes, selecting the best bunches and re¬ 
moving all imperfect grapes, then another paper, then 
more grapes, and so on until the box is full; then cover 
all with several folds of paper or cloth. Nail onthe lid, 
and set in a cool room where it will not freeze. We 
use small boxes, so as not to disturb more than we want 
to use in a week or so. Give each bunch plenty of 
room so they will not crowd, and do not use newspapers. 
Some seal the stems with sealing Avax and wrap each bunch 
by itself, but we get along without that trouble. The 
granes should be looked to several times during the winter. 
Should any mould or decay, they should be removed and 
the good ones again repacked. By this means we have 
had, with our pitcher of cider and basket of apples, our 
plate of grapes daily, besides distributing some among our 
friends and the sick of the neighborhood. 3. (Chinese 


Method.) It consists in cutting a circular piece out of a 
ripe pumpkin or gourd, making an aperture large enough 
to admit the hand. The interior is then completely 
cleaned out, the ripe grapes are placed inside, and the cov¬ 
er replaced and pressed in firmly. The pumpkins are then 
kept in a cool place—and the grapes will be found to retain 
their freshness for a very long time. We are told that a 
very careful selection must be made of the pumpkin, the 
common field pumpkin, lioAvever, being well adapted for 
the purpose in question. 

How to Cure Hams. —The committee on bacon hams 
of the Second Annual Exhibition of the Frederick (Mary¬ 
land) County Agricultural Society aAvarded the first premi¬ 
um to Mrs. George M. Potts, and the second to W. H. 
Lease, Esq., and obser\ T ed “that the hams were remarka¬ 
ble for their excellent flavor, and Avere at the same time 
juicy and tender.”—The following are the recipes: 

Mrs. Potts’ Recipe. —To each green ham of eighteen 
pounds, one dessert-spoonful of saltpetre; one-fourth 
pound of brown sugar applied to the fleshy side of the ham 
and about the hock; cover the fleshy side with fine salt half 
an inch thick, and pack away in tubs; to remain from three 
to six weeks, according to size. Before smoking rub off 
any salt that may remain on the ham, and cover Avell Avith 
ground pepper, particularly about the bone and hock. 
Hang up and drain for two days: smoke with green wood 
for eight Aveeks, or until the rind assumes a light chestnut 
color. The pepper is an effectual preventive of the fly. I 
never bag hams. This recipe took the first premium. 

Mr. Lease’s Recipe.—W hen the hams were cool he 
salted them down in a tight cask, putting a bushel of salt, 
Avell mixed with six ounces of saltpetre, to about one thou¬ 
sand pounds of pork; after it had been salted down four or 
five days, he made a strong brine, sufficient to float an egg, 
and cured the meat Avith it, and then let it remain five 
Aveeks longer; then hung it up, dusting the fresh sides 
Avith black pepper; then smoked with green Avood. 

Another. —After cutting out the pork, rub the skin-side 
Avith about half a teaspoonful of saltpetre, well rubbed in. 
Rub the pieces all over with salt, leaving them well covered 
on the fleshy side. Then lay the hams in large, tight 
troughs, skin-side down. Continue this process until it is 
all salted doAvn. Let them remain in the troughs Avithout 
touching or troubling them for four or five Aveeks, accord¬ 
ing to the size of the hog, no matter how warm or change¬ 
able the weather is. Then take them out of the trough, 
and string them on Avhite-oak splits; wash all the salt off 
with the brine, if sufficient; if not, with water; then rub 
them well and thoroughly with Avood ashes. Let them 
hang up and remain tAventy-f our hours or two or three days 
before you make the smoke under them, A\ T hich must be 
made of green chips, and not chunks. Make the smoke 
under them every day, and smoke them five or six weeks. 
After the smoke stops, let the hams remain hanging all the 
time. Shoulders cure in the same manner. Always kill 
your hogs in the morning, and let them remain from twen¬ 
ty-four to thirty-six hours before cutting them up. 

How to Keep Smoked Hams. —Make sacks of coarse 
cotton cloth, large enough to hold one ham, and fill in with 
chopped hay all around about tAVO inches thick. The hay 
prevents the grease from coming in contact with the cloth, 
and keeps all insects from the meat. Hang in the smoke¬ 
house, or other dry, cool place, and they will keep a long 
time. 

How to Dry Herbs. —They should be gathered in a 
dry season, cleansed from discolored and rotten leaves, 
screened from earth or dust, placed on handles covered 
with blotting paper, and exposed to the sun or the heat of 
a stove, in a dry, airy place. The quicker they are dried 
the better, as they have less time to ferment or grow 
































MEATS AND VEGETABLES. 


115 


moldy; hence they should be spread thin, and frequently 
turned; when dried they should be shaken in a large 
meshed sieve to get rid of the eggs of any insects. Aro¬ 
matic herbs ought to be dried quickly with a moderate heat 
that their odor may not be lost. Cruciferous plants should 
not be dried, as in that case they lose much of their anti¬ 
scorbutic qualities. Some persons have proposed to dry 
herbs in a water bath, but this occasions them, as it were, 
to be half boiled in their own water. 

How to Keep Honey. —After the honey is passed from 
the comb, strain it through a sieve, so as to get out all the 
wax; gently boil it, and skim off the whitish foam which 
rises to the surface, and then the honey will become per¬ 
fectly clear. The vessel for boiling should be earthen, 
brass, or tin. The honey should be put in jars, when cool, 
and tightly covered. 

To keep honey in the comb, select combs free from pol¬ 
len, pack them edgewise in jars or cans, and pour in a suffi¬ 
cient quantity of the boiled and strained honey (as above) 
to cover the combs. The jars or cans should be tightly 
tied over with thick cloth or leather. These processes 
have been in use for twenty years with unvarying success. 

How to Make Artifical Honey. —to ten pounds of 
good brown sugar add four pounds of water, gradually 
bring it to a boil, skimming it well. When it has become 
cooled, add two pounds of bees* honey and eight drops of 
peppermint. A better article can be made with white 
sugar instead of common, with one pound less of water, 
and one pound more of honey. To twenty pounds of cof¬ 
fee sugar add six pounds of water, four ounces cream of tar¬ 
tar, four tablespoonfuls of vinegar (strong), the white of 
two eggs, well beaten, and one pound of bees’ honey, 
Lubin’s extract of honeysuckle, twenty drops. Place the 
water and sugar in a kettle, and put it over a fire; when 
lukewarm add the cream of tartar, stirring it at the time; 
then add the egg, and when the sugar is melted, put in the 
honey and stir it well until it comes to a boil; then take it 
off, let it stand five minutes, then strain, adding the extract 
last. Let it stand over night, and it is ready for use. 

How to Keep Horse-Radish.— Grate a sufficient quan¬ 
tity during the season, while it is green, put it in bottles, 
fill up with strong vinegar, cork them tight, and set them 
in a good place. 

How to Keep Lard from Moulding 1 . —It is not likely 
to meld if properly tried and kept in a cool, dry place. 
Earthen crocks or pans well tinned are good to put lard in 
for keeping. Lard made from intestinal fat will not keep 
so long as leaf fat. It should be soaked two or three days 
in salted water, changed each da}\ 

How to Keep Lard Sweet. —Even during the warmest 
weather lard can be kept sweet by the following plan: 
When rendering (melting) it, throw into each kettle a 
handful of fresh slippery elm bark. No salt must be added 
to it at any time. The jars in which the lard is to be 
kept must be thoroughly cleansed. 

How to Bleach Lard. —Lard may be bleached by 
applying a mixture of bichromate of potassa and muriatic 
acid, in minute proportions, to the fat. 

How to Try Out Lard. —This should be done in the 
open air. Set a large kettle over the fire, in some shel¬ 
tered place, on a still day. It will cook much quicker in 
large quantities. Put into the kettle, while the lard is 
cold, a little saleratus, say one tablespoonful to every 
twenty pounds; stir almost constantly when nearly done, 
till the scraps are brown and crisp, or until the steam 
ceases to rise; then there is no danger of its molding; 
strain out into pans, and the first will be ready to empty 
into crocks when the last is strained. 


How to Make Lard. —Cut the fat up into pieces about 
two inches square; fill a vessel holding about three gallons 
with the pieces; put in a pint of boiled lye made from oak 
and hickory ashes, and strained before using; boil gently 
over a slow fire, until the cracklings have turned brown; 
strain and set aside to cool. By the above process you will 
get more lard, a better article, and whiter than by any 
other process. 

How to Keep Meat Fresh in Winter.— In Minne¬ 
sota, where winter thaws are not much to be feared, it is 
quite common to hang up a porker or a leg of venison or 
beef, and cut from it as it hangs, week after week. It 
seems to us that meat so kept must greatly deteriorate in 
flavor. We like best to cut the beef or venison into good 
pieces for cooking in various ways, and pack them down in 
snow. Of course they freeze, but thawing a piece brought 
in to cook is a simple matter. Put frozen poultry or meat 
in cold water, and all the frost will shortly leave it. A 
coating of ice will be found on the outside, which will 
easily cleave off. 

How to Protect Meat from Fly.— An effectual way of 
excluding the fly is by using a wire meat-safe, or by cover¬ 
ing the joints with a long loose gauze, or some thin cloth, 
and hanging them from the ceiling of a dry room. Pepper 
and ginger should be sprinkled on the parts likely to be 
attacked by the fly, but should be washed off before the 
joint is put to the fire. 

How to Cure Meat. —To one gallon of water add 
one and a half pounds of salt, half a pound of sugar, half 
an ounce of saltpetre, half an ounce of potash. In this 
ratio the pickle to be increased to any quantity desired. 
Let these be boiled together until all the dirt from the 
sugar rises to the top and is skimmed off. Then throw it 
into a tub to cool, and when cold pour it over your beef or 
pork, to remain the usual time, say four or five weeks. 
The meat must be well covered with pickle, and should not 
be put down for at least two days after killing, during 
which time it should be slightly sprinkled with powdered 
saltpetre, which removes all the surface blood, etc., leaving 
the meat fresh and clean. Some omit boiling the pickle, 
and find it to answer well, though the operation of boiling 
purifies the pickle by throwing off the dirt always to be 
found in salt and sugar. If this recipe is properly tried it 
will never be abandoned. There is none that surpasses it, 
if so good. 

How to Preserve Meat in Cans. —A new method of 
preserving meat in tin cans, which is favorably commented 
upon, is that of Mr. R. Jones, of London. In this process 
the meat is first packed in its raw state into tins of any 
desired size. The lids are then soldered down, the top of 
each lid having a small tin tube inserted into it, which 
communicates with the interior of the tin. These tubes 
are next inserted into the exhauster, which is a receptacle 
connected with a machine designated a “ Torricellian 
vacuum,” an apparatus in which the air is exhausted by the 
action of water. The tins are then placed in the cooking- 
bath, and at the proper juncture the vacuum is created 
and the meat most thoroughly cooked, at a temperature 
varying from 180 to 228 degrees. At this stage another 
feature of the invention comes into play. The vacuum 
having been created, a supply of gravy is turned on from a 
receptacle, and the tins filled with nutritious fluid. The 
feed pipes of the tins are then nipped and the cases her¬ 
metically sealed. By thus filling the tins with the gravy 
the difficulty of collapse, which has always hitherto pre¬ 
vented large tins from being used, is obviated, while the 
whole space of the package is utilized. Testimonials, from 
captains of ships and others who have used it, are.furnished 
by the inventor, certifying to the excellent quality of the 


U 
































MEATS AND VEGETABLES. 


meat. By this improved process, overcooking the meat is 
prevented, and as now prepared it would seem to merit 
general approbation. 

How to Pickle Meat. —Moist sugar, 2 pounds; bay or 
common salt, 4 pounds; saltpetre, £ pound; fresh ground 
allspice, 2 ounces; water, 6 to 8 quarts. Dissolve. Used 
to pickle meat, to which it imparts a line red color and a 
superior flavor. 

How to Keep Milk. —Milk may be preserved in stout, 
well-corked and wired bottles by heating them to the boil¬ 
ing point in a water-bath, by which the small quantity of 
inclosed air becomes decomposed. Milk, or green goose¬ 
berries, or peas, thus treated, will keep for two years. 
Some persons add a few grains of calcined magnesia to 
each bottle of milk before corking it. 

Mince Meats. —Three pounds of raisins, stoned; three 
pounds of currants; three pounds of beef suet, chopped 
fine; one pound of bread crumbs; three-quarters of a 
pound of mixed candied peel; one and a half pounds of 
fillet of beef, previously cooked; salt, sugar, spices and 
ginger to taste. Each ingredient to be chopped up sepa¬ 
rately, and very fine. Mix all well together, and take 
especial care that the beef is well mixed with the other 
ingredients. Moisten with a bottle of brandy and stir 
occasionally. Another: Half a pound of candied peel, 
cut in delicate slices, then chopped; two wineglassfuls of 
brandy. Mix well together with a wooden spoon, and put 
the mince meat, well pressed down, into a covered jar, tied 
over very well. The mince meat should be made some 
days before it is wanted, and when about to be used a 
little more brandy should be stirred into it. Another: 
Quarter of an ounce of fine salt; half an ounce of mixed 
spice; three pounds of moist sugar; three pounds of well- 
cleaned currants; two pounds of stoned raisins, chopped; 
two and a half pounds of beef suet, finely chopped; the 
thinnest peel of two lemons and their juice; two pounds 
of apples, baked to a pulp, and weighed when cold. 

How to Keep unions. —Gather in fall and remove the 
tops; then spread upon a barn floor or in any open shed, 
and allow them to remain there until thoroughly dry. Put 
into barrels or small bins or boxes and place in a cool place, 
and at the approach of cold weather cover with straw or 
chaff, if there is danger of very severe freezing. Onions 
are often injured in winter by keeping them in too warm a 
place. They will seldom be injured by frost if kept in the 
dark, and in tight barrels or boxes, where not subjected to 
frequent changes of temperature. It is the alternate 
freezings and thawings that destroy them, and if placed in 
a position where they will remain frozen all winter, and 
then thawed out slowly and in a dark place, no considera¬ 
ble injury would result from this apparently harsh treat¬ 
ment. Onions should always be stored in the coolest part 
of the cellar, or put in chaff and set in the barn or some 
out-house. 

How to Keep Parsnips. —The almost universal prac¬ 
tice among farmers is to allow their parsnips to remain in 
the ground through winter, just where they were grown. 
We believe the quality of this root is improved by being 
frozen, or at least kept cool, but it is not necessary to leave 
them in the open garden during winter, where, if the 
ground remain frozen, they cannot be got at until it thaws 
in spring, and then used in a very few weeks or not at all. 
If the roots are dug up late in the fall, leaving all the tops 
on, then carefully heeled in thickly together in rows, after 
which cover with a little coarse litter, they can be reached 
whenever wanted during winter. 

How to Dry Peaches. —Never pare peaches to dry. 
Let them get mellow enough to be in good eating condi¬ 
tion, put them in boiling water for a moment or two, and 



the skins will come off like a charm. Let them be in the 
water long enough, but no longer. The gain is at least 
sixfold—saving of time in removing the skin, great saving 
of the peach, the part of the peach saved is the best part, 
less time to stone the peaches, less time to dry them, and 
better when dried. A whole bushel can be done in a boiler 
at once, and the water turned off. 

How to Can Peaches. —Pare and halve your peaches. 
Pack them as closely as possible in the can without any su¬ 
gar. When the can is full, pour in sufficient pure cold 
water to fill all the interstices between the peaches, and 
reach the brim of the can. Let them stand long enough 
for the water to soak into all the crevices—say six hours— 
then pour in water to replace what has sunk away. Seal up 
the can, and all is done. Canned in this way, peaches re¬ 
tain all their freshness and flavor. 

There will not be enough water in them to render them 
insipid. If preferred, a cold syrup could be used instead 
of pure water, but the peaches taste more natural without 
any sweet. 

How to Preserve Green Peas.— When full grown, 
but not old, pick and shell the peas. Lay them on dishes 
or tins in a cool oven, or before a bright fire; do not heap 
the peas on the dishes, but merely cover them with peas, 
stir them frequently, and let them dry very gradually. 
When hard, let them cool, then pack them in stone jars, 
cover close and keep them in a very dry place. When re¬ 
quired for use, soak them for some hours in cold water till 
they look plump before boiling; they are excellent for 
soup. 

Piccalilli, Indian Method. —This consists of all kinds 

of pickles mixed,and put into one large jar—sliced cucum¬ 
bers, button onions, cauliflowers, broken in pieces. Salt 
them, or put them in a large hair sieve in the sun to dry 
for three days, them scald them in vinegar a few minutes, 
when cold put them together. Cut a large white cabbage 
in quarters, with the outside leaves taken off and cut fine, 
salt it and put in the sun to dry three or four days, then 
scald it in vinegar, the same as cauliflower; carrots, three 
parts, boiled in vinegar and a little bay salt. French beans, 
radish, pods, and nasturtiums,all go through the same proc¬ 
ess as capsicums, etc. To 1 gallon of vinegar put 4 ounces 
of ginger bruised, 2 ounces of whole white pepper, 2 ounces 
of allspice, % ounce chillies bruised, 4 ounces of tumeric, 
1 pound of the best mustard, \ pound of shallots, 1 ounce 
of garlic, and \ pound of bay salt. The vinegar, spice, 
and other ingredients, except the mustard, must boil half 
an hour; then strain it into a pan, put the mustard into a 
large basin, with a little vinegar ; mix it quite fine and free 
from lumps, then add more. When well mixed put it into 
the vinegar just strained off, and when quite cold put the 
pickles into a large pan, and the liquor over them; stir 
them repeatedly, so as to mix them all. Finally, put them 
into a jar, and tie them over first with a bladder, and 
afterwards with leather. The capsicums want no prepara¬ 
tion. 

How to Store Potatoes. —Potatoes should not be ex¬ 
posed to the sun and light any more than is necessary to 
dry them after digging them from the hill. Every ten 
minutes of such exposure, especially in the sun; injures 
their edible qualities. The flesh is thus rendered soft, 
yellowish or greenish, and injured in flavor. Dig them 
when dry, and put them in a dark cellar immediately, and 
keep them there till wanted for use, and there would not 
be so much fault found about bad quality. This is also a 
hint to those grocers and marketmen who keep their pota¬ 
toes in barrels in the sun—that is, if they wish to furnish 
their customers with a good article. 

How to Keep Potatoes from Sprouting 1 .— To keep 
potatoes intended for use at the table from sprouting until 
































MEATS AND VEGETABLES. 


117 


new potatoes grow, take boiling water, pour into a tub, 
turn in as many potatoes as the water will cover, then 
pour off all the water, handle the potatoes carefully, laying 
up in a dry place on boards, only one layer deep, and see 
if you do not have good potatoes the year round, without 
hard strings and watery ends caused by growing. 

How to Dry Pumpkins. —Take the ripe pumpkins, 
pare, cut into small pieces, stew soft, mash and strain 
through a colander, as if for making pies. Spread this 
pulp on plates in layers not quite an inch thick; dry it 
down in the stove oven, kept at so low a temperature as 
not to scorch it. In about a day it will become dry and 
crisp. The sheets thus made can be stowed away in a dry 
place, and they are always ready for use for pies or sauce. 
Soak the pieces over night in a little milk, and they will 
return to nice pulp, as delicious as the fresh pumpkin. 
The quick drying after cooking prevents any portion from 
slightly souring, as is always the case when the uncooked 
pieces are dried ; the liavor is much better preserved, and 
the after-cooking is saved. 

How to Keep Rain-Water Sweet.— The best way to 
keep rain-water sweet in a cistern, is to first collect it in a 
tank, and filter it into the cistern below the surface. This 
will remove the organic matters, and prevent fermenta¬ 
tion. Care should also be taken to prevent surface drain¬ 
age into it. 

How to Preserve Rosebuds.— A method employed 
in Germany to keep rosebuds fresh into the winter, con¬ 
sists in first covering the end of the recently cut stem 
with wax, and then placing each one in a closed paper cap 
or cone, so that the leaves do not touch the paper. The 
cap is then coated with glue, to exclude air, dust and 
moisture, and when dry it is stood up in a cool place. 
When wanted for use, the bud is taken out of the cap and 
placed in water, after cutting off the end, when the rose 
will bloom in a few hours. 

How to Keep Sweet Potatoes. —Sweet potatoes can 
be kept by placing them in bulk in a bin or box (the 
more the better) without drying, and maintaining for 
them a uniform temperature of 45° to 50°. Putting 
something between, among, or around them, may serve 
to keep them at the proper temperature, but it is of no 
value whatever aside from this ; and if it should retain 
dampness, it will be a positive injury. After the sweat 
takes place, say in three or four weeks, scatter over them 
a light covering of dry loam or sand. In this way it is 
easy to keep sweet potatoes for table use or for seed, as 
well as “the inferior and less nourishing Irish potato.” 
Another way is to pack in barrels, and pour in kiln-dried 
sand until the intervals are full; or boxes of uniform size, 
piled up on the side of a room where the temperature 
never falls to the freezing point, which is a condition of 
first importance. This wall of boxes may be papered 
over, and left undisturbed until spring, when the potatoes 
will command the highest prices. 

How to Keep Sweet Potatoes in Bulk. —A sweet 
potato grower in Southern Illinois states that sweet pota¬ 
toes will keep in bulk. He has kept seven hundred 
bushels in one pile. The potatoes should be dug before 
the vines are injured by frost, sunned until dry, and then 
placed in a cellar on a clay floor, putting fine hay or flax 
straw between the potatoes and the wall, and covering with 
the same material. The deeper and larger the pile the 
better. The hay or straw should be covered with clay, a 
thickness of one or two inches being sufficient for the 
climate of that region. At the top should be left one or 
more air-holes, according to the size of the pile, for the 
escape of steam. In damp, warm weather open a window 
or door in the day-time. 


How to Make Hard Soap. —After the raw soda or 
barilla is ground or pounded, it is placed in a vat in alter¬ 
nate layers with unslacked lime, the bottom layer being 
lime. Water is allowed to infiltrate through those layers, 
and the lye is secured as it trickles through a hole in the 
bottom of the vat. The lime absorbs the carbonic acid of 
the soda, making the lye caustic or fit for the soap-kettle; 
and the quantity of lime applied must be in proportion to 
the quantity of carbonic acid in the soda. To every twen¬ 
ty pounds of tallow add one gallon of Aveak lye, and boil 
until the lye is spent. The mass must then cool for one 
hour, the spent lye drawn off, and another gallon of strong 
lye be added; the mixture again boiled until the second 
dose of lye is spent, and the same process must be repeated 
for several days, until the mixture, if properly managed, 
is converted into white tallow soap, which should be 
alloAved to cool gradually and settle, when it is poured into 
molds, and when solid it is cut into the bars which are 
found in our markets. Twenty pounds of tallow ought to 
make 30 pounds of first-quality hard soap, allowing three 
pounds of soda-ash for every 20 pounds of tallow. The 
balance of the AA^eight is made up by the large quantity of 
Avater Avliich enters into combination with the grease and 
alkali in the course of saponification. 

When yelloAv or resin soap is required, the hard soap has 
to be made in the usual manner, and at the last charge of 
lye, or Avhen the soapy mass ceases to absorb any more lye, 
one-third the Aveight of pounded resin is introduced, the 
mixture constantly stirred, and the boil kept up vigorously 
until the resin has become incorporated with the soap. 
The Avhole must stand until it settles, and the soap then 
dipped out. Resin soap, Avhen Avell made, should be a fine 
bright color. 

How to Make Soft Soap.— The principal difference 
betAveen hard and soft soaps is, that three parts of fat 
afford, in general, fully five parts hard soda-soap; but three 
parts of fat or oil will afford six or seven parts of potash- 
soap of a moderate consistence. From its cheapness, 
strength, and superior solubility, potash-soap is preferred 
for many purposes, particularly for the scouring of wool¬ 
ens. 

The lyes prepared for making soft soaps should be made 
very strong, and of tAvo densities, as the process of making 
potash or soft soap differs materially from that of making 
soda or hard soap. A portion of the oil or fat being placed 
in the boiling-pan, and heated to near the boiling point of 
Avater, a certain portion of the weaker lye is introduced, 
and the fire kept up so as to bring the mixture to the boil¬ 
ing point; then some more oil and lye are introduced 
alternately, until the pan is filled. The boiling is continued 
gently, strong lye being added until the saponification is 
complete. The fire should then be removed, and some good 
soap, previously made, added while cooling doAvn, to pre¬ 
vent any change by evaporation. One pound of oil requires 
about one-third of a pound of American potash, and will 
make one and three-quarters to tAvo pounds of Avell-boiled 
soap, containing about 40 per cent, of water. Sixty pounds 
of lard will make 100 pounds of first-class soft soap, by 
using one and a half cans of concentrated lye, which is 
made from salt, and is really a soda-lye. 

How to Make Sauerkraut— In the first place, let 
your “stand,” holding from half a barrel to a barrel, be 
thoroughly scalded out; the cutter, the tub and the stamper 
also Avell scalded. Take off all the outer leaves of the 
cabbages, halve them, remove the heart, and proceed Avith 
the cutting. Lay some clean leaves at the bottom of the 
stand, sprinkle Avith a handful of salt, fill in half a bushel 
of cut cabbage, stamp gently until the juice just makes its 
appearance, then add another handful of salt, and so on 
until the stand is full. Cover over Avith cabbage leaves, 


8 






























MEATS AND VEGETABLES. 


place on top a clean board fitting the space pretty well, 
and on top of that a stone weighing twelve or fifteen 
pounds. Stand away in a cool place, and when hard 
freezing comes on remove to the cellar. It will he ready 
for use in from four to six weeks. The cabbage should be 
cut tolerably coarse. The Savoy variety makes the best 
article, but it is only half as productive as the Drumhead 
and Flat Dutch. 

How to Make and Keep Sausage.— To make family 
sausage, the trimmings and other lean and fat portions 
of pork are used, taking care that there is about twice as 
much lean as fat; some consider it an improvement to add 
about one-sixtli of the weight of lean beef. As to season¬ 
ing, that is a matter of taste. The majority of people use 
salt, pepper, and sage only, some use only salt and pepper, 
while others, in addition to the above, put in thyme, mace, 
cloves and other spices. There is something repulsive 
about the intestines or “ skins ” used for stuffing sausage, 
and the majority preserve the meat in bulk. In cold 
weather it will keep for a long time, but if it is desired to 
preserve it beyond cold weather it needs some care. We 
have found that muslin bags, made of a size to hold a roll 
two and one-half or three inches in diameter, keep the 
meat very satisfactorily. These bags, when filled with 
sausage meat, are dipped into melted lard, and hung up in 
a dry, cool place. For seasoning, we use to one hundred 
pounds of meat forty ounces salt, and from eight to ten 
ounces of pepper. 

How to Keep Suet. —Suet may be kept a year, thus: 
Take the firmest and most free from skin or veins, remove 
all traces of these, put the suet in the saucepan at some 
distance from the fire, and let it melt gradually; when 
melted, pour it into a pan of cold spring water; when hard, 
wipe it dry, fold it in white paper, put it in a linen bag, 
and keep it in a cool, dry place; when used, it must be 
scraped, and it will make an excellent crust with or without 
butter. 

How to Can Tomatoes. —The most thorough and 
reliable mode of canning tomatoes is as follows: They are 
just sufficiently steamed, not cooked, to scald or loosen the 
skin, and are then poured upon tables and the skin re¬ 
moved, care being taken to preserve the tomato in as solid 
a state as possible. After being peeled, they are placed in 
large pans, with false bottoms perforated with holes, so as 
to strain off the liquid that emanates from them. From 
these pans they are carefully placed by hand into the cans, 
which are filled as solidly as possible—in other words, all 
are put in that the cans will hold. They are then put 
through the usual process, and hermetically sealed. The 
cans, when opened for use, present the tomato not only 
like the natural vegetable in taste and color, but also in 
appearance; and moreover, when thus sealed, they are 
warranted to keep in any climate, and when opened will 
taste as natural as when just plucked from the vine. 

How to Clarify Tallow. —Dissolve one pound of alum 
in one quart of water, add to this 100 pounds of tallow in 
a jacket kettle (a kettle set in a larger one, and the inter¬ 
vening space filled with water; this prevents burning the 
tallow). Boil three-quarters of an hour and skim. Then 
add one pound of salt dissolved in a quart of water. Boil 
and skim. When well clarified the tallow should be nearly 
the color of water. 

How to Harden Tallow.— We have used the following 
mixture with success: To one pound of tallow take one- 
fourth of a pound common rosin; melt them together, and 
mold them the usual way. This will give a candle of 
superior lighting power, and as hard as a wax candle; a 
vast improvement upon the common tallow candle in all 
respects except color. 



How to Make Tomato Catsup.— Take of perfectly ripe 
tomatoes % bushel; wash them clean and break to pieces; 
then put over the fire and let them come to a boil, and re¬ 
move from the fire; when they are sufficiently cool to allow 
your hands in them, rub through a wire sieve; and to what 
goes through, add salt 2 tea-cups; allspice and cloves, ground, 
of each, 1 teacup; best vinegar 1 quart. Put on to the fire 
again and cook one hour, stirring with great care to avoid 
burning. Bottle and seal for use. If too thick when used 
put in a little vinegar. If they were very juicy they may 
need boiling over an hour. 

How to Keep Vegetables.— Sink a barrel two-thirds 
of its depth into the ground (a box or cask will answer a 
better purpose); heap the earth around the part projecting 
out of the ground, with a slope on all sides; place the vege¬ 
tables that you desire to keep in the vessel; cover the top 
with a water-tight cover; and when winter sets in, throw 
an armful of straw, hay, or something of that sort, on the 
barrel. If the bottom is out of the cask or barrel, it will be 
better. Cabbages, celery, and other vegetables, will keep 
in this way as fresh as when taken from the ground. The 
celery should stand nearly perpendicular, celery and earth 
alternating. Freedom from frost, ease of access, and espe¬ 
cially freshness, and freedom from rot, are the advantages 
claimed. 

How to Keep Yeast.— Ordinary beer yeast may be 
kept fresh and fit for use for several months, by placing it 
in a close canvas bag, and gently squeezing out the moist¬ 
ure in a screw press, the remaining matter becomes as stiff 
as clay, in which state it must be preserved in close vessels. 

Yeast Cakes, or Preserved Yeast.— Put a large 
handful of hops into two quarts of boiling water. Boil 
three large potatoes until they are tender. Mash them and 
add them to two pounds of flour. Pour the boiling hot 
water over the flour through a sieve or colander, and beat 
it until it is quite smooth. While it is warm, add two 
tablespoonfuls of salt, and half a teacupful of sugar. Be¬ 
fore it is quite cold, stir in a pint or more of good yeast. 
After the yeast has become quite light, stir in as much In¬ 
dian meal as it will take, roll it out in cakes, and place 
them on a cloth in a dry place, taking care to turn them 
every day. At the end of a week or ten days they may be 
put into a bag and should be kept in a dry place. When 
used, take one of these cakes, soak it in some milk-warm 
water, mash it smooth, and use it as any other kind of 
yeast. 

How to Make Cider Vinegar.— 1. The most profita¬ 
ble return from such apples as are made into cider is the 
further transformation of the juice into vinegar. To do 
this, the barrels should be completely filled, so that all im¬ 
purities that “ working ”—fermenting—throws off will be 
ejected through the bung-hole. This process should be 
completed before the barrel is put in the cellar, and when 
this is done, the purified juice should be drawn out of the 
original cask and put into others where there is a small 
amount of old vinegar, which will amazingly hasten the de¬ 
sired result. If no vinegar can be obtained to “ start ” the 
cider, it must remain in a dry cellar six months, and per¬ 
haps a year (the longer the better), before it will be fit for 
the table. 

2. Save all your apple parings and slice in with them all 
waste apples and other fruits; keep them in a cool place till 
you get a pailful, then turn a large plate over them, on 
which a light weight should be placed, and pour on boiling 
water till it comes to the top. After they have stood two 
or three days pour off the liquid, which will be as good cider 
as much that is offered for sale; strain and pour it into a 
cask or some other convenient vessel (anything that can be 
closely covered will do), and drop in a piece of “ mother,” 
or vinegar plant, procured of some one that has good 





































MEATS AND VEGETALES. 


119 


vinegar. If set in a warm place, the vinegar will be fit for 
use in three or four weeks, when it can be drawn off for 
use, and the cask filled with cider made from time to time 
by this process. The parings should be pressed compactly 
into a tub or pail, and only water enough poured over to 
come to their surface, otherwise the cider would be so weak 
as to require the addition of molasses. By having two casks, 
one to contain the vinegar already made, and the other to 
fill into from time to time, one never need be without good 
vinegar. The rinsings of preserve kettles, sweatmeat jars, 
and from honey, also stale beer and old cider, should all be 
saved for the vinegar cask; only caution should be used 
that there be sufficient sweetness or body to whatever is 
poured in, or the vinegar may die from lack of strength. 

3. A barrel or a cask of new sweet cider, buried so as to 
be well covered with fresh earth, will turn to sharp, clear, 
delicious vinegar in three or four weeks, as good as ever 
sought affinity with cabbage, pickles, or table sauce, and 
better than is possible to make by any other process. 

How to Preserve Pickles.— The strongest vinegar must 
be used for pickling; it must not be boiled, or the strength 
of the vinegar and spices will be evaporated. By parboil¬ 
ing the pickles in brine they will be ready in much less 
time than they are when done in the usual manner, of soak¬ 
ing them in cold water for six or eight days. When taken 
out of the hot brine, let them get cold and quite dry before 
you put them into the pickle. 

To assist the preservation of pickles, a portion of salt is 
added, and for the same purpose, and to give flavor, long 
pepper, black pepper, allspice, ginger, cloves, mace, escha¬ 
lots, mustard, horse radish and capsicum. 

The following is the best method of preparing the pickle, 
as cheap as any, and requires less care than any other way: 
Bruise in a mortar four ounces of the above spices, put 
them into a stone jar with a quart of the strongest vinegar, 
stop the jar closely with a bung, cover that with a bladder 
soaked with pickle, set it on a trivet by the side of the fire 
for three drys, well shaking it up at least three times in the 
day; the pickle should be at least three inches above the 
pickles. The jar being well closed, and the infusion being 
made with a mild heat, there is no loss by evaporation. 

To enable the articles pickled more easily and speedily 
to imbibe the flavor of the pickle they are immersed in, 
previous to pouring it on them, run a larding-pin through 
them in several places. 

Pickles should be kept in a dry place in unglazed earth¬ 
enware or glass jars, which are preferable, as you can, with¬ 
out opening them, observe whether they want filling up; 
they must be carefully stopped with well-fitted bungs, and 
tied over as closely as possible with a bladder wetted with 
the pickle; and if it be preserved a long time after that is 
dry, it must be dipped in bottle cement. 

When the pickles are well used, boil up the liquor with a 
little fresh spice. 

To walnut liquor may be added a few anchovies and escha¬ 
lots; let it stand till it is quite clear, and bottle it; thus 
you may furnish the table with an excellent savory-keeping 
sauce for hashes, made dishes, fish, etc., at very small 
cost. 

Jars should not be more than three parts filled with the 
articles pickled, which should be covered with pickle at 
least two inches above their surface; the liquor wastes, and 
all of the articles pickled that are not covered are soon 
spoiled. 

When they have been done about a week, open the jars 
and fill them up with pickle. 

Tie a wooden spoon, full of holes, round each jar, to take 
them out with. 

If you wish to have gherkins, etc., very green, this may 



be easily accomplished by keeping them in vinegar, suffi¬ 
ciently hot, till they become so. 

If you wish cauliflowers, onions, etc., to be white, use 
distilled vinegar for them. 

To entirely prevent the mischief arising from the action 
of the acid upon the metallic utensils usually employed to 
prepare pickles, the whole of the process is directed to be 
performed in unglazed stone jars. 

How to Pickle Beets. —Boil your beets till tender, 
but not quite soft. To four large beets, boil three eggs 
hard and remove the shells; when the beets are done, 
take off the skin by laying them for a few minutes in 
cold water, and then stripping it off; slice them a quarter 
of an inch thick, put the eggs at the bottom, and then put 
in the beets with a little salt. Pour on cold vinegar enough 
to cover them. The eggs imbibe the color of the beets and 
look beautiful on the table. 

Beet-Root, Pickled. —Simmer the roots till three parts 
done (from one and a half to two and a half hours) ; then 
take them out, peel and cut them in thin slices. Put them 
into a jar, and pour on sufficient cold spiced vinegar to 
cover them. 

Cabbage, Pickled. —Choose a fine, close cabbage for 
the purpose of pickling, cut it as thin as possible, and 
throw some salt upon it. Let it remain for three days, 
when it will have turned a rich purple ; drain from it the 
salt, and put it into a pan with some strong vinegar, a few 
blades of mace, and some white pepper-corns. Give it a 
scald, and when cold, put it into the jars, and tie it up 
close. 

Cucumbers, Pickled.— Make a brine by putting one 
pint of rock salt into a pail of boiling water, and pour it 
over the cucumbers; cover tight to keep in the steam, and 
let them remain all night and part of a day; make a 
second brine as above, and let them remain in it the same 
length of time; then scald and skim the brine, as it will 
answer for the third time, and let them remain in it as 
above ; then rinse and wipe them dry, and add boiling hot 
vinegar ; throw in a lump of alum as large as an oil-nut 
to every pail of pickles, and you will have a fine, hard and 
green pickle; add spices if you like, and keep the pickles 
under the vinegar. A brick on the top of the cover, which 
keep the pickles under, has a tendency to collect the scum 
to itself, which may arise. 

Cherries Pickled. —Take the largest and ripest red 
cherries, remove the stems, have ready a large glass jar, 
fill it two-thirds full with cherries, and fill up to the top 
with the best vinegar; keep it well covered, and no boiling 
or spice is necessary, as the cherry flavor will be retained, 
and the cherries will not shrivel. 

Chopped Pickles. —What we call chopped pickle goes 
also under the name of chow-chow, picklette, higdum, etc. 
It is liked by most persons, is readily made, and admits 
of the use of a number of articles. There is no particular 
rule for making it, and the bases may be of whatever 
pickle-making material is most abundant. We have just 
put up our winter stock, and this time made it as follows: 
Green tomatoes furnished the largest share; then there 
were nearly ripe cucumbers with the seeds removed, cab¬ 
bage, onions, and green-peppers. These were chopped in 
a chopping-machine, and mixed, sprinkled freely with salt, 
and allowed to stand until the next day. The abundant 
juice was then thoroughly drain off, and enough spiced 
vinegar prepared to cover the material. No rule can be 
given for the spice, which may be according to taste. 
Whole pepper, cloves, mustard-seed, broken cinnamon, or 
whatever spice is fancied, may be boiled in the vinegar. 
We prefer it with the addition of sugar. Some mix up 
mustard and add to the pickle when cold, and others boil 




































120 


MEATS AND VEGETABLES. 


turmeric in the vinegar to give it a uniform yellow color. 
It is a pickle that can be made according to fancy rather 
than according to rule. In winter, cabbage, celery and 
onions, treated in the same way make a very fine pickle. 
As with other pickles, the vinegar should be poured off and 
boiled, at intervals of a few days, two or three times before 
it is put away for the winter. 

Cauliflower and Broccoli. —These should be sliced, 
and salted for two or three days, then drained, and spread 
upon a dry cloth before the fire for twenty-four hours ; 
then put into a jar and covered with spiced vinegar. Dr. 
Kitchener says, that if vegetables are put into cold salt 
and water (a quarter of a pound of salt to a quart of 
water), and gradually heated to boiling, it answers the 
same purpose as letting them lie some days in salt. 

Crab-Apple, Sweet, Pickled. —Boil the fruit in clear 
water until it becomes a little soft; then drain them on a 
large dish; then to every pound of fruit add one of sugar, 
and boil hard until they are preserved. 

To make the pickles, take one-half syrup and one-lialf 
vinegar; fill the jar with the preserves, and pour on the 
syrup and vinegar ; add spices to suit the taste. 

Gherkins, Pickled. —Steep them ill strong brine for a 
week, then pour it off, heat it to a boiling point, and again 
pour it on the gherkins; in twenty-four hours drain the 
fruit on a sieve, put it into wide-mouthed bottles or jars, fill 
them up with strong pickling vinegar, boiling hot, bung 
down immediately, and tie over with a bladder. When 
cold, dip the corks into melted bottle wax. Spice is 
usually added to the bottles, or else steeped in the vinegar. 

In a similar way are pickled : onions, mushrooms, cu¬ 
cumbers, walnuts, samphires, green gooseberries, cauli¬ 
flowers, melons, barberries, peaches, lemons, tomatoes, 
beans, radish pods, codlins, red cabbage (without salt and 
with cold vinegar), beet-root (without salt), garlic, peas, 
etc., etc.; observing that the softer and more delicate 
articles do not require so long soaking in brine as the 
harder and coarser kinds, and may be often advantageously 
pickled by simply pouring very strong pickling vinegar 
over them, without applying heat. 

Green-Ginger, Pickled. —Clean and slice the ginger; 
sprinkle with salt; let it remain a few hours; then put 
it into a jar or bottle, and pour boiling vinegar over it; 
cork it up when cool. 

Limes, Pickled. —They should be small, and with thin 
rinds. Rub them with pieces of flannel, then slit them 
half down in four quarters, but not through to the pulp ; 
fill the slits with salt, hard pressed in; set them upright 
in a pan for four or five days until the salt melts, turn 
them three times a day in their own liquor until ten¬ 
der ; make a sufficient quantity of pickle to cover them, 
of vinegar, the brine of the lemons, pepper and ginger; 
boil and skim it, and when cold put it to the lemons with 
two ounces of mustard seed and two cloves of garlic to 
every six lemons. In boiling the brine care should be 
taken to use a well-tinned copper saucepan only, otherwise 
it will be discolored. 

Mixed Piccalilli, Pickled.— To each gallon of strong 
vinegar put four ounces of curry powder, four ounces of 
good flower mustard, three ounces of bruised ginger, two 
ounces of turmeric, eight ounces of skinned shallots, and 
two ounces of garlic (the last two slighly baked in a Dutch 
oven), one-fourth pound of salt and two drachms of cay¬ 
enne pepper. Digest these near the fire, as directed above 
for spiced vinegar. Put into a jar, gherkins, sliced cu¬ 
cumbers, sliced onions, button onions, cauliflower, celery, 
broccoli, French beans, nasturtiums, capsicums, large 
cucumbers, and small lemons. All, except the capsicums, 


to be parboiled in salt water, drained, and dried on a cloth 
before the fire. Pour on them the above pickle. 

Mushrooms, Pickled.— To preserve the flavor, but¬ 
tons must be rubbed with a piece of flannel and salt, and 
from the large ones take out the red inside, for when they 
are black they will not do, being too old. Throw a little 
salt over, and put them in a stewpan with some mace 
and white pepper; as the liquor comes out, shake them 
well, and simmer them over a gentle fire till all of it is 
dried into them again ; then put as much vinegar into the 
pan as will cover them ; make it warm, then put all into 
glass jars or bottles, and tie down with a bladder. They 
will keep two years, and are delicious. 

Mixed Pickles. —One large white cabbage, beans, 
green tomatoes, gherkins and green pepper (the veins to 
be cut out), without regard to quantity; chop them up 
finely, and place in separate vessels; salt them, and let 
them stand twenty-four hours; squeeze them through a 
sieve, mix all together, and flavor with mustard-seed spice, 
cloves, black pepper and horse-radish; pour on scalding 
vinegar; cut up two large onions and throw in, and let 
them stand twenty-four hours ; then pour off the vinegar 
and fill up with cold. 

Onions, Pickled. —Scald one gallon of small onions 
in salt water of the strength to bear an egg. Only just 
let them boil; strain them off, and peel them after they 
are scalded, place them in a jar, and cover them with the 
best cold vinegar. The next day pour the vinegar off, 
add two ounces of bruised ginger, one ounce of "white 
jjepper, two ounces of flour of mustard seed, half au ounce 
chillies; boil them twenty minutes, turn all together, boil¬ 
ing hot, to the onions ; let them remain ten days,turn the 
vinegar out again, boil as before, turn them hot on the 
onions again. They will be ready for use as soon as quite 
cold. 

How to make Peach Pickles. —Take any quantity of 
fine peaches just before they are ripe, stick into each five or 
six cloves: make a syrup of three pints of vinegar and three 
pounds of peaches; add cinnamon if you like. Bring the 
syrup to a boil, and pour hot over them; repeat the process 
for three days, or until they are shrunk on the pit. After 
the last scald they should be well covered and put away in 
a very cool cellar until cold weather sets in. They will be 
ready to use, however, in a few days after they are pickled. 

How to Color Pickles Green. —A beautiful green 
color, entirely destitute of any poisonous qualities, may be 
made by dissolving five grains of saffron in one-fourth 
ounce distilled water; and in another vessel dissolving four 
grains of indigo carmine in one-half ounce distilled water. 
After shaking each up thoroughly they are allowed to stand 
for twenty-four hours, and on being mixed together at the 
expiration of that time, a fine green solution is obtained, 
capable of coloring five pounds of sugar. 

How to Pickle Peppers. —Soak fresh, hard peppers 
in salt and water for nine days, in a warm place, changing 
the brine every day; then put them in cold vinegar. If the 
pickles are not required very hot, take out the seeds from 
the greater portion of the peppers. 

How to Pickle Sweet Plums.— Take seven pounds of 
fruit, put them in a jar with three and one-half pounds of 
sugar, one quart best vinegar, two ounces stick cinnamon, 
two ounces cloves; the whole boiled together and thrown 
over the fruit three days. 

How to Pickle Roots. —Roots, such as carrots, salsify 
and beet-root, may be pickled by being sliced, or cut into 
small pieces; and slightly boiled in vinegar without destroy¬ 
ing their crispness, and adding the common spices; with 
beet-root, put button onions, or cut some Spanish onions 
in slices, lay them alternately in a jar; boil one quart of 


o 































MEATS AND VEGETABLES. 


121 


vinegar with one ounce of mixed pepper, half an ounce of 
ginger, and some salt, and pour it cold over the beet-root 
and onions. 

How to make Sweet Pickles. —For pickling all kinds 
of fruit to keep good the year round, the following rule is 
safe: To three pounds of sugar add one pint of good vine¬ 
gar, spices to your taste; boil it together, then let it cool; 
fill the jars with clean and sound fruit, such as peaches, 
pears, plums, cherries and grapes (each kind in a separate 
jar); then, when the vinegar is cool, put it on the fruit; 
let is stand all night, then turn off the liquor, and boil it 
down a little; then let it cool, and pour it in the jars; 
cover them nicely, and put them in a cool place. If, in 
time you discover a white scum on the top, skim it off, 
turn off the vinegar, add a little sugar, and boil it; when 
cool, pour it on the fruit again, and you will have a de¬ 
lightful pickle. 

For peach mangoes, these are excellent. Take sound, 
ripe, free-stone peaches; wipe off the fur; split them open; 
take out the pits; have ready some fine chopped tomatoes, 
cabbage, horse-radish, and mustard-seed; fill the vacancy 
in the peach; then place them together, and tie them with 
a string; fill your jars with prepared vinegar. 

How to Pickle Tomatoes. —Always use those which 
are thoroughly ripe. The small, round onesare decidedly the 
best. Do not prick them, as most recipe-books direct. Let 
them lie in strong brine three or four days, then put them 
down in layers in your jars, mixing with them small onions 
and pieces of horse-radish; then pour on the vinegar (cold), 
which should be first spiced as for peppers; let there be a 
spice-bag to throw into every pot. Cover them carefully, 
and set them by in a cellar for a full month before using. 

How to Pickle Green Tomatoes. —To one peck of 
tomatoes add a handful of salt, and enough water to cover 
them. Let them remain in this twenty-four hours. Put 
them in a kettle (porcelain-lined is the best), fill up with 
vinegar, and set upon the stove until the vinegar begins to 
boil, then set away to cool. When cold, set the kettle 
again upon the stove, and bring it to the boiling point. 
Then skim the tomatoes, and put them into a jar; fill up 
with some new, cold vinegar, and flavor with mustard- 
seed, allspice, cloves, etc. 

The same vinegar first used will do to scald more to¬ 
matoes in. 

Hints on Preserving 1 . —A very common discovery 
made by those who preserve fruits, etc., is, that the pre¬ 
serve either ferments, grows moldy, or becomes candied. 

These three effects arise from three separate causes. 
The first from insufficient boiling; the second from being 
kept in a damp place, assisted in some degree by the first 
cause; and the third from being two quick and too long in 
boiling. 

Preserves of all kinds should be kept entirely secluded 
from the air, and in a dry place. In ranging them on the 
shelves of a store-closet, they should not be suffered to 
come in contact with the wall. Moisture in winter and 
spring exudes from some of the driest walls, and preserves 
invariably imbibe it, both in dampness and taste. It is 
necessary occasionally to look at them, and if they have 
been attacked by mold boil them up gently again. To 
prevent all risks it is always as well to lay a brandy 
paper over the fruit before tying down. This may be re¬ 
newed in the spring. 

Fruit jellies are made in the ratio of a quart of fruit to 
two pounds of sugar. They must not be boiled quick, nor 
very long. Practice, and a general discretion, will be found 
the best guide to regulate the exact time, which must 
necessarily be affected, more or less, by local causes. 


How to Preserve Fruits without Self-Sealing 
Cans. —Prepare a cement of one ounce resin, one ounce 
gum shellac, and a cubic inch of beeswax; put them in a 
tin cup and melt slowly; too high or too quick heat may 
cause it to scorch. 

Place the jars where they will become warm while the 
fruit is cooking. If they are gradually heated there is no 
danger of breaking. 

As soon as the fruit is thoroughly heated, and while 
boiling hot, fill the jars full, letting the juice cover the 
fruit entirely. Have ready some circular pieces of stout, 
thick cotton or linen cloth, and spread over with cement a 
piece sufficient to cover the mouth and rim of the jar. 
Wipe the rim perfectly dry, and apply the cloth while 
warm, putting the cement side down, bring the cover over 
the rim, and secure it firmly with a string; then spread a 
coating of cement over the upper surface. As the contents 
of the jar cool, the pressure of the air will depress the cov¬ 
er, and give positive proof that all is safe. 

How to Preserve Small Fruits Without Cooking. 

—Strawberries, raspberries, blackberries, cherries and 
peaches can be preserved in this manner: Lay the ripe 
fruit in broad dishes, and sprinkle over it the same quantity 
of sugar used in cooking it. Set it in the sun, or a moder¬ 
ately heated oven, until the juice forms a thick syrup with 
the sugar. Pack the fruit in tumblers, and pour the syrup 
over it. Paste writing paper over the glasses, and set 
them in a cool, dry place. Peaches must be pared and 
split, and cherries stoned. Preserved in this manner, the 
fruit retains much more of its natural flavor and healthful¬ 
ness than when cooked. 

How to Preserve Fruits without Sugar or Vine¬ 
gar. —Pick the fruit from the stalks; put them into the 
bottles. Put one drachm of alum into four gallons of 
boiling water; let it stand till it is cold; then fill the bot¬ 
tles with this liquor, bung them tight, put them into a 
copper of cold water, and heat to 176°; and then tie them 
over with bladder and seal them. 

How to Preserve Fruits by Syrup without Heat. 

—Many fruits when preserved by boiling lose much of their 
peculiar and delicate flavor, as for instance pineapples; 
and this inconvenience may, in some instances, be reme¬ 
died by preserving them without heat. Cut the fruit in slices, 
about one-fiftli of an inch thick; strew powdered loaf-sugar 
an eighth of an inch thick in the bottom of a jar, and put 
the slices on it. Put more sugar on this, and then another 
layer of the slices, and so on, till the jar is full. Place the 
jar with the fruit up to the neck in boiling water, and 
keep it there until the sugar is completely dissolved, which 
may take half an hour, removing the scum as it rises. 
Lastly tie a wet bladder over the mouth of the jar, or cork 
and wax it. 

How to Preserve Apples. —Pare and core and cut 
them in halves or quarters; take as many pounds of the 
best brown sugar; put a tea-cup of water to each pound. 
When it is dissolved set it over the fire; and when boiling- 
hot put in the fruit and let it boil gently until it is clear 
and the syrup thick; take the fruit with a skimmer on to 
flat dishes; sproad it to cool; then put it in pots or jars 
and pour the jelly over. Lemons boiled tender in water 
and sliced thin may be boiled with the apples. 

Howto Preserve Crab Apples.— Take off the stems 
and core them with a sharp knife without cutting them 
open; weigh a pound of white sugar for each pound of 
apples; put a tea-cup of water to each pound of sugar, and 
then put it over a slow fire. When the sugar is dissolved and 
hot put the apples in; let them boil gently until they are 
clear, then skim them, cut and spread them on flat dishes. 
Boil the syrup until it is thick; put the syrup in whatever 









































122 


MEATS AND VEGETABLES. 


they are to be kept, and when the syrup is cold and settled, 
pour it carefully over the fruit. Slices of lemon boiled 
with the fruit is to some an improvement; one lemon is 
sufficient for several pounds of fruit. Crab apples may be 
preserved whole with three-quarters of an inch of stem on, 
three-quarters of a pound of sugar for each pound of fruit. 

How to Preserve Whole Apricots.—Take the largest 
and cleanest apricots to be got; pick out the stones with a 
silver skewer, or slit them down the sides with a silver 
knife; take nearly their weight in good lump sugar; dip 
each lump in water and put over the fire; let it just boil; 
skim and put by till cold; then pour it over the fruit in the 
preserving-can, warm very gently and only allow them to 
simmer; then put them by till next day, and warm them 
again; continuing this till they look clear; then take the 
fruit from the syrup. The latter must now be well boiled 
and skimmed, and when cold poured over the fruit. 

How to Preserve Citron Melon.— Pare, core and 
cut into slices some fine citron melons. Weigh them. To 
six pounds of melon allow six pounds of refined sugar, the 
juice and grated rind of four large lemons, and a quarter 
pound of root ginger. Boil the slices of melon half an 
hour or more, till they look quite clear and are so tender 
that a broom straw will pierce them. Then drain them, 
lay them in a pan of cold water, cover them, and let them 
stand all night. In the morning tie the root ginger in a 
thin muslin cloth, and boil it in three pints of clear water 
till the water is highly flavored; take out the bag of ginger 
and pour the water over the pieces of sugar, which is pre¬ 
viously broken and put in a preserving kettle. When the 
sugar is melted, set it over the fire, put in the grated peel 
of the lemons and boil and skim it till no more scum rises. 
Then put in the sliced citrons and the juice of the lemons; 
boil them in the syrup till all the slices are quite transpar¬ 
ent, and so soft that a straw will go through them, but do 
not break them. When done put the slices, still warm, 
into jars, and gently pour over the syrup. This will be 
found delicious. 

How to Preserve Cucumbers to Imitate Ginger. 

—Take small cucumbers, with flowers and stalks on them, 
and some large ones gathered dry; put them in a stone jar 
with salt and water enough to cover them; then put cab¬ 
bage leaves on the top to cover them close, and set them in 
the chimney corner for a fortnight, until they are turned 
yellow; then drain the water away and throw away the cab¬ 
bage leaves, which will smell very strong, almost to putre¬ 
faction; split the large ones, take out the seed, put them 
in an earthen pipkin over the fire with weak salt and 
water; cover them close, and let them green gently for ten 
hours, when they will look a little green, and are very 
clean; take them off the fire and drain them, and put them 
into cold water, shifting them twice a day for two days; 
then drain them and dry them in a fine cloth. Have ready 
a thin syrup with a good deal of whole ginger boiled in it, 
and some lemon peel; when it is cold put it on the cucum¬ 
ber. Boil up the syrup every day for a fortnight, and 
when it is cold pour it on as before. Tie them down with 
a bladder, and a leather and a paper under it, and keep 
them in a cool, dry place. A pint of water to a pound of 
sugar is a good proportion for the syrup. 

How to Preserve Whole Seville Oranges.— Cut a 

hole at the stem end of the oranges the size of a half dime, 
take out all the pulp, put the oranges into cold water for 
two days, changing it twice a day; boil them rather more 
than an hour, but do not cover them, as it will spoil the 
color; have ready a good syrup, into which put the 
oranges, and boil them till they look clear; then take out 
the seeds, skins, etc., from the pulp first taken out of the 
oranges, and add to it one of the whole oranges previously 
boiled, with an equal weight of sugar to it and the pulp; 


boil this together till it looks clear over a slow fire, and, 
when cold, fill the oranges with this marmalade, and put 
on the tops; cover them with syrup, and put brandy paper 
on the top of the jar. It is better to take out the inside 
at first, to preserve the fine flavor of the juice and pulp, 
which would be injured by boiling in the water. 

How to Preserve Grapes in Bunches. —Take out 
the stones from the grapes with a pin, breaking them as 
little as possible; boil some clarified sugar nearly to candy 
height; then put in sufficient grapes to cover the bottom 
of the preserving-pan, without laying them on each other, 
and boil for five minutes, merely to extract all the juice; 
lay them in an earthen pan, and pour the syrup over them; 
cover with paper, and the next day boil the syrup, skim¬ 
ming it well for five minutes; put in the grapes, let them 
boil a minute or two; put them in pots, and pour the syrup 
over them, after which tie down. 

How to Preserve Imitation of Ginger. —Boil, as 
if for the table, small, tender, white carrots; scrape them 
until free from all spots, and take out the hearts. Steep 
them in spring water, changing it every day, until all 
vegetable flavor has left them. To every pound of carrots 
so prepared add one quart of water, two pounds of loaf 
sugar, two ounces of whole ginger, and a rind of lemon 
shred fine. Boil for a quarter of an hour every day, until 
the carrots clear, and when nearly done, add red pepper to 
taste. This will be found a good imitation of West Indian 
preserved ginger. 

How to Preserve Melon like Ginger. —When the 
melon is nearly ripe, pare it thin, and cut it into pieces 
about the size of ginger; cover it with salt water, changing 
every day for three days; then put in clear spring water, 
changing it twice a day for three days. Then make a thin 
syrup, and boil it together with the melon once a day for 
three days; next make a thick syrup, adding the rind of one 
or more lemons, according to the quantity of melon, cut into 
narrow strips, and the juice squeezed in; then add some 
best white ginger, with the outside cut off, so as to make 
the syrup strong of the ginger. This should be boiled, and 
when cold put to the melon. 

How to Preserve Currants. —Take ripe currants, 
free from stems; weigh them, and take the same weight of 
sugar; put a tea-cup of sugar to each pound of it; boil the 
syrup until it is hot and clear; then turn it over the fruit; 
let it remain one night; then set it over the fire and boil 
gently, until they are cooked and clear; take them into the 
jars or pots with a skimmer; boil the syrup until rich and 
thick; then pour it over the fruit. Currants may be pre¬ 
served with ten pounds of fruit to seven of sugar. Take 
the stems from seven pounds of the currants, and crush 
and press the juice from the remaining three pounds; put 
them into the hot syrup and boil until thick and rich; put 
it in pots or jars, and the next day secure as directed. 

How to Preserve Cherries.— Take fine large cherries, 
not very ripe; take off the stems and take out the stones; 
save whatever juice runs from them; take an equal weight of 
white sugar; make the syrup of a tea-cup of water for each 
pound; set it over the fire until it is dissolved and boiling 
hot; then put in the juice and cherries; boil them gently 
until clear throughout; take them from the syrup with a 
skimmer and spread them on flat dishes to cool; let the 
syrup boil until it is rich and quite thick; set it to cool and 
settle; take the fruit into jars or pots and pour the syrup 
carefully over; let them remain open until the next day; 
then cover as directed. Sweet cherries are improved by 
the addition of a pint of red currant juice and a half pound 
of sugar to it for four or five pounds of cherries. 

How to Preserve Damsons. —Put a quart of damsons 
into a jar with a pound of sugar strewed between them; 













































MEATS AND VEGETABLES. 


123 


set the jar in a warm oven, or put it into a kettle of cold 
water and set it over the fire for an hour, then take it out, 
set to become cold, drain the juice off, boil it until it is 
thick, then pour it over the plums; when cold, cover as 
directed for preserves. 

How to Preserve Dewberries. —Pick your berries 
early in the morning, weigh them, then spread them on 
dishes, sprinkle them with sugar in the due proportion as¬ 
signed them (pound for pound). When the juice settles 
from them in the dishes, pour it off, and with it moisten 
the remainder of the sugar; simmer this over a slow fire, 
and, while simmering, drop in a portion of the berries; let 
them become clear, and return them to the dishes to cool, 
while the remainder takes their place in the kettle. When 
all are clear, and the syrup boiled down to a rich consist¬ 
ency, pour it over them, and when cool enough, transfer 
them to glass jars. 

How to Preserve Greengages. —Select well-grown 
greengages, but not the least ripe; prick them with a fork 
to the stone, and as soon as pricked, put them in water in 
a preserving-pan. When they are all done, put them over 
a slow fire to simmer very gently, so as to make them ten¬ 
der without breaking; try them with a fork, and when ten¬ 
der to the stone, put them in cold water, and as some will 
get soft before others they must be watched carefully; let 
them lie in water a day and a night; strain them, and when 
well drained, put them in an earthen pan, and pour over 
them some boiling hot clarified sugar sufficient to cover 
them; put a paper over them; the next day pour off the 
syrup and boil it; if three quarts or thereabouts, boil for 
ten minutes, then pour it over the fruit, and again lay the 
paper over them. Boil the syrup every other day in the 
same manner until it is about the consistence of cream (in 
five or six boilings). If the syrup shrinks, so as not to keep 
the fruit well covered, add a fresh supply. While boiling 
the syrup the third time, put the greengages in, and let 
them simmer gently for a short time, which will bring 
them green; and the last time of boiling the syrup, let them 
simmer a little in it. 

How to Preserve Gooseberries. —Take full-grown 
gooseberries before they are ripe, pick them and put them 
in wide-moutlied bottles; cork them gently with new, soft 
corks, and put them in an oven from which the bread has 
been drawn; let them stand till they have shrunk nearly a 
quarter, then take them out and beat the corks in tight; 
cut them off level with the bottle and resin them down 
close. Keep in a dry place. 

How to Preserve Grapes in Vinegar.— Grapes are 
preserved in vinegar by the Persians after the following 
fashion: The grapes are gathered when half ripe, and put 
into bottles half filled with vinegar, which so macerates 
them that they lose their hardness, and yet do not become 
too soft. The grapes have a sweet acid taste, which is not 
unpalatable, and is especially refreshing during the great 
heats. 

How to Preserve Huckleberries. —The huckleber¬ 
ries may be easily kept for winter use by putting them in 
bottles or cans, without adding anytliingtothem, and without 
cooking. The mouths of the cans should be tightly closed, 
and the cans should be buried mouth downward, in a box 
of sand. When taken out of the sand for use in the winter 
the color of the berries is slightly changed, but the shape 
and flavor is preserved in perfection. They make excel¬ 
lent j)ies. 

How to Preserve Green Ginger. —Scrape and clean 
your green ginger well; to each pound of green ginger put 
a pint and a half of water ; boil it down one-third ; skim 
carefully while boiling, then strain off the liquid; add a 


pound of sugar-candy, and boil the ginger in it until quite 
tender. 

How to Preserve Mushrooms. —The small open 
mushrooms suit best. Trim and rub them clean, and put 
into a stew pan a quart of the mushrooms, three ounces of 
butter, two teaspoonfuls of salt, and half a teaspoonful of 
cayenne pepper and mace mixed; stew until the mushrooms 
are tender; take them carefully out and drain them on a 
sloping dish. When cold, press into small pots, and pour 
clarified butter over them. Put writing paper over the 
butter, and on that pour melted suet, which will exclude 
the air, and preserve them for many weeks, if kept in a 
dry, cool place. 

How to Preserve Mock Ginger. —Cut off the stocks 
of lettuce just going to seed, and peel off the strings, 
cut them in pieces two or three inches long, and throw 
them into water; after washing them, put them into sugar 
and water, mixed in the proportion of one pound of sugar 
to five pints of water, add to this quantity two large spoon¬ 
fuls of pounded ginger. Boil the whole together for 
twenty minutes, and set it by for two days. Then boil it 
again for half an hour, and renew this five or six times in 
the same syrup. Then drain the stalks upon a sieve, and 
wipe them dry; have ready a thick syrup boiled, and make 
strong with whole ginger. Pour it upon the stalks boiling 
hot, boil them in it once or twice, or until they look clear, 
and taste like the West-India ginger. 

How to Preserve Orange-peel. —Clean carefully; 
cut in thin strips; stew in water until the bitterness is ex¬ 
tracted; drain off the water and stew again for half an hour 
in a syrup of sugar and water, allowing a half-pint of 
water and a pound of sugar to each pound of peel. Put it 
aside in jars, and keep it in a cool place. If desired, a 
little cinnamon and ginger may be stewed with the peel, 
but it is more delicately cooked simply with sugar. Lemon 
peel may be prepared in the same manner, either alone or 
mixed with orange-peel. These form pleasant “relishes ” 
eaten with cake or bread, or if chopped finely when pre¬ 
pared, they form excellent flavoring for puddings and 
pies. 

How to Preserve Pears. —Take six pounds of pears 
to four pounds of sugar, boil the parings in as much water 
as will cover them, strain it through the colander, lay some 
pears in the bottom of your kettle, put in some sugar, and 
so on, alternately, then pour the liquor off the pear-skins 
over, boil them until they begin to look transparent, then 
take them out, let the juice cool, and clarify it; put the 
pears in again, and add some ginger, prepared as in the 
above recipe; boil till done; let the liquor boil after taking 
them out, until it is reduced to a syrup. 

How to Preserve Pine-Apple. — Choose ripe but 
sound ones, and cut them in slices about an inch in thick¬ 
ness, and cut off the rind. Weigh the slices, and to every 
two pounds of fruit put one pound and three quarters of 
sifted white sugar. Boil them together in a preserving- 
pan for thirty minutes, and if the slices are tender, take 
them out carefully with a wooden spoon, and place them 
on a wooden dish; boil the syrup for a short time longer, 
and then pour it over the slices of pine-apple. This proc¬ 
ess must be repeated for three successive days, after which 
the preserves may be put into jars and covered. 

How to Preserve Purple Plums.— Make a syrup of 
clean brown sugar; clarify it as directed in these recipes; 
when perfectly clear and boiling hot, pour it over the 
plums, having picked out all unsound ones and stems; let 
them remain in the syrup two days, then drain it off; make 
it boiling hot, skim it, and pour it over again; let them 
remain another day or two, then put them in a preserving 
kettle over the fire, and simmer gently until the syrup is 


































MEATS AND VEGETABLES. 




reduced, and thick or rich. One pound of sugar for eacli 
pound of plums. Small damsons are very fine, preserved 
as cherries or any other ripe fruit; clarify the syrup, and 
when boiling hot put in the plums; let them boil very 
gently until they are cooked, and the syrup rich. Put 
them in pots or jars; the next day secure as directed. 

How to Preserve Peaches. —Take the peaches wnen 
ripe, pare them, and if you desire to preserve them whole, 
throw them into cold water as you pare them, to as to prevent 
them'losing color. When you have everything ready, place 
the peaches in a can, adding as much sugar to each layer 
as will make them palatable. Then set the can in a vessel 
containing hot water, and allow it to remain in boiling 
water until the fruit becomes heated through. This will 
require, if a quart can be used, from twenty to thirty min¬ 
utes. When heated sufficiently, seal at once by heating 
the cover and pressing it at once firmly into place, and al¬ 
lowing a weight sufficient to keep down the cover to 
remain upon it until the cement hardens. The proper 
temperature of the lid is easily and conveniently ascer¬ 
tained by putting a piece of resin, about the size of a small 
pea, on the cover when it is put on the stove; as soon as 
the resin melts, the cover is ready to put in place. This 
precaution is necessary, as the solder with which the parts 
of the lid are joined together easily melts. It is not ab¬ 
solutely necessary to use sugar in this process, but as it 
assists in the preservation of the fruit, they can be sealed 
at a lower temperature than if not used. As sugar is used 
to render the fruits palatable, there can be no objection to 
using it when preparing the fruit for family use, as it will, 
in any case, be necessary, and there is no reason why the 
sugar should not be used before the can is sealed. 

If soft peaches are preferred, they should be cut up as if 
intended to be eaten with cream, and must not be placed 
in water. When read}", they should be put in cans and 
heated as described above. It is not necessary to heat 
them in the can, but a larger quantity may be more con¬ 
veniently heated together and put into the cans or jars 
while hot and sealed. A flat stewpan, lined with porce¬ 
lain, will be found well adapted to this purpose. It must 
not, of course, be placed directly over the fire, but in a 
vessel of water which is set directly on the fire. By this 
means soft peaches may readily and certainly be preserved 
for winter use in such condition as scarcely to differ at all 
from the fresh peach. A most delicious dessert may thus 
be secured much more readily and at less expense, and 
much more palatable than the ordinary preserve. This 
method of preserving fresh peaches has been fully tested 
and may be relied upon. 

Quinces, Preserved, Whole or Half.— Into two 
quarts of boiling water, put a quantity of the fairest 
golden pippins, in slices not very thin, and not pared, but 
wiped clean. Boil them very quickly, close covered, till 
the water becomes a thick jelly; then scald the quinces. 
To every pint of pippin jelly, put one pound of the finest 
sugar; boil it and skim it clear. Put those quinces that 
are to be done whole into the syrup at once, and let it boil 
very fast; and those that are to be in halves by themselves; 
skim it, and when the fruit is clear, put some"of the syrup 
into a glass to try whether it jellies, before taking it off 
the fire. The quantity of quinces is to be one pound of 
sugar and one pound of jelly, already boiled with the 
sugar. 

Rhubarb, Preserved. —Cut without peeling or split¬ 
ting, six pounds of ordinary-sized rhubarb into pieces 
about an inch long; put it in with the rind of a lemon, into 
the stewpan, in which must be about a tablespoonful of 
water to keep it from burning; let it boil till tender, then, 
with a strainer, take out the fruit, and add to the juice five 
pounds of sugar; boil this forty minutes, then again put 



in the fruit and boil ten minutes. This is a delicious pre¬ 
serve. 

Raspberries, Preserved. —These may be preserved 
wet, bottled, or made jam or marmalade of, the same as 
strawberries. Raspberries are very good dried in the sun 
or in a warm oven. They are very delicious stewed for 
table or tarts. 

Strawberries, Preserved. —Use ripe strawberries, 
but not soft. Make a syrup of one pound of sugar to a 
pound of berries. Sugar should be double-refined (though 
refined sugar will answer), as it makes the preserves have 
a more brilliant color than simply refined sugar. To each 
pound of sugar put a tea-cup of water; set it over a gentle 
fire and stir it until totally dissolved. When boiling hot 
put in the fruit, having picked off every hull and imper¬ 
fect berry; then boil very gently in a covered kettle, until 
by cutting one open, you find it cooked through; that will 
be known by it having the same color throughout. Take 
them from the syrup with a skimmer, and spread them on 
flat dishes, and let them remain till cold; boil the syrup 
until quite thick; then let it cool and settle; put the fruit 
into jars or pots, and strain or pour the syrup carefully 
over, leaving the sediment which will be at the bottom of 
the pitcher. The next day cover with several papers wet 
with sugar boiled to candy; set them in a cool, airy place. 
Strawberries keep perfectly well made with seven pounds 
of sugar to ten of fruit. They should be done as di¬ 
rected above, and the syrup cooked quite thick. A pint of 
red currant juice and a pound of sugar for it to three 
pounds of strawberries, make the syrup very beautiful. 

Tomatoes, Preserved. —Scald the tomatoes, take off 
the skins. Weigh the tomatoes, which must be full grown 
and ripe. Allow to every two pounds of the best brown 
sugar, a large spoonful of ground ginger, and the juice and 
rind of one large lemon. Mix the tomatoes and sugar and 
white of one egg together, and put in a porcelain kettle. 
Boil slowly till the scum ceases to appear; then add gradu¬ 
ally the juice and grated rind of the lemons, and boil 
slowly for an hour or more. The tomatoes must all have 
burst by this time. When done take them off, and when 
cool put them in jars. 

Walnuts, Preserved. —Pierce your nuts several times 
with a fork, and boil them in water until they begin to be 
tender; take them out of the water, and when cold make a 
hole through every one with a pretty large bodkin, and in¬ 
troduce a piece of candied lemon or citron. Make a syrup 
of brown sugar and a little water (the sugar to the weight 
of your nuts), and boil your nuts well until the sugar has 
penetrated to the center; then put them into preserving 
pots, filling them with a thick syrup, and tie them up like 
jellies. 

Peaches, Canned, by the Cold Process.— Pare and 
halve the peaches. Pack them as closely as possible in a 
can without any sugar. When the can is full, pour in suf¬ 
ficient cold water to fill all the crevices between the 
peaches, and reach the top of the can. Let it stand long- 
enough for the water to soak into all the crevices—say five 
hours—then pour in water to replace what has sunk away. 
Seal up the can, and all is done. Peaches preserved in this 
way retain all their freshness and flavor. There will not 
be enough water in them to render them insipid. If pre¬ 
ferred, a cold syrup could be used instead of pure water, 
but the peaches taste most natural without any sweetening. 

Fruit, in Brandy. —Gather your fruit before it is quite 
ripe; prick them with a pin on each side; put them into a 
stewpan of fresh spring water, and stew them gently until 
you can pass a pin with facility to the stone of the fruit, 
when take them from the pan and put them to drain on a 
sieve. Whilst draining, prepare a syrup, which, when the 



XT 


















































MEATS AND VEGETABLES. 


125 


fruit is nicely arranged in a tureen, should be thrown on it 
boiling hot, and so left for twenty-four hours, when the 
fruit is again put to a drain, and the syrup boiled for one 
hour, and poured boiling hot all over the fruit once more. 
* On the third day arrange the fruit in the preserving pots, 
and boil the syrup to a proper consistency; when cool mix 
it with brandy, in the proportion of two-tliirds syrup to 
one-tliird brandy, and pour it over the fruit. 

How to Bottle Fruit. —Cherries, strawberries, scliced 
pineapples,_ plums, apricots, gooseberries, etc., may be 
preserved in the following manner, to be used as fresh 
fruit: Gather the fruit before it is very ripe : put it in 
wide mouthed bottles made for the purpose; fill them as 
full as they will hold, and cork them tight; seal the corks ; 
put some hay in a large saucepan; set in the bottles with 
hay between them to prevent their touching ; then fill the 
saucepan with water to the necks of the bottles, and set it 
on the fire until the water is nearly boiling, then take it 
off ; let it stand until the bottles are cold ; then keep them 
in a cool place until wanted, when the fruit will be found 
equal to fresh. 

How to Keep Fruit Fresh in Jars.— We advise the 
use of self-sealing glass jars. Put the fruit in a porcelain- 
lined preserving kettle, sufficient to fill four quart jars ; 
sprinkle on sugar, one-lialf pound, place over a slow fire 
and heat through, not boiled. While the fruit is being- 
heated, keep the jars filled with moderately hot water. 
As soon as the fruit is ready, empty the water from the 
jars, fill to the brim with fruit, and seal immediately. As 
it cools a vacuum is formed, which prevents bursting. In 
this way every kind of fruit will retain its flavor. Some¬ 
times a thick, leathery mold forms on the top—if so all 
the better. The plan of keeping the jars full of hot water 
is merely to prevent the danger of cracking when the hot 
fruit is inserted. Some prefer to set the bottles full of 
cool water in a boiler of water, and heal ing all together 
gradually • but the other way is much simpler and equally 
effective. 

Jam. —Let the jam be drawn on a dry day; wipe the 
fruit clean, but do not wash it; peel off the skin and 
coarse fibres, and slice the fruit thin. To each pound 
thus prepared allow a pound of fine sugar in fine powder ; 
put the fruit in a pan, and stew a quarter of the sugar 
amongst it and over it; let it stand until the sugar is dis¬ 
solved, when boil it slowly to a smooth pulp; take it from 
the fire, and stir in the remainder of the sugar by degrees; 
Avhen it is dissolved, boil the preserve quickly until it be¬ 
comes very thick, and leaves the bottom of the pan visible 
when stirred. The time required for preserving this pre¬ 
serve will depend on the kind of fruit used, and the time 
of year it is made. It will vary from an hour to two 
hours and a quarter. The juice should be slowly drawn 
from it first. 

How to Put Up Jam while Hot. —It is said that 
ordinary jam—fruit and sugar which have been boiled 
together some time—keeps better if the pots into which it 
is poured are tied up while hot. If the paper can act as a 
strainer, in the same way as cotton wool, it must be as 
people suppose. If one pot of jam be allowed to cool be¬ 
fore it is tied down, little germs will fall upon it from the 
air, and they will retain their vitality, because they fall 
upon a cool substance; they will be shut in by the paper 
and will soon fall to work decomposing the fruit. If 
another pot, perfectly similar, be filled with a boiling-hot 
mixture, and immediately covered over, though, of course, 
some of the outside air must be shut in, and germs which 
are floating in it will be scalded, and in all probability de¬ 
stroyed, so that no decomposition can take place. 

Jelly. —To make a quart, soak one ounce of gelatine 
in a pint of cold water for twenty minutes, then add the 


same quantity of boiling water, stir until dissolved; add 
the juice and peel of two lemons, with enough sugar to 
sweeten; have ready, well beaten, the white and shell of 
one egg; stir these briskly into the jelly, then boil for two 
minutes without stirring it; remove it from the fire and 
allow it to stand twenty minutes; then strain through a 
coarse flannel bag; this jelly may be flavored or colored 
according to taste. 

How to Make Jelly Custard. —To one cupful of any 

sort of jelly, add one egg, and beat well together with 
three teaspoonfuls of cream or milk. After mixing thor¬ 
oughly, bake in a good crust. 

How to Make Jelly with Fruit in. —Put in a basin a 
half pint of calf’s foot jelly, and when it has become stiff, 
lay in a bunch of grapes, with the stalks upwards, or fruit 
of any kind ; over this put a few vine leaves, and fill up 
the bowl with warm jelly; let it stand till next day, and 
then set the bowl in water up to the brim for a moment; 
then turn out carefully. It is an elegant looking dish. 

How to Make Jelly with Gelatine. — Take two 
ounces and three-quarters of gelatine, dissolved in about a 
quart of water, four lemons, one pound of loaf sugar, 
nearly half a bottle of raisin wine, or a little brandy, and 
less of the wine ; a little white of egg is necessary to clear 
it, as the egg takes from the stiffness of the jelly. Boil 
together, strain through a jelly-bag, and put into a 
mold. 

How to Make Isinglass Jelly. —Two Ounces of isin¬ 
glass to a quart of water; boil till it is dissolved ; strain it 
into a basin upon a slice of lemon peel pared very thin, six 
cloves and three or four lumps of sugar ; let this stand by 
the fire for an hour; take out the lemon and cloves, and 
then add four tablespoonfuls of brandy. 

How to Color Jelly. —To color jelly red, boil fifteen 
grains of cochineal, in the finest powder, with a drachm 
and a half of cream of tartar, in half a pint of water, 
very slowly half an hour. Add, in boiling, a bit of alum 
the size of a pea. 

How to Preserve Jellies from Mold. —Cover the 
surface one-fourth of an inch deep with fine pulverized 
loaf sugar. When thus protected, the jellies will keep for 
years in good condition, and free from moldiness. 

Marmalade. —Pare and cut up the fruit in small pieces, 
and to a pound of fruit add a pound of sugar. When the 
sugar is dissolved, set it over the fire, and let it boil till 
it is a smooth paste. Stir it all the time it is boiling. 
If you wish to flavor, add any essence you desire. Put it 
in the jars while warm, and paste them over the next day. 

How to Make Apple Wine. —Take pure cider made 
from sound ripe apples as it runs from the press ; put 
sixty pounds of common brown sugar into fifteen gallons 
of the cider, and let it dissolve, then put the mixture 
into a clean barrel, and fill the barrel up to within two gal¬ 
lons of being full, with clean cider : put the cask in a cool 
place, leaving the bung out for forty-eight hours; then 
put in the bung, with a small vent, until fermentation 
wholly ceases, and bung up tight; and in one year the 
wine Avill be fit for use. This wine requires no racking ; 
the longer it stands upon the lees, the better. 

How to Make Apricot Wine.— Wipe clean and cut 
twelve pounds of apricots; boil them in two gallons of 
water till the water has imbibed the flavor of the fruit, 
then strain the liquor through a hair sieve, and to each 
quart of it put six ounces of loaf sugar ; then boil it and 
add six pounds sugar and one pound of sliced beet-root. 
When fermented, put into the cask a quart or more of 
brandy or flavorless whisky. 

How to Make Blackberry Wine.— Gather the ber¬ 
ries when perfectly ripe, and in such a manner as to avoid 

































126 


MEATS AND VEGETABLES. 


bruising. Empty them, as fast as gathered, into a tub 
until you have a quantity sufficient to fill, with juice, the 
cask in which you propose to make the wine. 

Have the utensils, etc., required in the process all ready 
before you pick—or at least before you mash your berries. 
Everything must be scrupulously clean. You want a keg, 
a beater of seasoned hard wood, a pail, a large bowl, tureen 
or other vessel into which to strain your juice, a good 
thick strainer—two or three folds of fine white flannel is 
the best material—a couple of yards of Osnaburgs, a spare 
tub or a bucket or two, and a tub of soft spring water. 
Everything must be perfectly clean and free from dirt or 
odor of any kind. 

Crush the berries thoroughly with the beater, and then 
after straining the liquor, which runs freely from the pulp 
through the folded flannel, empty it into the cask, meas¬ 
uring it as you put it in. When the juice has been all 
drained from the pulp, you proceed to press the pulp dry. 
If the quantity is large, this had best be done by a regular 
press, but if only a few gallons are wanted, the Osnaburg 
answers very well. Stretch out the Osnaburg, put a gal¬ 
lon or a gallon and a half of the pulp into the center, fold 
the cloth over it on each side, and let a strong hand at 
either end twist the cloth with all their strength; when the 
juice is well pressed out, remove and lay aside the cake of 
pomace, and put in more pulp. This process is apparently 
rough, but is both rapid and effectual. The juice so ex¬ 
tracted is strained and measured into the cask as before 
mentioned. The flannel strainer and the Osnaburg may 
need rinsing occasionally during the work. 

When all the pulp is pressed, put the hard cakes of 
pomace taken from the cloth into a tub, and pour upon 
them a little more soft spring water than you have clear 
juice ; break up the balls and wash them thoroughly in 
the water, so as to obtain all the juice left in the mass, and 
then strain it clear; measure out as many gallons of this 
water as you have of clear juice, say five gallons of the 
water to five gallons of the juice, dissolve in each gallon 
of the water six pounds of sugar (brown or white, as you 
want common or first-rate wine), and when thoroughly 
dissolved, add the juice (first passing it again through the 
strainer), and mix them. Then rinse out your cask, put 
it where it can stand undisturbed in a cellar ; fill it per¬ 
fectly full of the mixture, and lay a cloth loosely over the 
bung-hole. In two or three days fermentation will com¬ 
mence, and the impurities run over at the bung ; look at 
it every day, and if it does not run over, with some of the 
mixture which you have reserved in another vessel, fill it 
up to the bung. In about three Aveeks fermentation will 
have ceased, and the Avine be still; fill it again, drive in the 
bung tight, nail a tin over it, and let it remain undisturbed 
until the folloAving November, or what is better, March. 
Then draAv it off, without shaking the cask, put it into 
bottles or demijohns, cork tightly and seal over. 

For a ten-gallon cask, you will need about 4^$ gallons of 
juice, 4/3 gallons of water, and 26 pounds of sugar, and in 
the same proportion for larger or smaller quantities. Some 
persons add spirit to the Avine, but instead of doing good, it 
is only an injury. 

Another process is, after pouring in the mixture for a 
ten-gallon cask, to beat up the Avhites of two or three eggs 
into a froth, put them into the cask, and with a long stick 
mix them thoroughly Avith the Avine. In five or six days, 
draw the now clarified wine off by a spigot, and Avithout 
shaking the cask at all, into a clean cask, bung up and tin, 
to be drawn off into glass in November or March. 

The more carefully your juice is strained, the better the 
quality of sugar, and the more scrupulously clean your 
utensils, particularly your kegs are, the purer and better 
will be your wine. 


The best quality, Avhen you gather your OAvn fruit, and 
make it yourself, costs you only the price of the Avhite su¬ 
gar, and when bottled Avill cost you in money about tAvelve 
and a half cents a bottle. 

How to Make Currant Wine. —The currants should 
be fully ripe when picked; put them into a large tub, 
in Avliich they should remain a day or two; then crush Avith 
the hands, unless you have a small patent wine press, in 
which they should not be pressed too much, or the stems 
Avill be bruised, and impart a disagreeable taste to the juice. 
If the hands are used, put the crushed fruit, after the juice 
is poured off, in a cloth or sack and press out the remaining 
juice. Put the juice back into the tub after cleansing it, 
where it should remain about three days, until the first 
stages of fermentation are over, and removing once or tAvice 
a day the scum copiously arising to the top. Then put the 
juice in a vessel—a demijohn, keg, or barrel—of a size to 
suit the quantity made, and to each quart add 3 lbs. of the 
best yellow sugar, and soft water sufficient to make a gallon. 
Thus, ten quarts of juice and 30 lbs. of sugar will give you 
10 gallons of Avine, and soon in proportion. Those who do 
not like SAveet wine can reduce the quantity of sugar to two 
and a half, or who Avish it very sweet, raise to three and a 
half pounds per gallon. 

The vessel must be full, and the bung or stopper left off 
until fermentation ceases, Avhich will be in 12 or 15 days: 
Meamvhile, the cask must be filled up daily with currant 
juice left over, as fermentation throAvs out the impure mat¬ 
ter. When fermentation ceases, rack the Avine off carefully, 
either from the spigot or by a syphon, and keep running 
all the time. Cleanse the cask thoroughly Avith boiling 
Avater, then return the wine, bung up tightly, and let it 
stand 4 or 5 months, Avhen it will be fit to drink, and can 
be bottled if desired. 

All the vessels, casks, etc., should be perfectly sweet, and 
the whole operation should be done with an eye to cleanli¬ 
ness. In such event, every drop of brandy or other spir¬ 
ituous liquors added will detract from the flavor of the wine, 
and Avill not, in the least degree, increase its keeping quali¬ 
ties. Currant wine made in this Avay Avill keep for an age. 

How to Make Gooseberry Wine.— Pick and bruise 
the gooseberries, and to every pound put a quart of 
cold spring Avater, and let it stand three days, stirring it 
tAvice or thrice a day. Add to every gallon of juice three 
pounds of loaf sugar; fill the barrel, and when it is done 
working, add to every twenty quarts of liquor, one quart of 
brandy, and a little isinglass. The gooseberries must be 
picked when they are just changing color. The liquor 
ought to stand in the barrel six months. Taste it occa¬ 
sionally, and bottle A\ T hen the SA\ T eetness has gone off. 

How to Make Grape Wine.— Take two quarts of 
grape juice, two quarts of water, four pounds of sugar. Ex¬ 
tract the juice of the grape in any simple way; if only a 
few quarts are desired, we do it Avith a strainer and a pair 
of squeezers, if a larger quantity is desired, put the grapes 
into a cheese press made particularly clean, putting on suffi¬ 
cient weight to extract the juice of a full hoop of grapes, 
being careful that none but perfect grapes are used, per¬ 
fectly ripe and free from blemish. After the first pressing 
put a little water with the pulp and press a second time, 
using the juice of the second pressing with the Avater to be 
mixed with the clear grape juice. If only a feAv quarts are 
made place the Avine as soon as mixed into bottles, filling 
them even full and alloAV to stand in a warm place until it 
ferments, which will take about thirty-six hours usually; 
then remove all the scum, cool and put into a dark, cool 
place. If a feAv gallons are desired place in a keg, but the 
keg must be even full, and after fermentation has taken 
place and the scum removed, draAv off and bottle, and cork 
tight. 




































MEDICINES FOR HORSES AND DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 




MEDICINES FOR HORSES 

— AND DOMESTIC ANIMALS 





Alteratives. —This term is not very scientific, but it is 
in very general use, and easily explains its own meaning, 
though the modus operandi of the drugs employed to carry 
it out is not so clear. The object is to replace unhealthy 
action by a healthy one, without resorting to any of the 
distinctly defined remedies, such as tonics, stomachics, etc. 
As a general rule, this class of remedies produce their 
effect by acting slowly but steadily on the depuratory 
organs, as the liver, kidneys and skin. The following 
may be found useful: 

1. Disordered States of the Skin —Emetic tartar 
5 ounces, powdered ginger 3 ounces, opium 1 ounce; syrup 
enough to form sixteen balls: one to be given every night. 

2. Simply Cooling— Barbadoes aloes 1 ounce, Castile 
soap 1| ounces, ginger % ounce, syrup enough to form six 
balls: one to be given every morning. 

3. Barbadoes aloes drachms, emetic tartar 2 drachms, 
Castile soap 2 drachms; mix. 

4. Alterative Ball for General Use. —Black sul- 
phuret of antimony 2 to 4 drachms, sulphur 2 drachms, 
nitre 2 drachms; linseed meal and water enough to form a 
ball. 

5. For Generally Defective Secretions —Flowers 
of sulphur 6 ounces, emetic tartar 5 to 8 drachms, corro¬ 
sive sublimate 10 grains; linseed meal mixed with hot 
water enough to form six balls, one of which may be given 
two or three times a week. 

6. In Debility of Stomach —Calomel 1 scruple, aloes 
1 drachm, cascarilla bark, in powder, 1 drachm, gentian 
root, in powder, 1 drachm, ginger, in powder, 1 drachm, 
Castile soap 3 drachms; syrup enough to make a ball, 
which may be given twice a week, or every other night. 

Anaesthetics. —Anaesthetics produce insensibility to all 
external impressions, and therefore to pain. They resem¬ 
ble narcotics in their action, and, when taken into the 
stomach, may be considered purely as such. The most 
certain and safe way of administering them is by inhala¬ 
tion, and chloroform is the drug now universally employed. 
The modus operandi of the various kinds has never yet 
been satisfactorily explained; and when the comparison is 
made, as it often is, to the action of intoxicating fluids, 
we are no nearer to it than before. With alcoholic fluids, 
however, the disorder of the mental functions is greater in 
proportion to the insensibility to pain; and if they are 
taken in sufficient quantities to produce the latter effect, 
they are dangerous to life itself. The action of anaesthet¬ 
ics on the horse is very similar to that on man. 

Anodynes. —Sometimes called narcotics, when taken 
into the stomach pass at once into the blood, and 
there act in a special manner on the nervous centers. At 
first they exalt the nervous force; but they soon depress it, 
the second stage coming on sooner according to the in¬ 
crease of the dose. They are given either to soothe the gen¬ 
eral nervous system, or to stop diarrhoea; or sometimes to 
relieve spasm, as in colic or tetanus. Opium is the chief 



anodyne used in veterinary medicine, and it may be em¬ 
ployed in very large doses: 

1. Anodyne Drench for Colic —Linseed oil 1 pint, 
oil of turpentine 1 to 2 ounces, laudanum 1 to 2 ounces; 
mix, and give every hour till relief is afforded. 

2. Anodyne Ball for Colic —(Only useful in mild 
cases.) Powdered opium £ to 2 drachms, castile soap 2 
drachms, camphor 2 drachms, ginger 1£ drachm; make 
into a ball with liquorice powder and treacle, and give 
every hour while the pain lasts. It should be kept in a 
bottle or bladder. 

3. Anodvne Ball (ordinary)—Opium £ to 1 drachm, 
castile soap 2 to 4 drachms, ginger 1 to 2 drachms, 
powdered anise seed £ to 1 ounce, oil of caraway seeds, £ 
drachm; syrup enough to form a ball, to be dissolved in 
half pint of warm ale, and given as a drench. 

4. Anodyne Drench in Superpurgation, or Ordi¬ 
nary Diarrhcea —Gum arabic 2 ounces, boiling water 1 
pint: dissolve and then add oil of peppermint 25 drops, 
laudanum i to 1 ounce; mix and give night and morning, 
if necessary. 

5. In Chronic Diarrhea —Powdered chalk and gum 
arabic of each 1 ounce, laudanum % ounce, peppermint 
water 10 ounces; mix, and give night and morning. 

Antacids. —As the term implies, these remedies are 
used to neutralize acids, whether taken into the stomach to 
an improper extent, or formed therein as products of dis¬ 
eases. They are often classed as alteratives, when used for 
the latter purpose. They include the alkalies and alka¬ 
line earths, but are not much used in veterinary medicine. 

Anthelmintics. —Drugs which are used to destroy 
worms receive this name in medical literature, when the 
author is wedded to the Greek language. The admirers of 
Latin call them vermifuges, and in English they receive 
the humble name of worm medicines. Their action is 
partly by producing a disagreeable or fatal impression on 
the worm itself, and partly by irritating the mucous lin¬ 
ing of the bowels, and thus causing them to expel their 
contents. Failing, the following may be useful. 

1. Worm Ball (recommended by Mr. Gamgee) Assa- 
fcetida 2 drachms, calomel drachms, powdered sarin 1| 
drachms, oil of male fern 30 drops; treacle enough to 
make a ball, which should be given at night, and followed 
by a purge next morning. 

2. Mild Drench for Worms—L inseed oil 1 pint, 
spirit of turpentine 2 drachms; mix and give every morn¬ 
ing. 

Antispasmodics are medicines which are intended 
to counteract excessive muscular action, called spasm or, 
in the limbs, cramp. This deranged condition depends 
upon a variety of causes, which are generally of an irritat¬ 
ing nature, and its successful treatment will often depend 
upon the employment of remedies calculated to remove the 
cause, rather than directly to relieve the effect. It there¬ 
fore follows that, in many cases, the medicines most 









































































128 


MEDICINES FOR HORSES AND DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 


successful in removing spasm, will be derived from widely 
separated divisions of tlie materia medica, such as aperi¬ 
ents, anodynes, alteratives, stimulants and tonics. It is 
useless to attempt to give many formulas for their exhibi¬ 
tion; but there are one or two medicines which exercise a 
peculiar control over spasm, and we shall give them with¬ 
out attempting to analyze their mode of operation. 

1. In Colic —Spirit of turpentine 3^ ounces, laudanum 
1^- ounces, Barbadoes aloes 1 ounce; powder the aloes, 
and dissolve in warm water; then add the other ingredients, 
and give as a drench. 

2. Clyster in Colic —Spirit of turpentine 6 ounces, 
aloes 2 drachms; dissolve in three quarts of warm water, 
and stir the turpentine well into it. 

3. Antispasmodic Drench —Gin 4 to 6 ounces, tinc¬ 
ture of capsicum 2 drachms, laudanum 3 drachms, warm 
water 1 \ pints; mix and give as a drench, when there is no 
inflammation. 

Aperients. —Aperients, or purges, are those medicines 
which quicken or increase the evacuations from the bowels* 
varying, however, a good deal in their mode of operation. 
Some act merely by exciting the muscular coat of the 
bowels to contract; others cause an immense watery dis¬ 
charge, which as it were, washes out the bowels; whilst a 
third set combine the action of the two. The various 
purges also act upon different parts of the canal, some stimu¬ 
lating the small intestines, whilst others pass through 
them without affecting them, and only act upon the large 
bowels; and others, again, act upon the whole canal. 
There is a third point of difference in purges, depending 
upon their influencing the liver in addition, which mer¬ 
curial purgatives certainly do, as well as rhubarb and some 
others, and which effect is partly due to their absorption 
into the circulation, so that they may be made to act, by 
injecting into the veins as strongly as by actual swallow¬ 
ing, and their subsequent passage into the bowels. Pur¬ 
gatives are likewise classed, according to the degree of 
their effect, into laxatives acting mildly, and drastic 
purges, or cathartics, acting very severely. 

1. Ordinary Physic Balls —Barbadoes aloes 3 to 8 
drachms, hard soap 4 drachms, ginger 1 drachm. Dissolve 
in as small a quantity of boiling water as will suffice; then 
slowly evaporate to the proper consistence, by which means 
griping is avoided. 

2. A Warmer Physic Ball —Barbadoes aloes 3 to 8 
drachms, carbonate of soda ^ drachm, aromatic powder 1 
drachm, oil of caraway 12 drops. Dissolve as above, and 
then add the oil. 

3. Gently Laxative Ball—B arbadoes aloes 3 to 5 
drachms, rhubarb powder 1 to 2 drachms, ginger 2 
drachms, oil of caraway 15 drops. Mix and form into a 
ball as in No. 1. 

4. Stomachic Laxative Balls for Washy Horses— 
Barbadoes aloes 3 drachms, rhubarb 2 drachms, ginger 1 
drachm, cascarilla powder 1 drachm, oil of caraway 15 
drops, carbonate of soda 1£ drachms. Dissolve the aloes 
as in No. 1 and then add the other ingredients. 

5. Purging Balls with Calomel —Barbadoes aloes 3 
to G drachms, calomel \ to 1 drachm, rhubarb 1 to 2 
drachms, ginger 4 to 1 drachm, Castile soap 2 drachms. 
Mix as in No 1. 

6. Laxative Drench —Barbadoes aloes 3 to 4 drachms, 
canella alba 1 to 2 drachms, salts of tartar 1 drachm, mint 
water 8 ounces. Mix. 

7. Another Laxative Drench —Castor oil 3 to 6 
ounces, Barbadoes aloes 3 to 5 drachms, carbonate of soda 
2 drachms, mint water 8 ounces. Mix by dissolving the 
aloes in the mint water by the aid of heat, and then add¬ 
ing the other ingredients. 


8. A Mild Opening Drench —Castor oil 4ounces, Ep¬ 
som salts 3 to 5 ounces, gruel 2 pints. Mix. 

9. A Very Mild Laxative —Castor oil 4 ounces, lin¬ 
seed oil 4 ounces, warm water or gruel 1 pint. Mix. 

10. Used in the Staggers —Barbadoes aloes 4 to 6 
drachms, common salt 6 ounces, flour of mustard 1 ounce, 
water 2 pints. Mix. 

11. A Gently Cooling Drench in Slight Attacks 
of Cold —Epsom salts 6 to 8 ounces, whey 2 pints. Mix. 

12. Purgative Clyster —Common salt 4 to 8 ounces, 
water 8 to 16 pints. 

Astringents Appear to produce contraction on all 
living animal tissues with which they come in contact, 
whether in the interior or on the exterior of the body, and 
whether immediately applied or by absorption into the cir¬ 
culation. But great doubt exists as to the exact mode in 
which they act; and, as in many other cases, we are obliged 
to content ourselves with their effects, and to prescribe 
them empirically. They are divided into astringents ad¬ 
ministered by the mouth, and those applied locally to 
external ulcerated or wounded surfaces : 

1. For Bloody Urine —Powdered catechu ounce, 
alum -g- ounce, cascarilla bark in powder 1 to 2 drachms, 
licorice powder and treacle enough to form a ball, to be 
given twice a day. 

2. For Diabetes —Opium % drachm, ginger powdered 
2 drachms, oak bark powdered 1 ounce, alum as much as 
the tea will dissolve, camomile tea 1 pint. Mix for a 
drench. 

3. External Astringent Powders for Ulcerated 
Surfaces —Powdered alum 4 ounces, Armenian bole 1 
ounce. 

Another —White vitriol 4 ounces, oxide of zinc 1 ounce. 
Mix. 

4. Astringent Lotion —Goulard extract 2 to 3 
drachms, water % pint. Mix. 

Another —Sulphate of copper 1 to 2 drachms, water 
pint. Mix. 

5. Astringent Ointment for Sore Heels— Acetate of 
lead 1 drachm, lard 1 ounce. Mix. 

6. Another for the Same —Nitrate of silver powdered 
% drachm, Goulard extract 1 drachm, lard 1 ounce. Mix 
and use a very small portion every night. 

Blisters or Vesicants —Blisters are applications which 
inflame the skin, and produce a secretion of serum between 
the cutis and cuticle, by which the latter is raised in the 
form of small bladders; but in consequence of the presence 
of the hair, these are very imperfectly seen in the horse. 
They consist of two kinds—one used for the sake of 
counter-irritation, by which the original disease is lessened, 
in consequence of the establishment of this irritation at a 
short distance from it; the other, commonly called “sweat¬ 
ing” in veterinary surgery, by which a discharge is obtained 
from the vessels of the part itself, which are in that way 
relieved and unloaded; there is also a subsequent process 
of absorption in consequence of the peculiar stimulus 
applied. 

1. Mild Blister Ointment (Counter-Irritant)—Hog’s 
lard 4 ounces, Venice turpentine 1 ounce, powdered can- 
tharides 6 drachms; mix and spread. 

2. Stronger Blister Ointment (Counter-Irritant)— 
Spirit of turpentine 1 ounce, sulphuric acid, by measure, 
2 drachms; mix carefully in an open place; and add—hog’s 
lard 4 ounces, powdered cantharides 1 ounce; mix and 
spread. 

3. Very Strong Blister Ointment (Counter-Irritant) 
Strong mercurial ointment 4 ounces, oil of origanum % 
ounce, finely powdered euphorbium 3 drachms, powdered 
cantharides % ounce; mix and spread. 

































MEDICINES FOR HORSES AND DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 


129 


4. Rapidly Acting Blister Ointment (Counter-Irri¬ 
tant)—Best flour of mustard 8 ounces, made into a paste 
with water; add oil of turpentine 2 ounces, strong liquor 
of ammonia 1 ounce; this is to be well rubbed into the 
chest, belly, or back, in cases of acute inflammation. 

5. Sweating Blister —Strong mercurial ointment 2 
ounces, oil of origanum 2 drachms, corrosive sublimate 2 
drachms, cantharides powdered 3 drachms; mix and rub in 
with the hand. 

6. Strong Sweating Blister, for Splints, Ring- 
Bones, Spavins, Etc. —Biniodide of mercury 1 to 1^ 
drachms, lard 1 ounce; to be well rubbed into the legs after 
cutting the hair short; and followed by the daily use of ar¬ 
nica in shape of a wash, as follows, which is to be painted 
on with a brush : tincture of arnica 1 ounce, water 12 to 15 
ounces; mix. 

7. Liquid Sweating Blister —Cantharides 1 ounce, 
spirit of turpentine 2 ounces, methylated spirit of wine 1 
pint; mix and digest for a fortnight; then strain. 

Another —Powdered cantharides 1 ounce, commercial 
pyroligneous acid 1 pint; mix and digest for a fortnight; 
then strain. 

Caustics or Cauteries. —Caustics are substances 
which burn away the living tissues of the body, by the 
decomposition of their elements. They are of two kinds 
—first, the actual cautery, consisting in the application of 
the burning iron, and called firing; and, secondly, the po¬ 
tential cautery, by means of the powers of mineral caus¬ 
tics, such as potassa fusa, lunar-caustic, corrosive subli¬ 
mate, etc. 

Firing is described in the chapter on operations. 

The following are the ordinary chemical applications 
used as potential cauteries : 

1. Fused Potass, difficult to manage, because it runs 
about in all directions, and little used in veterinary 
medicine. 

2. Lunar Caustic, or Nitrate of Silver, very valuable 
to the veterinary surgeon, and constantly used to apply to 
profuse granulations. 

3. Sulphate of Copper, almost equally useful, but not 
so strong as lunar caustic; it may be well rubbed in to all 
high granulations, as in broken knees and similar growths. 

4. Corrosive Sublimate in powder, which acts most 
energetically upon warty growths, but should be used with 
great care and discretion. It may safely be applied to 
small surfaces, but not without a regular practitioner to 
large ones. It should be washed off after remaining on a 
few minutes. For the mode of applying it in castration, 
see Horse Castration. 

5. Yellow Orpiment is not so strong as Corrosive Sub¬ 
limate, and may be used with more freedom. It will gen¬ 
erally remove warty growths, by picking off their heads 
and rubbing it in. 

6. Muriate of Antimony, called Butter of Antimony; 
a strong but rather unmanageable caustic, and used either 
by itself or mixed with more or less water. 

7. Chloride of Zinc is a most powerful caustic. It 
may be used in old sinuses in solution, 7 drachms in a pint 
of water. 

Milder Caustics — 8, Verdigris either in powder or 
mixed with lard as an ointment, in the proportion of 1 to 
3; 9, red precipitate, ditto, ditto; 10, burnt alum, used 
dry; 11, powdered white sugar. 

Mild Liquid Caustics —12, solution of nitrate of sil¬ 
ver, 5 to 15 grains to the ounce of distilled water. 

13. Solution of blue vitriol of about double the above 
strength. 

14. Chloride of zinc, 1 to 3 grains to the ounce of water. 

Charges are adhesive plasters which are spread while 

hot on the legs, and at once covered with short tow, so as 


to form a strong and unyielding support while the horse is 
at grass. 

1. Ordinary Charges — Burgundy pitch 4 ounces, 
Barbadoes tar 6 ounces, beeswax 2 ounces, red lead 4 
ounces. The first three are to be melted together and 
afterwards the lead is to be added. The mixture is to be 
kept constantly stirred until sufficiently cold to be applied. 
If too stiff (which will depend upon the weather) it maybe 
softened by the addition of a little lard or oil. 

2. Arnica Charge —Canada balsam 2 ounces, pow¬ 
dered arnica leaves 1 ounce. The balsam to be melted and 
worked up with the leaves, adding spirits of turpentine if 
necessary. When thoroughly mixed, to be well rubbed 
into the whole leg, in a thin layer, and to be covered over 
with the Charge No. 1, which will set on its outside and 
act as a bandage, while the arnica is a restorative to the 
weakened vessels. This is an excellent application. 

Clysters, or Enemata. —Clysters are intended either 
to relieve obstruction or spasm of the bowels, and are of 
great service when properly applied. They may be made 
of warm water or gruel, of which some quarts will be re¬ 
quired in colic. They should be thrown up with the proper 
syringe, provided with valves and flexible tube. 

For the turpentine clyster in colic see Antispasnodics. 

Aperient clysters, see Aperients. 

1. Anodyne Clyster in Diarrhiea —Starch made 
as for washing 1 quart, powdered opium 2 drachms. The 
opium is to be boiled in water and added to the starch. 

Cordials are medicines which act as temporary stimu¬ 
lants to the whole system, and especially to the stomach. 
They augment the strength and spirits when depressed, as 
after over-exertion in work: 

1. Cordial Balls —Powdered caraway seeds 6 drachms, 
ginger 2 drachms, oil of cloves 20 drops, treacle enough to 
make into a ball. 

Another —Powdered anise seed 6 drachms, powdered 
cardamoms 2 drachms, powdered cassia 1 drachm, oil of 
caraway 20 drops. Mix with treacle into a ball. 

2. Cordial Drench —A quart of good ale warmed and 
with plenty of grated ginger. 

3. Cordial and Expectorant —Powdered anise seed £ 
ounce, powdered squill 1 drachm, powdered myrrh 1-J 
drachm, balsam of Peru enough to form a ball. 

Another —Liquorice powder ounce, gum ammonia- 
cum 3 drachms, balsam of tolu drachms, powdered 
squill 1 drachm, linseed meal and boiling water enough to 
form into a mass. 

Demulcents are used for the purpose of soothing ir¬ 
ritations of the bowels, kidneys, or bladder, in the two last 
cases by their effect upon the secretion of urine. 

1. Demulcent Drench —Gum Arabic \ ounce, water 
1 pint. Dissolve and give as a drench night and morning, 
or mixed with a mash. 

Another —Linseed 4 ounces, water 1 quart. Simmer 
till a strong and thick decoction is obtained, and give as 
above. 

2. Marshmallow Drench —Marshmallows a double 
handful, water 1 quart. Simmer as in the second part of 
No. 1 and use in the same way. 

Diaphoretics have a special action on the skin, in¬ 
creasing the perspiration sometimes to an enormous extent. 

1. Ordinary Diaphoretic Drench —Solution of ace¬ 
tate of ammonia 3 to 4 ounces, laudanum 1 ounce. Mix 
and give at night. Or, 

Another —Solution of acetate of ammonia 2 ounces, 
spirits of nitric ether 2 ounces. Mix and give as above. 

2. In Hide-Bound —Emetic tartar drachms, cam¬ 
phor $ drachm, ginger 2 drachms, opium i drachm, oil 





























130 


MEDICINES FOR HORSES AND DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 


of caraway 15 drops, linseed meal and boiling water to form 
a ball, which is to be given twice or thrice a week. 

3. In Hide-Bound (but not so efficacious)—Antimonial 
powder 2 drachms, ginger 1 drachm, powdered caraways 
6 drachms, oil of anise seed 20 drops. Mix as above. 

These remedies require moderate exercise in clothing to 
bring out their effects, after which the horse should be 
wisped till quite dry. 

Digestives. —Digestives are applications which pro¬ 
mote suppuration, and the healing of wounds or ulcers. 

1. Digestive Ointment —Red precipitate 2 ounces, 
Venice turpentine 3 ounces, beeswax 1 ounce, hog’s lard 
4 ounces; melt the last three ingredients over a slow fire, 
and when nearly cold stir in the powder. 

Diuretics. —Diuretics are medicines which promote the 
secretion and discharge of urine, the effect being produced 
in a different manner by different medicines; some acting 
directly upon the kidneys by sympathy with the stomach, 
while others are taken up by the blood-vessels, and in their 
elimination from the blood, cause an extra secretion of the 
urine. In either case their effect is to diminish the watery 
part of the blood, and thus promote the absorption of fluid 
effused into any of the cavities, or into the cellular mem¬ 
brane in the various forms of dropsy. 

1. Stimulating Diuretic Ball —Powdered resin 3 
drachms, sal prunelle 3 drachms, Castile soap 3 drachms, 
oil of juniper 1 drachm; mix. 

2. A More Cooling Diuretic Ball —Powdered nitre 
i to 1 ounce, camphor 1 drachm, juniper berries 1 drachm, 
soap 3 drachms; mix, adding linseed meal enough to form 
a ball. 

3. Diuretic Powder for a Mash —Nitre ^ to f ounce, 
resin £ to f ounce; mix. 

4. Another More Active Powder —Nitre 6 drachms, 
camphor drachms; mix. 

Embrocations. —Embrocations or liniments are stimu¬ 
lating or sedative external applications, intended to reduce 
the pain and inflammation of internal parts, when rubbed 
into the skin with the hand. 

1. Mustard Embrocation —Best flour of Mustard 6 
ounces, liquor of ammonia 1£ ounces, oil of turpentine 1£ 
ounces; mix with sufficient water to form a thin paste. 

2. Stimulating Embrocation —Camphor £ ounce, oil 
of turpentine 1| ounces, spirit of wine l| ounces; mix. 

3. Sweating Embrocation for Windgalls, Etc.— 
Strong mercurial ointment 2 ounces, camphor ounce, 
oil of rosemary 2 drachms, oil of turpentine 1 ounce; 
mix. 

4. Another, but Stronger— Strong mercurial oint¬ 
ment 2 ounces, oil of bay 1 ounce, oil of origanum 
ounce, powdered cantharides £ ounce; mix. 

5. A Most Active Sweating Embrocation —Binio- 
dide of mercury £ to 1 drachm, powdered arnica leaves 1 
drachm, soap liniment 2 ounces; mix. 

Emulsions. —When oily matters have their globules 
broken down by friction with mucilaginous substances, 
such as gum arabic or yolk of egg, they are called emul¬ 
sions, and are specially useful in soothing irritation of the 
mucous membrane, of the trachea and bronchi. 

1. Simple Emulsion —Linseed oil 2 ounces, honey 3 
ounces, soft water 1 pint, subcarbonate of potass 1 drachm; 
dissolve the honey and potass in the water; then add the 
linseed oil by degrees in a large mortar, when it should as¬ 
sume a milky appearance. It may be given night and 
morning. 

2. Another More Active Emulsion— -Simple emulsion 
No. 1, 7 ounces, camphor 1 drachm, opium in powder £ 
drachm, oil of anise seed 30 drops; rub the last three in¬ 
gredients together in a mortar with some white sugar; then 
add the emulsion by degrees. 


Horse Expectorants. —Expectorants excite or pro¬ 
mote a discharge of mucus from the lining membrane 
of the bronchial tubes, thereby relieving inflammation and 
allaying cough. 

1. Expectorant Ball in Ordinary Cough without 
Imflammation. —Gum ammoniacum | ounce, powdered 
squill 1 drachm, Castile soap 2 drachms; honey enough to 
form a ball. 

2. In Old Standing Cough (Stomach)— Assafcetida 3 
drachms, galbanum 1 drachm, carbonate of ammonia ^ 
drachm, ginger drachms; honey enough to form a ball. 

3. A Strong Expectorant Ball —Emetic tartar \ 
drachm, calomel 15 grains, digitalis £ drachm, powdered 
squills 4 drachm; linseed meal and water enough to form 
a ball, which is not to be repeated without great care. 

Febrifuges. —Generally called fever medicines, are 
given to allay the arterial and nervous excitements which 
accompany febrile action. They do this partly by their 
agency on the heart and arteries through the nervous 
system, and partly by increasing the secretions of the skin 
and kidneys. 

1. Fever Ball. —Nitre 4 drachms, camphor drachms, 
calomel and opium, of each 1 scruple, linseed meal as 
above. Or, 

Another. —Emetic tartar 1^ to 2 drachms, compound 
powder of tragacanth 2 drachms; linseed meal and water 
enough to form a ball. Or, 

Another. —Nitre 3 drachms, camphor 2 drachms; mix 
as above. 

2. Cooling Powder for Mash. —Nitre 6 drachms to 
one ounce; may be given in a bran mash. 

3. Cooling Drench. —Nitre 1 ounce, sweet spirit of 
nitre, 2 ounces, tincture of digitalis 2 drachms, whey 1 
pint. 

Lotions OP Washes consist of liquids applied to the 
external parts, either to cool them or to produce a healthy 
action in the vessels. 

1. Cooling Solution for External Inflammation. — 
Goulard extract 1 ounce, vinegar 2 ounces, spirits of wine 
or gin 3 ounces, water l4 pints; mix, and apply with a cal¬ 
ico bandage. 

2. Another, Useful for Inflamed Legs, or for 
Galled Shoulders or Back. — Sal Ammoniac 1 ounce, 
vinegar 4 ounces, spirits of wine 2 ounces, tincture of arni¬ 
ca 2 drachms, water pint; mix. 

3. Lotion for Foul Ulcers. —Sulphate of copper 1 
ounce, nitric acid £ ounce, water 8 to 12 ounces; mix. 

4. Lotion for the Eyes. —Sulphate of zinc 20 to 25 
grains, water 6 ounces; mix. 

5. Very Strong One, and only to be dropped in.— 
Nitrate of silver 5 to S grains, distilled water 1 ounce; mix 
and use with a camel-hair brush. 

Narcotics. —A distinction is sometimes made between 
anodynes and narcotics, but in veterinary medicine there is 
no necessity for separating them. (See Anodynes.) 

Refrigerants. —Lower the animal heat by contact with 
the skin, the ordinary ones being cold air, cold water, ice, 
and evaporative lotions. (See Lotions.) 

Sedatives. —Depress the action of the circulatory and 
nervous systems, without effecting the mental functions. 
They are very powerful in their effects; and digitalis, 
which is the drug commonly used for this purpose, has a 
special quality known by the name of cumulative; that is 
to say, if repeated, small doses are given at intervals for a 
certain time, an effect is produced almost equal to that 
which would follow the exhibition of the whole quantity 
at once. Besides digitalis, aconite is also sometimes used 
to lower the action of the heart, and by many it is 



































MEDICINES FOR HORSES AND DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 


supposed to be equal in potency to that drug, without the 
danger which always attends its use. 

Stimulants. —By this term is understood those sub¬ 
stances which excite the action of the whole nervous and 
vascular systems; almost all medicines are stimulants to 
some part or other, as, for instance, aperients, which stim¬ 
ulate the lining of the bowels, but to the general system 
are lowering. On the other hand, stimulants, so called 
par excellence, excite and raise the action of the brain and 
heart. 

Old ale 1 quart, carbonate of ammonia 4 to 2 drachms, 
tincture of ginger 4 drachms; mix and give as a drench. 

For other stimulants, see Cordials. 

Stomachs. —Stomachics are medicines given to im¬ 
prove the tone of the stomach, when impaired by bad man¬ 
agement or disease. 

Stomachic Ball. —Powdered gentian jounce, powdered 
ginger 14 drachms, carbonate of soda 1 drachm; treacle 
to form a ball; or 

Another. —Cascarilla, powdered 1 ounce, myrrh 14 
drachms, castile soap 1 drachm; mix with syrup or treacle, 
into a ball; or 

Another. —Powdered Colombo to 1 ounce, powdered 
cassia 1 drachm, powdered rhubarb 2 drachms; mix as in 
second part of No. 1. 

Styptics. —Styptics are remedies which have a tendency 
to stop the flow of blood either from internal for external 
surfaces. They are used either by the mouth, or to the 
part itself in the shape of lotions, etc.; or the actual cau¬ 
tery, which is always the best in external bleeding, may 
be employed. Sometimes, however, the part cannot be 
reached with the heated iron, and is yet within the in¬ 
fluence of an injection, as in bleeding from the nostrils, 
for which the following may be employed: 

Matico leaves 4 ounce, boiling water 1 pint; infuse, 
and when cold strain and inject into the nostrils. 

For internal styptics, see Astringents. 

Tonics. —Augment the vigor of the whole body per¬ 
manently, whilst stimulants only act for a short time. 
They are chiefly useful after low fever. 

Tonic Ball. —Sulphate of iron jounce, extract of cam¬ 
omile 1 ounce; mix and form into ball. 

Cattle. —1. Drink, Cough and Fever.—Take emetic 
tartar 1 drachm, powdered digitalis 4 drachm, nitre 3 
drachms; mix and give in a quart of tolerably thick gruel. 

2. Drink, Purging.—Take epsomsalts 1 pound,powdered 
caraway seeds 4 ounce; dissolve in a quart of warm gruel 
and give. 

3. Drink, Purging.—Take emetic tartar 4 drachm, nitre 
2 drachms, powdered gentian root 1 drachm, powdered 
camomile' flowers 1 drachm, powdered ginger 4 drachm; 
pour upon them a pint of boiling ale, and give the infusion 
when nearly cold. 

3. Drink, Expectorant.—Take licorice root 2 ounces; 
bruise and boil in a quart of water until the fluid is re¬ 
duced to a pint, then gradually and carefully add powdered 
squills 2 drachms, powdered gum guaiacum 1 drachm, 
tincture of balsam of tolu 4 ounce, honey 2 ounces; give it 
morning and night. 

5. Drink, Turpentine for Worms.—Take oil of turpen¬ 
tine 2 ounces, sweet spirit of nitre 1 ounce, laudanum, 4 
ounce, linseed oil 4 ounces; mix and give in a pint of 
gruel. 

6. Drink Stimulating. — Take digitalis 1 scruple, emetic 
tartar 4 drachm, nitre 3 drachms, powdered squills 1 
drachm, opium 1 scruple; mix, and give with a pint of 
gruel. 

7. Drink, Sulphur Purging.—Take sulphur 8 ounces, 
ginger 4 ounce, mix with a quart of warm gruel. The 




drink should be repeated every third day, if the bowels 
appear to require it. . 

8. Drink, Rheumatic.—Take nitre 2 drachms, tartar- 
ized antimony 1 drachm, spirit of nitrous ether 1 ounce, 
anise seed powder 1 ounce; mix with a pint of very thick 
gruel, and repeat the dose morning and night, except 
when it is necessarv to give the sulphur purging drink. 
No. 7. 

9. Embrocation, Rheumatic.—Take neatsfoot oil, 4 
ounces, camphorated oil, spirit of turpentine and lauda- 
dum, each one ounce, oil of origanum 1 drachm ; mix. 

10. Ointment, Healing, Cleansing.—Take lard 2 
pounds, resin 4 pound ; melt them together, and when 
nearly cold, stir in calamine, very finely powdered, half a 
pound. 

11. Camphorated Oil.—Take camphor 2 ounces, and 
break into small pieces ; put it into a pint of spermaceti, 
or common olive oil, and let the bottle, being closely 
corked, and shaken every day stand in a warm place until 
the camphor is dissolved. 

12. Drink, Cordial, Rheumatic.—Take rhododendron 
leaves, 4 drachms, boil it in a quart of water until it is 
diminished to a pint; strain the decoction, and to half 
of the liquid, warm, add gum guaiacum finely powdered 
2 drachms, powdered caraway seeds 2 drachms, powdered 
anise seed 2 drachms ; mixed with half a pint of warm 
ale. 

13. Drink, Tonic.—Take gentian root, powdered 4 
ounce, ginger powdered 1 drachm, epsom salts 2 ounces, 
mix the whole with a pint of warm gruel, and give it morn¬ 
ing and night. 

14. Drink for the Yellows.—Take of calomel and 
opium, a scruple; mix and suspend in a little thick gruel. 

15. Drink, Physic, a Strong.—Take epsom or glauber 
salts 4 pound, kernel of croton nut 10 grains ; take off 
the shell of the croton nut, and weigh the proper quan¬ 
tity of the kernel, rub it down to a fine powder, gradually 
mix it with half a pint of thick gruel, and give it and im¬ 
mediately afterwards give the salts, dissolved in a pint and 
a half of thinner gruel. 

16. Ointment, Blister.—Take lard 12 ounces, resin 4 
ounces, melt them together, and when they are getting 
cold add oil of turpentine four ounces, powdered can- 
tharides five ounces ; stirring the whole together. 

17. Drink, Astringent.—Take prepared chalk 2 ounces, 
oak bark powdered 1 ounce, catechu powdered 4 ounce, 
opium powdered 2 scruples, ginger powdered 2 drachms ; 
mix and give in a quart of warm gruel. 

18. Drink, Astringent, with Mutton Suet.—Take mut¬ 
ton suet 1 pound, new milk 2 quarts ; boil them together 
until the suet is dissolved ; then add—Opium powdered 
4 drachm, ginger 1 drachm; having previously well 
mixed them with a spoonful or two of fluid. 

19. Whey, Alum.—Take alum 4 ounce, water 2 quarts ; 
boil them together for ten minutes and strain. 

20. Astringent, Stimulating.—Take oil of Juniper 2 to 
4 drachms, tincture of opium 1 ounce, oil of turpentine 
1 ounce ; mix and give in a pint of linseed tea once or 
twice a day. 

21. Drink, Stimulating.—Take epsom or glauber salts 
1 pound, ginger 4 ounce, carbonate of ammonia 4 ounce, 
pour one quart of boiling water upon the ingredients; 
stir them well and give when milk warm. 

22. Stimulating Drink, Mild.—Take ginger 1 drachm, 
gentian 1 drachm, spirit of nitrous ether 1 ounce ; mix 
and give in a pint of gruel. 

23. Astringent, Mild.—take oak bark powdered 4 ounce, 
catechu powdered 2 drachms, opium powdered 4 scruple ; 
mix together in a pint of gruel or warm water. 


























132 


MEDICINES FOR HORSES AND DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 


24. Ointment, Mercurial Garget.—Take soft soap 1 
pound, mercurial ointment 2 ounces, camphor rubbed 
down with a little spirit of wine 1 ounce ; rub them well 
together. 

25. Ointment, Iodine.—Take hydrate of potash 1 
drachm, lard 7 drachms; rub them well together. 

26. Drink, Diuretic.—Take powdered nitre 1 ounce, 
powdered resin 2 ounces, ginger 2 drachms; mix them 
well together in a little treacle, and give them in a warm 
gruel. 

27. Ointment for Sore Teats.—Take elder ointment 6 
ounces, beeswax 2 ounces ; mix them together, and add 
an ounce each of sugar of lead and alum in fine powder, 
and stir them together until cold. 

28. Drink, Stimulant, Warm.—Take ginger powdered 
% ounce, caraway seeds 6 drachms, allspice ounce ; mix 
in a quart of warm water or mild ale. 

29. Drink, Anodyne.—Take powdered opium £ drachm, 
sweet spirit of nitre 2 ounces ; rub them together, adding 
the fluid by small quantities at a time, and give the mix¬ 
ture in a pint of warm gruel. 

30. Drink, Purgative, Strong.—Take Epsom or Glauber 
salts 12 ounces, flowers of sulphur 4 ounces, powdered 
ginger 4 drachms, spirit of nitrous ether 1 ounce ; to be 
dissolved in warm water. 

31. Drink, Cordial.—Take caraway powder 1 ounce, 
gentian, powered £ ounce, essence of peppermint 20 
drops; mix. 

32. Drink, Tonic.—Take gentian 2 drachms, tartrate 
of iron 1 drachm, ginger 1 drachm; mix and give in a 
pint of gruel. 

33. Drink, Tonic, Mildest.—Take gentian 2 drachms, 
emetic tartar % drachm, nitre £ ounce, spirit of nitrous 
ether £ ounce ; give in gruel. 

34. Lotion, Disinfectant.—Take solution of chloride of 
lime, in powdered \ ounce, water 1 pint; mix. 

35. Murrain, Drink for.—Take Sweet Spirit of Nitre % 
ounce, laudanum ^ ounce, choride of lime, in powder 2 
ounces, prepared chalk 1 ounce; rub them well together, 
and give them with a pint of warm gruel. 

36. Drink, Tonic, for Murrain.—Take Columbia root 2 
drachms, canella bark 2 drachms, ginger 1 drachm, sweet 
spirit of nitre % ounce ; rub them together, and give in a 
pint of thick gruel. 

37. Fumigation.—Take common salt 2 pounds, oil of 
vitriol 1 pound. 

38. Drink, Laxative.—Take Epsom salts £ pound, sul¬ 
phur 2 to 4 ounces, nitre % ounce, ginger 2 drachms, 
spirit of nitrous ether 1 ounce ; dissolve in warm water 
or gruel, and repeat once a day for several days. 

39. Liniment.—Take alum and white vitriol, of each ^ 
ounce, treacle 1 gill; dissolve in a pint of warm water. 

40. Astringent Powder.—Take blue vitriol, powdered 
ounce, powdered alum \ ounce, prepared chalk 2 ounces, 
armenian bole 1 ounce; mix. 

41. Tonic, Strong.—Take powdered ginger 1 drachm, 
powdered caraway seeds 1 drachm, gentian, powdered 
4 drachms, spirit of nitrous ether 1 ounce ; to be mixed 
slowly with gruel. 

42. Drink for Inflammation of the Bladder.—Take 
antimonial powder 2 drachms, powdered opium 1 scruple; 
rub well together with a small portion of very thick 
gruel, and repeat the dose morning and night. 

43. Eye Lotion, Sedative (1)—Take dried leaves of fox 
glove, powdered 1| ounces ; infuse them in a pint of cape 
or dry raisin wine for a fortnight, and keep the infusion 
for use. 

44. Eye Lotion, Sedative (2)—Take extract of goulard 
2 drachms, spirituous tincture of digitalis, (made in the 
same manner as the vinous in receipt 43, No. 1) 2 


drachms, tincture of opium 2 drachms, water 1 pint; 
this should also be introduced into the eye. Two or three 
drops at a time will suffice. 

45. Lotion for the Eye, Strengthening.—Take white 
vitriol 1 scruple, spirit of wine 1 drachm, water 1 pint; 
mix them together, and use the lotion in the same manner 
as Nos. 43 and 44. 

46. Drink, Cordial.—Take caraway seed in powder 
ounce, anise seed, in powder % ounce, ginger ^ ounce; 
mix with a pint of good ale, made hot. 

47. Physic Drink, for Locked Jaw, Strong.—Take bar- 
badoes aloes 1% ounces, kernel of croton nut powder 
10 grains; dissolve in as small quantity of boiling water 
as possible, and give them when the liquid is sufficiently 
cool. 

48. Anodyne Drink, for Lock-Jaw.—Take camphor 1 
drachm, rub it down in an ounce of spirits of wine; 
to this add : powdered opium 1 drachm; and give the 
mixture in a small quantity of thick gruel. 

49. Embrocation for Bite of serpents.—Take hartshorn 
and olive oil equal quantities. Shake them well together, 
and rub the wound and the neighboring parts well with 
the liniment morning and night. 

50. Lotion, Discutient.—Take bay salt 4 ounces, vine¬ 
gar 1 pint, water 1 quart, oil of origanum 1 drachm; add 
the oil of salt first; rub them well down with a little 
water; then gradually add the balance of the water and 
vinegar. 

51. Embrocation for Strains.—Take bay salt 4 ounces, 
oil of origanum 1 drachm; rub them well together, until 
the salt is reduced to a powder; then add—vinegar \ pint, 
spirits of wine 2 ounces, water 1 quart. 

52. Embrocation for Strains, Strongest.—Take spirit of 
turpentine % pint, oil of origanum ounce, olive oil 1£ 
pints, cantharidesl ounce; mix them together; shake them 
often and keep in a bottle for use. 

53. Charge for Old Strains and Lameness.—Take bur¬ 
gundy pitch 4 ounces, common pitch 4 ounces, yellow wax 
2 ounces, barbadoes tar 6 ounces; melt them together in a 
ladle, and apply the mixture to the parts when thoroughly 
warm and liquid. 

54. Mange Ointment.—Take flowers of sulphur 1 pound, 
strong mercurial ointment 2 ounces, common turpentine 
£ pound, lard 1£ pounds; melt the turpentine and lard 
together; stir well in the sulphur when these begin to cool; 
and afterwards rub down the mercurial ointment on a 
marble slab with the other ingredients. 

55. Drink, Alterative—Take flowers of sulphur 2 ounces, 
black sulphuret of antimony 1 ounce, iEthiop’s mineral -J 
ounce, nitre 2 ounces; mix and divide into four powders, 
give one every second morning in a little thick gruel. 
Turning into a salt marsh will be an excellent auxiliary. 

56. Vermin, Mercurial Ointment for.—Take strong 
mercurial ointment 1 ounce, lard 7 ounces; mix them well 
together, and rub the ointment well on wherever the lice 
appear. 

57. Vermin, Lotion for—Take corrosive sublimate 2 
drachms; rub it down in 2 ounces of spirits of wine, and 
add a pint of water. 

58. Tonic Powders, Alterative.—Take flowers of sulphur 
4 ounces, black sulphuret of antimony 1 ounce, iEthiop’s 
mineral ^ ounce, nitre 2 ounces, powdered gentian 2 
ounces, powdered ginger 1 ounce; mix and divide into six 
powders, and give one daily. 

59. Bull Burnt, Lotion for.—Take Goulard’s extract 1 
ounce, spirit of wine 2 ounces, water pint; mix. 

60. Cow-pox, Lotion for.—Take sal ammoniac ^ ounce, 
white wine vinegar \ pint, camphorated spirit of wine 2 
ounces, Goulard’s extract 1 ounce; mix, and keep it in 
a bottle for use. 






































MEDICINES FOR HORSES AND DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 


133 


31. Calves. —Drink, Aperient for—Take Epsom salts, 
from 1 to 2 ounces, according to the age and size of the 
calf, and dissolve in half a pint of gruel; then add ginger, 
1 scruple; essence of peppermint, 3 drops; mix. 

62. Diarrhoea in—Take prepared chalk 2 drachms, pow¬ 
dered opium 10 grains, powdered catechu drachm, gin¬ 
ger -g- drachm, essence of peppermint 5 drops; mix and give 
twice a day in half pint of gruel. 

63. Purging, to Stop—Take Dover’s powder 2 scruples, 
starch or arrow-root in powder 1 ounce, compound cinna¬ 
mon powder 1 drachm, powdered kino 4 drachm; T>oil the 
starch or arrow-root in a pint of water until it becomes 
well thickened, and then gradually stir in the other in¬ 
gredients. 

64. Hoove in—Take oil of turpentine 1 ounce, linseed 
oil 3 or 4 ounces, ginger powdered 1 drachm; mix. To be 
repeated at the interval of a week, as often as may be re¬ 
quired. 

65. Sheep. —Tonic Drink.—Take gentian root powdered 
1 drachm, caraway powder % drachm, tincture of caraway 
10 drops; give in a quarter of a pint of thick gruel. 

66. Purging, Drink for—Take Epsom salts 2 ounces, 
powdered caraway £ ounce; warm thin gruel sufficient to 
dissolve the salts. 

67. Astringent Drink for—Take compound chalk 
powder with opium 1 drachm, gentian 1 scruple, essence 
of peppermint 3 drops; mix with a little thin starch, and 
give morning and night. 

68. Cooling Fever Drink.—Take powdered digitalis 1 
scruple, emetic tartar 10 grains, nitre 2 drachms; mix with 
thick gruel, and let it be given twice each day. 

69. Laxative Medicine.—Take Epsom salts 1 ounce, 
ginger 1 scruple, gentian 1 drachm, warm water 2 ounces, 
linseed oil 1 ounce; the above may be given either alone 
or with gruel, to a full grown sheep; and from one-fourth 
to one-half to a lamb, according to its age. 

70. Strengthening Drink.—Take prepared chalk 1 
ounce, catechu -g-drachm, opium 20 grains, spirit of nitrous 
ether 2 drachms, gentian 1 drachm; to be dissolved in 
gruel, and given twice a day till the purging ceases; after 
which the last two ingredients, with a drachm of nitre and 
10 grains of tartarized antimony, should be given in gruel 
once a day. 

71. Physic for Blown.—Take Glauber salts 1 ounce, and 
dissolve in peppermint water 4 ounces; to this add tincture 
of ginger 1 drachm; tincture of gentian 1 drachm; boiling 
water 1 ounce. This should be given every six hours until 
the bowels are opened, and half the quantity on each of 
the four next mornings. 

72. General Tonic Drink.—Take gentian 2 drachms, 
Colombo 1 drachm, ginger \ drachm; give in four ounces 
of warm gruel. 

73. Mixture for the Rot.—Take common salt 8 ounces, 
powdered gentian 2 ounces, ginger 1 ounce, tincture of 
Colombo 4 ounces; put the whole into a quart bottle so as 
to fill the bottle. 

74. Second Mixture for the Rot—Take of the receipt. 
Mixture for the rot (which see), one quart. To this add, 
spirits of turpentine 3 ounces. Shake them well together 
when first mixed, and whenever the medicine is given, two 
tablespoonfuls are the usual dose. 

75. Caustic, Astringent Powder for Foot Rot.—Take 
verdigris, armenian bole, and sugar of lead, equal parts. 
Rub them well together, until they are reduced to a fine 
powder. 

76. Arsenical Wash for Lice.—Take arsenic 2 pounds, 
soft soap 4 pounds; dissolve in 30 gallons of water. 

77. Mercurial Wash for Lice.—Take corrosive sublimate 
1 ounce, spirits of wine 2 ounces. Rub the corrosive sub¬ 
limate in the spirit until it is dissolved, and then add 


cream of tartar 1 ounce, bay salt 4 ounces. Dissolve the 
whole in two quarts of water, and apply a little of it with 
a small piece of sponge wherever the lice appear. 

78. Fly Powder for.—Take white lead 2 pounds, red 
lead 1 pound, and mix them together. 

79. Ointment for Sore Heads.—Take black pitch 2 
pounds, tar 1 pound, flowers of sulphur 1 jiound; melt 
them in an iron pot over a very slow fire, stirring together 
the ingredients as they begin to melt, but carefully watch¬ 
ing the compound, and removing the pot from the fire the 
moment the ingredients are well mixed, and before they 
begin to boil, for they would then rapidly swell to an ex¬ 
traordinary extent, and the whole mass would run over 
into the fire. 

80. Astringent Powder for.—Take prepared chalk £ 
ounce, ginger drachm, catechu powdered % drachm, 
powdered opium 2 grains; give this in a little gruel, twice 
daily until the purging abates. 

81. Mild Laxative.—Take linseed oil 2 ounces, pow¬ 
dered opium 2 grains; to be mixed with linseed tea, lin¬ 
seed and oatmeal gruel should be given several times a 
day, and the second day the astringent powder for sheep 
should be given. 

82. Tonic Drink for Debility.—Take gentian and pow¬ 
dered caraway seeds, of each 1 ounce; Colombo and ginger, 
of each £ an ounce. Pour a quart of boiling water upon 
them, and let the infusion stand three days, stirring it 
well every day. Then pour off the clear liquid, and bottle 
it for use. Give a tablespoonful daily in a little gruel, 
mixed with an equal quantity of good ale. 

83. Lotion for Cloudiness on the Eyes.—Take corrosive 
sublimate 4 grains; rub it down with spirits of wine i 
ounce; and add one pint of water. 

84. Mercurial Ointment for Scab.—Take crude quick¬ 
silver 1 pound, Venice turpentine | pound, spirits of tur¬ 
pentine 2 ounces; mix. 

85. Mild Ointment for Scab.—Take flowers of sulphur 1 
pound, Venice turpentine 4 ounces, rancid lard 2 pounds, 
strong mercurial ointment 4 ounces; rub them well 
together. 

86. Powerful Ointment for Scab.—Take white hellebore 
3 ounces, bichloride of mercury 2 ounces, fish oil 12 
pounds, resin 6 ounces, tallow -g pound; the two first in¬ 
gredients to be mixed with a portion of the oil; and then 
melt the other ingredients and add. 

87. Smearing Mixture for Scab.—Take a gallon of 
common tar and 12 pounds of any sweet grease. Melt 
them together, stirring them well while they are cooling. 

88. Swine. —Fever Medicines for.—Take digitalis 3 
grains, antimonial powder 6 grains, nitre ^ drachm; mix 
and give in a little warm swill, or milk, or mash. 

89. Alterative Powder for.—Take flowers of sulphur \ 
ounce, iEthiop’s mineral 3 grains, nitre and cream of 
tartar % drachm; mix and give daily in a little thickened 
gruel or wash. 


Soapstone Paint for Iron. — Both in China and 
Japan soapstone has long been largely used for protecting 
structures built of soft stone and other materials specially 
liable to atmospheric influences. It has been found that 
powdered soapstone in the form of paint has preserved 
obelisks formed of stone for hundreds of years, which 
would, unprotected, have long ago crumbled away. See¬ 
ing what a preservative quality this material has, it is 
specially of interest to shipowners to learn that Mr. Good- 
all has, in the course of many experiments, “found noth¬ 
ing to take hold of the fibre of iron and steel so easily and 
firmly as soapstone.” For the inside painting of steel and 
iron ships it is found to be excellent. It has no anti-foul- 
ing quality, but is anti-corrosive. 


9 


'o 





































134 


CHOICE POEMS. 



WOULD WE RETURN ? 

Would we return 

If once the gates which closed upon the past 
Were opened wide for us, and if the dear 
Remembered pathway stretched before us clear 
To lead us back to youth's lost land at last. 

When on life's April shadows lightly cast. 

Recalled the old sweet days of childish fear 
With all their faded hopes, and brought anear 
The far off streams with which our skies were glassed ; 
Did these lost dreams which wake the soul's sad yearning 
But live once more and waited our returning. 

Would we return? 

Would we return 

If love’s enchantment held the heart no more. 

And we had come to count the wild, sweet pain. 

The fond distress, the lavish tears—but vain ; 

Had cooled the heart's hot wounds amidst the roar 
Of mountain gales, or on some alien shore 
Worn out the soul's long anguish, and had slain 
At last the dragon of despair—if then the train 
Of vanquished years came back, and, as of yore, 

The same voice called, and with soft eyes beguiling, 
Our lost love beckoned, through times gray and smiling. 
Would we return? 

Would we return 

Once we had crossed to death’s unlovely land. 

And trod the bloomless ways among the dead 
Lone and unhappy; after years had fled 
With twilight wings along that glimmering strand. 

If then—an angel came with outstretched hand 
To lead us back, and we recalled in dread 
How soon the tears that once for us are shed 
May flow for others—how like words in sand 
Our memory fades away—how oft our waking 
Might vex the living with the dead heart’s breaking. 
Would we return— 

Would we return? 

-Robert Burns Wilson. 

WE PARTED IN SILENCE. 

BY MRS. CRAWFORD. 


And now, on the midnight sky I look. 

And my heart grows full of weeping; 

Each star is to me a sealed book, 

Some tale of that loved one keeping. 

We parted in silence, we parted in tears. 

On the banks of that lonely river; 

But the odor and bloom of those bygone years 
Shall hang o'er its waters forever. 

MAUD MULLER. 

BY JOHN G. WHITTIER. 

Maud Muller, on a summer's day, 

Raked the meadow, sweet with hay. 

Beneath her torn hat glowed the wealth 
Of simple beauty and rustic health. 

Singing, she wrought, and her merry glee 
The mock-bird echoed from his tree. 

But, when she glanced to the far-off town. 

White from its hill-slope looking down, 

The sweet-song died, and a vague unrest 
And a nameless longing filled her breast— 

A wish, that she hardly dared to own. 

For something better than she had known. 

The Judge rode slowly down the lane. 

Smoothing his horse’s chestnut mane. 

He drew his bridle in the shade 
Of the apple-trees to greet the maid. 

She stooped where the cool spring bubbles up 
And filled for him her small tin cup. 

And blushed as she gave it, looking down 
On her feet so bare, and her tattered gown. 

“ Thanks!" said the Judge, “ a sweeter draught 
From a fairer hand was never quaffed.” 

He spoke of the grass and flowers and trees. 

Of the singing birds and the humming bees; 

Then talked of the haying, and wondered whether 
The cloud in the west would bring foul weather. 



We parted in silence, we parted by night. 

On the banks of that lonely river; 

Where the fragrant limes their boughs unite 
We met—and we parted forever! 

The night-bird sung, and the stars above 
Told many a touching story 

Of friends long passed to the kingdom of love. 
Where the soul wears its mantle of glory. 

We parted in silence—our cheeks were wet 
With the tears that were past controlling; 

We vowed we would never, no, never forget, 
And those vows, at the time, were consoling; 

But those lips that echoed the sounds of mine 
Are as cold as that lonely river; 

And that eye, that beautiful spirit’s shrine. 

Has shrouded its fires forever. 


And Maud forgot her brier-torn gown 
And her graceful ankles bare and brown, 

And listened, while a pleased surprise 
Looked from her long-lashed, hazel eyes. 

At last, like one who for delay 
Seeks a vain excuse, he rode away. 

Maud Muller looked and sighed: “ Ah me ! 
That I the Judge's bride might be! 

“ He would dress me up in silks so fine, 

And praise and toast me at his wine. 

“My father would wear a broadcloth coat; 

My brother should sail a painted boat. 

“I'd dress my mother so grand and gay ; 

And the baby should have a new toy each day. 

































CHOICE POEMS. 


135 


God pity them both! and pity us all. 

Who vainly the dreams of youth recall. 

For of all sad words of tongue or pen. 

The saddest are these: “ It might have been! ” 

Ah, well! for us all some sweet hope lies 
Deeply buried from human eyes; 

And, in the hereafter, angels may 
Roll the stone from its grave away! 


“ And I’d feed the hungry and clothe the poor, 
And all should bless me who left our door.” 

The Judge looked back as he climbed the hill. 
And saw Maud Muller standing still: 

“A form more fair, a face more sweet, 

Ne’er hath it been my lot to meet. 

“And her modest answer and graceful air 
Show her wise and good as she is fair. 

“ Would she were mine, and I to-day, 

Like her, a harvester of hay. 

“No doubtful balance of rights and wrongs, 
No weary lawyers with endless tongues, 

“ But low of cattle, and song of birds. 

And health, and quiet, and loving words.” 

But he thought of his sister, proud and cold. 
And his mother, vain of her rank and gold. 

So, closing his heart, the Judge rode on. 

And Maud was left in the field alone. 

But the lawyers smiled that afternoon. 

When he hummed in court an old love tune. 

And the young girl mused beside the well, 

Till the rain on the unraked clover fell. 

•» He wedded a wife of richest dower. 

Who lived for fashion, as he for power. 

Yet oft, in his marble hearth’s white glow, 

He watched a picture come and go; 

And sweet Maud Muller’s hazel eyes 
Looked out in their innocent surprise. 

Oft, when the wine in his glass was red. 

He longed for the wayside well instead. 

And closed his eyes on his garnished room*. 

To dream of meadows and clover-blooms; 

And the proud man sighed with a secret pain, 
“ Ah, that I were free again! 

“Free as when I rode that day 
Where the barefoot maiden raked the hay.” 

She wedded a man unlearned and poor. 

And many children played round her door. 

But care and sorrow, and child-birth pain. 

Left their traces on heart and brain. 

And oft, when the summer sun shone hot 
On the new-mown hay in the meadow lot, 

And she heard the little spring brook fall 
Over the road side, through the wall. 

In the shade of the apple-tree again 
She saw a rider draw his rein. 

And, gazing down with timid grace. 

She felt his pleased eyes read her face. 

Sometimes her narrow kitchen walls 
Stretched away into stately halls; 

The weary wheel to a spinnet turned. 

The tallow candle an astral burned. 

And for him who sat by the chimney lug. 
Dozing and grumbling o’er pipe and mug, 

A manly form at her side she saw. 

And joy was duty and love was law. 

Then she took up her burden of life again, 
Saying only, “ It might have been.” 

Alas for maiden, alas for Judge, 

For rich repiner and household drudge! 


OFT, IN THE STILLY NIGHT. 

Oft in the stilly night. 

Ere slumber’s chain has bound me, 
Fond memory brings the light 
Of other days around me; 

The smiles, the tears, 

Of boyhood’s years. 

The words of love then spoken; 

The eyes that shone, 

Now dimm’d and gone, 

The cheerful hearts now broken! 

Thus, in the stilly night. 

Ere slumber’s chain has bound me. 

Sad memory brings the light 
Of other days around me. 

When I rememborall 
The friends solinked together, 

I’ve seen around me fall. 

Like leaves in wintry weather; 

I feel like one, 

Who treads alone 
Some banquet hall deserted. 

Whose lights are fled. 

Whose garlands dead. 

And all but he departed! 

Thus, in the stilly night. 

Ere slumber’s chain has bound m«. 

Sad memory brings the light 
Of other days around me. 

—Thomas Mooeb. 

HEREAFTER. 

0 land beyond the setting sun! 

0 realm more fair than poet’s dream! 

How clear thy silvery streamlets run, 

How bright thy golden glories gleam! 

Earth holds no counterpart of thine, 

The dark-browed Orient, jewel-crowned. 

Pales as she bows before thy shrine. 

Shrouded in mystery so profound. 

The dazzling North, the stately West, 

Whose rivers flow from mount to sea; 

The South, flower-wreathed in languid rest— 
What are they all compared with thee? 

All lands, all realms beneath yon dome. 

Where God’s own hand hath hung the stan. 
To thee with humblest homage come, 

0 world beyond the crystal bars! 

Thou blest hereafter! Mortal tongue 
Hath striven in vain thy speech to learn. 

And fancy wanders, lost among 
The flowery paths for which we yearn. 

But well we know that, fair and bright. 

Far beyond human ken or dream. 

Too glorious for our feeble sight. 

Thy skies of cloudless azure beam. 
































CHOICE POEMS. 



We know thy happy valleys lie 
In green repose, supremely blest; 
We know against thy sapphire sky 
Thy mountain peaks sublimely rest. 



The leaves of the oak and the willow shall fade, 

Be scattered around and together be laid; 

And the young and the old, and the low and the high. 
Shall molder to dust, and together shall lie. 


And sometimes even now we catch 
Faint gleamings from the far-off shore. 
And still with eager eyes we watch 
For one sweet sign or token more. 

For oh, the deeply loved are there! 

The brave, the fair, the good, the wise. 
Who pined for thy serener air. 

Nor shunned thy solemn mysteries. 

There are the hopes that, one by one. 

Died even as we gave them birth; 

The dreams that passed ere well begun, 
Too dear, too beautiful for earth. 

The aspirations, strong of wing. 

Aiming at heights we could not reach; 
The songs we tried in vain to sing; 
Thoughts too vast for human speech; 

Thou hast them all, Hereafter! Thou 
Shalt keep them safely till that hour 
When, with God's seal on heart and brow. 
We claim them in immortal power! 


The infant a mother attended and loved, 

The mother that infant's affection who proved. 

The husband that mother and infant who blessed, 

Each, all, are away to their dwellings of rest. 

The maid on whose cheek, on whose brow, in whose eye, 
Shone beauty and pleasure—her triumphs are by; 

And the memory of those who loved her and praised; 

Are alike from the minds of the living erased. 

The hand of the king that the sceptre hath borne. 

The brow of the priest that the mitre hath worn. 

The eye of the sage and the heart of the brave. 

Are hidden and lost in the depth of the grave. 

The peasant, whose lot was to sow and to reap, 

The herdsman, who climbed with his goats up the steep. 
The beggar, who wandered in search of his bread, 

Have faded away like the grass that we tread. 

The saint who enjoyed the communion of Heaven, 

The sinner who dared to remain unforgiven, 

The wise and the foolish, the guilty and just, 

Have quietly mingled their bones in the dust. 


CHANGES. 

Whom first we love, you know, we seldom wed. 

Time rules us all. And life, indeed, is not 
The thing we planned it out, ere hope was dead; 

And then, we women cannot choose our lot. 

Much must be borne which it is hard to bear; 

Much given away which it were sweet to keep. 

God help us all! who need, indeed, His care; 

And yet, I know, the Shepherd loves His sheep. 

My little boy begins to babble now. 

Upon my knee, his earliest infant prayer; 

He has his father’s eager eyes, I know; 

And, they say, too, his mother’s sunny hair. 

But when he sleeps, and smiles upon my knee, 

And I can feel his light breath come and go, 

I think of one (Heaven help and pity me!) 

Who loved me, and whom I loved, long ago. 

Who might have been * * * ah! what, I dare not 
think! 

We are all changed. God judges for us best. 

God help us do our duty, and not shrink, 

And trust in Heaven humbly for the rest. 

But blame us women not, if some appear 

Too cold at times; and some too gay and light. 

Some griefs gnaw deep. Some woes are hard to bear. 
Who knows the past, and who can judge us right? 

Ah! were we judged by what we might have been, 

And not by what we are—too apt to fall! 

My little child—he sleeps and smiles between 

These thoughts and me. In heaven we shall know all. 


So the multitude goes, like the flowers or the weed 
That withers away to let others succeed; 

So the multitude comes, even those we behold. 

To repeat every tale that has often been told. 

For we are the same our fathers have been; 

We see the same sights our fathers have seen,— 

We drink the same stream and view the same sun. 

And run the same course our fathers have run. 

The thoughts we are thinking our fathers would think. 
From the death we are shrinking our fathers would shrink, 
To the life we are clinging they also would cling; 

But it speeds for us all, like a bird on the wing. 

They loved, but the story we cannot unfold; 

They scorned, but the heart of the haughty is cold; 

They grieved, but no wail from their slumbers will come; 
They joyed, but the tongue of their gladness is dumb. 

They died, aye! they died; and we things that are now. 
Who walk on the turf that lies over their brow. 

Who make in their dwellings a transient abode. 

Meet the things that they met on their pilgrimage road. 

Yea! hope and despondency, pleasure and pain. 

We mingle together in sunshine and rain; 

And the smiles and the tears, the song and the dirge 
Still follow each other, like surge upon surge. 

'Tis the wink of an eye, 'tis the draught of a breath; 

From the blossom of health to the paleness of death. 
From the gilded saloon to the bier and the shroud,— 

Oh, why should the spirit of mortal be proud? 


OH, WHY SHOULD THE SPIRIT OF MORTAL BE 

PROUD ? 

ABRAHAM LINCOLN’S FAVORITE POEM. BY WILLIAM KHOX. 

Oh, why should the spirit of mortal be proud? 

Like a swift-fleeting meteor, a fast-flying cloud, 

A flash of the lightning, a break of the wave, 

Man passes from life to his rest in the grave. 


'TIS THE LAST ROSE OF SUMMER. 

'Tis the last rose of summer. 

Left blooming alone; 

All her lovely companions 
Are faded and gone; 

No flower of her kindred 
No rosebud is nigh 
To reflect back her blushes. 

Or give sigh for sigh. 




































CHOICE POEMS. 


137 


I'll not leave thee, thou lone one! 

To pine on the stem; 

Since the lovely are sleeping. 

Go sleep thou with them. 

Thus kindly I scatter 
Thy leaves o’er the bed 
Where thy mates of the garden 
Lie scentless and dead. 



But to look upon them proudly, with a calm and stead¬ 
fast eye, 

For her brother was a soldier too, and not afraid to die; 
And if a comrade seek her love, I ask her in my name 
To listen to him kindly, without regret or shame; 

And to hang the old sword in its place, my father’s sword 
and mine. 

For the honor of old Bingen—dear Bingen on the Rhine! 


So soon may I follow, 

When friendships decay, 

And from love’s shining circle 
The gems drop away. 

When true hearts lie wither’d, 

And fond ones are flown. 

Oh, who would inhabit 
This bleak world alone? 

—Thomas Moore. 


BINGEN" ON THE RHINE. 


“ There’s another, not a sister; in the happy days gone by. 

You’d have known her by the merriment that sparkled in 
her eye; 

Too innocent for coquetry, too fond for idle scorning; 

0 friend! I fear the lightest heart makes sometimes 
heaviest mourning. 

Tell her the last night of my life (for ere this moon be 
risen. 

My body will be out of pain, my soul be out of prison, 

I dreamed I stood with her, and saw the yellow sunlight 
shine 

On the vine-clad hills of Bingen — fair Bingen on the 
Rhine! 


BY CAROLINE E. NORTON. 

A soldier of the Legion lay dying in Algiers: 

There was lack of woman’s nursing, there was dearth of 
woman’s tears; 

But a comrade stood beside him, while his life blood ebbed 
away. 

And bent with pitying glances, to hear what he might 
say. 

The dying soldier faltered, as he took that comrade’s 
hand, 

And he said, “ I never more shall see my own, my native 
land. 

Take a message and a token to some distant friends of 
mine; 

For I was born at Bingen—at Bingen on the Rhine! 

“Tell my brothers and companions, when they meet and 
crowd around. 

To hear my mournful story, in the pleasant vineyard 
ground. 

That we fought the battle bravely ; and when the day was 
done. 

Full many a corpse lay ghastly pale beneath the setting sun. 

And midst the dead and dying were some grown old in 
war, 

The death-wounds on their gallant breasts the last of 
many scars; 

But some were young, and suddenly beheld life’s morn 
decline; 

And one had come from Bingen — fair Bingen on the 
Rhine! 

“Tell my mother that her other sons shall comfort her 
old age, 

For I was still a truant bird that thought his home a cage; 

For my father was a soldier, and even as a child 

My heart leaped forth to hear him tell of struggles fierce 
and wild; 

And when he died, and left us to divide his scanty hoard, 

I let them take whate’er they would—but kept my father’s 
sword; 

And with boyish love I hung it, where the bright light 
used to shine 

On the cottage wall at Bingen—calm Bingen on the 
Rhine. 

“ Tell my sister not to weep for me, and sob with drooping 
head. 

When the troops come marching home again, with glad 
and gallant tread; 


“ I saw the blue Rhine sweep along; I heard, or seemed to 
hear, 

The German songs we used to sing, in chorus sweet and 
clear; 

And down the pleasant river, and up the slanting hill. 

The echoing chorus sounded, through the evening calm 
and still; 

And her glad blue eyes were on me, as we passed, with 
friendly talk, 

Down many a path beloved of yore, and well-remembered 
walk; 

And her little hand lay lightly, confidingly in mine; 

But we’ll meet no more at Bingen—loved Bingen on the 
Rhine!” 

His voice grew faint and hoarse—his'grasp was childish 
weak; 

His eyes put on a dying look—he sighed, and ceased to 
speak; 

His comrade bent to lift him, but the spark of life had 
fled; 

The soldier of the Legion in a foreign land was dead! 

And the soft moon rose up slowly, and calmly she looked 
down 

On the red sand of the battle-field, with bloody corpses 
strown. 

Yes, calmly on that dreadful scene her pale light seemed 
to shine, 

As it shone on distant Bingen — fair Bingen on the 
Rhine! 

“’OSTLER JOE.” 

I stood at eve as the sun went down, by a grave where a 
woman lies. 

Who lured men’s souls to the shores of sin with the light 
of her wanton eyes; 

Who sang the song that the siren sang on the treacherous 
Lurley height. 

Whose face was as fair as a summer day, and whose heart 
was as black as night. 

Yet a blossom I fain would pluck to-day from the garden 
above her dust— 

Not the languorous lily of soulless sin, nor the blood-red 
rose of lust. 

But a sweet white blossom of holy love that grew in the 
one green spot 

In the arid desert of Phryne’s life, where all was parched 
and hot. 
























138 


CHOICE POEMS. 



Iii the summer, when the meadows were aglow with blue 
and red, 

Joe, the ’ostler of the Magpie, and fair Annie Smith were 
wed. 

Plump was Annie, plump and pretty, with a cheek as 
white as snow; 

He was anything but handsome, was the Magpie’s ’Ostler 
Joe. 

But he Avon the Avinsome lassie. They’d a cottage and a 
cow. 

And her matronhood sat lightly on the village beauty’s 
broAV, 

Sped the months and came a baby—such a blue-eyed baby 
boy! 

Joe was working in the stables when they told him of his 

joy- 

He was rubbing down the horses, and he gave them then 
and there 

Alla special feed of clover, just in honor of the heir. 

It had been his great ambition, and he told the horses so, 

That the Fates would send a baby who might bear the name 
of Joe. 



“Now, 0 Lord, 0 God, forgive her, for she ain’t to blame,” 
he cried; 

“For IoAvt t’a seen her trouble, and ’a gone away and 
died. 

Why, a wench like her—God bless her !—’twasn’t likely as 
her’d rest 

With her bonny head forever on a ’ostler’s ragged vest. 

“ It was kind o’ her to bear me all this long and happy 
time; 

So, for my sake please to bless her, though you count her 
deed a crime. 

If so be I don’t pray proper, Lord, forgive me; for you see, 

I can talk all right to ’osses, but I’m nervous like with 
Thee.” 

Never a line came to the cottage from the woman who had 
flown. 

Joe, the baby, died that Avinter, and the man was left 
alone. 

Ne’er a bitter Avord he uttered, but in silence kissed the 
rod. 

Saving what he told the horses, saving what he told his 
God. 


Little Joe the child was christened, and, like babies, grew 
apace; 

He’d his mother’s eyes of azure, and his father’s honest 
face. 

Swift the happy years Avent over, years of blue and cloud¬ 
less sky, 

Love was lord of that small cottage, and the tempest 
passed them by. 

Passed them by for years, then swiftly burst in fury o’er 
their home. 

Down the lane by Annie’s cottage chanced a gentleman to 
roam; 

Thrice he came and saw her sitting by the Avindow with 
her child, 

And he nodded to the baby, and the baby laughed and 
smiled. 

So at last it grew to know him—Little Joe was nearly 
four; 

He Avould call the “pretty gemplin ” as he passed the open 
door; 

And one day he ran and caught him, and in child’s play 
pulled him in; 

And the baby Joe had prayed for brought about the 
mother’s sin. 

’Twas the same old wretched story, that for ages bards 
have sung, 

’Twas a woman weak and wanton, and a villain’s tempting 
tongue; 

’Twas a picture deftly painted for a silly creature’s eyes 

Of the Babylonian Avonders, and the joy that in them lies. 

Annie listened and was tempted; she was tempted and she 
fell, 

As the angels fell from heaven to the blackest depths of 
hell; 

She was promised wealth and splendor, and a life of guilty 
sloth, 

Yellow gold for child and husband, and the woman left 
them both. 

Home one eve came Joe the ’Ostler with a cheery cry of 
“Wife !” 

Finding that which blurred forever all the story of his life. 

She had left a silly letter—through the cruel scrawl he 
spelt; 

Then he sought the lonely bedroom, joined his hands and 
knelt. 


Far away in mighty London rose the woman into fame, 

For her beauty won men’s homage, and she prospered in 
her shame; 

Quick from lord to lord she flitted, higher still each prize 
she won, 

And her rival paled beside her as the stars beside the sun. 

Next she made the stage her market, and she dragged Art’s 
temple down. 

To the level of a show-place for the outcasts of the town. 

And the kisses she had given to poor ’Ostler Joe for nought 

With their gold and costly jewels rich and titled lovers 
bought. 

Went the years Avith flying footsteps while the star was at 
its height; 

Then the darkness came on swiftly, and the gloaming 
turned to night. 

Shattered strength and faded beauty tore the laurels from 
her brow; 

Of the thousands who had worshiped never one came near 
her now. 

Broken doAvn in health and fortune, men forgot her very 
name, 

’Till the news that she Avas dying woke the echoes of her 
fame; 

And the papers in their gossip mentioned how an “actress” 
lay 

Sick to death in humble lodgings, growing weaker every 
day. 

One there was who read the story in a far-off country 
place, 

And that night the dying woman woke and looked upon 
his face; 

Once again the strong arms clasped her that had clasped 
her long ago, 

And the weary head lay pillowed on the breast of ’Ostler Joe. 

All the past had he forgotten, all the sorrow and the 
shame; 

He had found her sick and lonely, and his wife he now 
could claim. 

Since the grand folks Avho had known her one and all had 
slunk aAvay, 

He could clasp his long-lost darling, and no man can say 
him nay. 

In his arms death found her laying, in his arms her spirit 
fled; 




































CHOICE POEMS. 


139 


And his tears came down in torrents as he knelt beside her 
dead. 

Never once his love had faltered through her base unhal¬ 
lowed life; 

And the stone above her ashes bears the honored name of 
wife. 

That’s the blossom I fain would pluck to-day from the gar¬ 
den above her dust; 

Not the languorous lily of soulless sin or the blood-red rose 
of lust; 

But a sweet, white blossom of holy love that grew in the 
one green spot 

In the arid desert of Phryne’s life where all was parched 
and hot. George R. Sims. 

THE MURDERER. 

[AN UNPUBLISHED POEM BY EDGAR ALLEN POE.] 

Ye glittering stars ! how fair ye shine to-night. 

And 0, thou beauteous moon ! thy fairy light 
Is peeping thro’ those iron bars so near me. 

How silent is the night—how clear and bright! 

I nothing hear, nor aught there is to hear me. 

Shunned by all, as if the world did fear me; 

Alone in chains ! Ah, me ! the cursed spell 
That brought me here. Heaven could not cheer me 
Within these walls—within this dark cold cell. 

This gloomy, dreary, solitary hell. 

And thou, so slow, 0 Time ! so passing slow ; 

Keeping my soul in bondage, in this woe 
So torturing—this uncontrollable pain ; 

Was I to blame ? I was they say. Then so 
Be it. Will this deep, sanguinary stain 
Of my dark crime forever haunt my brain ? 

Must I live here and never, never hear 
The sweetness of a friendly voice again ? 

Must I this torture feel year after year ? 

Live, die in hell, and Paradise so near ? 

Am I dead to Thee, 0 Christ ? Thou who sought 
The prisoner in his lonely cell; taught 
Him to feel the enchantment of Thy love— 

Am I dead to Thee ? Canst Thou not be brought 
By prayer from Thy celestial throne above 
Into this darkened cell ? Dost thou, too, reprove 
My soul ? Thou, too, doom it to endless misery ! 

Am I so hardened that I cannot move 
The divine, forgiving love in Thee ? 

Canst Thou be Christ and have no love for me ? 

What ! lost am I ? ne’er will I feel the bliss 
Of heaven ? Ne’er feel the joys above this 
World of sin ? What! never ? Is my destiny 
Hell ? Into that dark, fathomless abyss 
Of sin and crime ? Into that misery 
Eternal ? Into that unquenchable sea 
Of fire ? Is there my future—is it there ? 

Ah ! it comes before my eyes. See ! see ! Ye 
Infernal fiends! Why come ye here. How dare 
Ye come ? Away ! mock me not with your stare ! 

Away ye fiends ! Why at me now ? Am I 
Not hardened yet ? Am I not fit for hell ? Why 
Test me again P 0 horrors, hear the groans 
Of tortured victims! Ah ! see them lie 
Bleeding and in chains ! Hear the mocking moans 
Of the madden’d demons, in deep, wild tones ! 

See them hurl their victims into the hot mire! 

Now see the devils dance ! What! are they stones? 

Have they no hearts, no love, no kind desire ? 

Fearfully reveling ’midst Jehovah’s fire ! 


Cries, cries ! horrible cries assail my ears ! 

I see her ! My murdered victim now appears 
Before me! Hear her pleading for mercy; 

Ah ! see her stare, with eyes swollen with tears; 

Horrors ! see her white arms outstretched to me, 

Begging for life ! 0 woe ! 0 misery ! 

Take me demons ! take me out of this cell; 

Satan, I’m thine ! Hear, hear, I call on thee ; 

Torture me—rack me with the pains of hell; 

Do what thou wilt, but break this madd’ning spell. 

Listen ! What’s that ? My soul, they come, they come! 
The demons come to take thee to thy home ! 

See, see! No, no! 0 heavens ! What brought this 
Pale skeleton here ! Speak! speak ! What! dumb ? 

And has thou naught to say ? What is thy office ? 

Away, fiend ! What! move not for me ! What is 
Thy want? Speak, devil, speak ! Come, come, unsheath 
Thy tongue. Com’st thou from the dark abyss 
Of sin ? Hold, hold ! I know thee—my breath ! 

Ha ! ha! I know thee now—’tis Death ! ’tis Death ! 

TWENTY YEARS AGO. 

I’ve wandered to the village, Tom; I’ve sat beneath the 
tree, 

Upon the school-house play-ground, that sheltered you 
and me, 

But none were left to greet me, Tom, and few were left to 
know. 

Who played with us upon the green, some twenty years 
ago. 

The grass is just as green, Tom; barefooted boys at play 
Were sporting, just as we did then, with spirits just as 
gay, 

But the “ master” sleeps upon the hill, which, coated o’er 
with snow, 

Afforded us a sliding-place, some twenty years ago. 

The old school-house is altered now ; the benches are re¬ 
placed 

By new ones, very like the same our penknives once de¬ 
faced ; 

But the same old bricks are in the wall, the bell swings to 
and fro 

Its music’s just the same, dear Tom, ’twas twenty years 
ago. 

The boys were playing some old game, beneath that same 
old tree; 

I have forgot the name just now—you’ve played the same 
with me. 

On that same spot; ’twas played with knives, by throwing 
so and so; 

The loser had a task to do—there, twenty years ago. 

The river’s running just as still ; the willows on its side 
Are larger than they were, Tom ; the stream appears less 
wide; 

But the grape-vine swing is ruined now, where once we 
played the beau, 

And swung our sweethearts—pretty girls—just twenty 
years ago. 

The spring that bubbled ’neath the hill, close by the 
spreading beach, 

Is very low—’twas then so high that we could scarcely 
reach; 

And kneeling down to get a drink, dear Tom, I started so, 
To see how sadly I am changed, since twenty years ago. 
Near by that spring, upon an elm, you know I cut your 
name, 

Your sweetheart’s just beneath it, Tom, and you did mine 
the same. 





















140 


CHOICE POEMS. 


Some heartless wretch has peeled the bark, ’twas dying 
sure but slow, 

Just as she died, whose name you cut some twenty years 
ago. 

My lids have long been dry, Tom, but tears came to my 
eyes; 

I thought of her I loved so well, those early broken ties; 

I visited the old church-yard, and took some flowers to 
strow 

Upon the graves of those we loved, some twenty years ago. 

Some are in the church-yard laid, some sleep beneath the 


sea; 


But few are left of our own old class, excepting you and 


me; 


And when our time shall come, Tom, and we are called to 
go, 

I hope they’ll lay us where we played, just twenty years 
ago. 



Eagerly I wished the morrow—vainly I had tried to bor¬ 
row 

From my books surcease of sorrow—sorrow for the lost 
Lenore— 

For the rare and radiant maiden whom the angels named 
Lenore, 

Nameless here forevermore. 

And the silken, sad, uncertain rustling of each purple 
curtain 

Thrilled me—filled me with fantastic terrors never felt 
before; 

So that now, to still the beating of my heart, I stood 
repeating, 

“’Tis some visitor entreating entrance at my chamber 
door. 

Some late visitor entreating entrance at my chamber 
door; 

This it is and nothing more.” 


THE OLD OAKEN BUCKET. 

BY SAMUEL WOODWORTH. 

How dear to this heart are the scenes of my childhood, 
When fond recollection presents them to view ! 

The orchard, the meadow, the deep-tangled wildwood, 
And every loved spot which my infancy knew! 

The wide-spreading pond, and the mill that stood by it; 
The bridge, and the rock where the cataract fell; 

The cot of my father, the dairy-house nigh it. 

And e’en the rude bucket that hung in the well: 

The old oaken bucket, the iron-bound bucket, 

The moss-covered bucket which hung in the well. 

That moss-covered vessel I hailed as a treasure; 

For often at noon, when returned from the field 

I found it the source of an exquisite pleasure, 

The purest and sweetest that nature can yield. 

How ardent I seized it with hands that were glowing, 

And quick to the white-pebbled bottom it fell! 

Then soon, with the emblem of truth overflowing, 

And dripping with coolness, it rose from the well: 

The old oaken bucket, the iron-bound bucket. 

The moss-covered bucket, arose from the well. 

How sweet from the green, mossy brim to receive it; 

As, poised on the curb, it inclined to my lips! 

Not a full, blushing goblet could tempt me to leave it 
The brightest that beauty or revelry sips. 

And now far removed from the loved habitation, 

The tear of regret will intrusively swell, 

As fancy reverts to my father’s plantation. 

And sighs for the bucket that hangs in the well: 

The old oaken bucket, the iron-bound bucket. 

The moss-covered bucket that hangs in the well. 

THE KAVEN. 

Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered weak and 
weary, 

Over many a quaint and curious volume of forgotten 
lore; 

While I nodded, nearly napping, suddenly there came a 
tapping, 

As of some one gently rapping, rapping at my chamber 
door. 

“ ’Tis some visitor,” I muttered, “ tapping at my chamber 
door— 

Only this, and nothing more.” 

Ah, distinctly I remember it was in the bleak December, 

And each separate dying ember wrought its ghost upon 
the floor. 


Presently my soul grew stronger; hesitating then no 
longer, 

“ Sir,” said I, “or Madam, truly your forgiveness I im¬ 
plore; 

But the fact is I was napping, and so gently you came 
rapping, 

And so faintly you came tapping, tapping at my chamber 
door. 

That I scarce was sure I heard you:” here I opened wide 
the door. 

Darkness there and nothing more. 

Deep into that darkness peering, long I stood there won¬ 
dering, fearing, 

Doubting, dreaming dreams no mortal ever dared to dream 
before; 

But the silence was unbroken, and the stillness gave no 

token. 

And the only word there spoken was the whispered word, 
“Lenore! ” 

Merely this and nothing more. 

Back into the chamber turning, all my soul within me 
burning, 

Soon again I heard a tapping, somewhat louder than before. 

“Surely,” said I, “surely that is something at my widow- 
lattice; 

Let me see, then, what thereat is, and this mystery 
explore. 

Let my heart be still a moment, and this mystery explore; 

’Tis the wind and nothing more! 

Open here I flung the shutter, when, with many a flirt and 

flutter. 

In there stepped a stately raven of the saintly days of yore. 

Not the least obeisance made he; not an instant stopped 
or stayed he; 

But with mien of lord or lady, perched above my chamber 
door— 

Perched upon a bust of Pallas, just above my chamber 
door— 

Perched, and sat, and nothing more. 

Then this ebony bird beguiling my sad fancy into smiling, 

By the grave and stern decorum of the countenance it 
wore, 

“Though thy crest be shorn and shaven, thou,” I said, 
“art sure no craven, 

Ghastly, grim and ancient raven, wandering from the 
nightly shore, 

Tell me what thy lordly name is on the Night’3 Plutonian 
shore.” 

Quoth the raven, “Nevermore.” 




































CHOICE POEMS. 


141 


Much I marveled this ungainly fowl to hear discourse so 
plainly, 

Though its answer little meaning—little relevancy bore; 

For we cannot help agreeing, that no living human being 

Ever yet was blessed with seeing bird above his chamber 
door— 

Bird or beast upon the sculptured bust above his chamber 
door, 

With such name as “Nevermore/' 

But the raven, sitting lonely on the placid bust, spoke only 

That one word, as if his soul in that one word he did out¬ 
pour. 

Nothing further then he muttered; not a feather then he 
fluttered— 

Till I scarcely more than muttered, “Other friends have 
flown before; 

On the morrow he will leave me, as my hopes have flown 
before/’ 

Then the bird said, “Nevermore.” 

Startled at the stillness broken by reply so aptly spoken, 

“Doubtless,” said I, “what it utters is its only stock and 
store. 

Caught from some unhappy master whom unmerciful dis¬ 
aster 

Followed fast and followed faster till his song one burden 
bore— 

Till the dirges of his hope that melancholy burden bore— 

Of ‘Never—Nevermore.’” 

But the raven, still beguiling all my sad soul into smiling, 

Straight I wheeled a cushioned seat in front of bird, and 
bust, and door; 

Then, upon the velvet sinking, I betook myself to linking 

Fancy into fancy, thinking what this ominous bird of yore 
Meant in croaking “Nevermore.” 

This I sat engaged in guessing, but no syllable expressing 

To the fowl whose fiery eyes now burned into my bosom’s 
core; 

This and more I sat divining, with my head at ease reclin¬ 
ing 

On the cushion’s velvet lining that the lamplight gloated 
o’er— 

She shall press, ah, nevermore! 

Then, methought the air grew denser, perfumed from an 
unseen censer, 

Swung by seraphim whose footfalls tinkled on the tufted 
floor. 

“Wretch,” I cried, “thy God hath lent thee—by these 
angels he hath sent thee 

Respite — respite and nepenthe from thy memories of 
Lenore! 

Quaff, oh quaff this kind nepenthe, and forget this lost 
Lenore!” 

Quoth the raven, “ Nevermore.” 

“Prophet!” said I, “ thing of evil, prophet still, if bird 
or devil! 

Whether Tempter sent, or whether tempest tossed thee 
here ashore, 

Desolate, yet all undaunted, on this desert land en¬ 
chanted— 

On this home by Horror haunted—tell me truly, I im¬ 
plore — 

Is there—is there balm in Gilead? Tell me, tell me, I 
implore!” 

Quoth the raven, “Nevermore.” 

“Prophet!” said I, “thing of evil, prophet still, if bird 
or devil! 


By that heaven that bends above us—by that God we both 
adore— 

Tell this soul with sorrow laden if, within the distant 
Aiden, 

It shall clasp a sainted maiden whom the angels name 
Lenore— 

Clasp a rare and radiant maiden whom the angels name 
Lenore?” 

Quoth the raven, “Nevermore.” 

“Be that word our sign of parting, bird or fiend!” I 
shrieked, upstarting— 

“ Get thee back into the tempest and the Night’s Plu¬ 
tonian shore! 

Leave no black plume as a token of that lie thy soul hath 
spoken! 

Leave my loneliness unbroken! Quit the bust above my 
door! 

Take thy beak from out my heart, and take thy form from 
off my door!” 

Quoth the raven, “ Nevermore.” 

And the raven, never flitting, still is sitting, still is 
sitting, 

On the pallid bust of Pallas, just above my chamber- 
door ; 

And his eyes have all the seeming of a demon’s that is 
dreaming, 

And the lamplight o’er him streaming throws his shadow 
on the floor. 

And my soul from out that shadow that lies floating on 
the floor, 

Shall be lifted, nevermore. 

—Edgar Allan Poe. 


ROCK ME TO SLEEP. 

Backward, turn backward, 0 Time, in your flight, 
Make me a child again just for to-night! 

Mother, come back from the echoless shore. 

Take me again to your heart as of yore. 

Kiss from my forehead the furrows of care, 
Smooth the few silver threads out of my hair; 
Over my slumbers your loving watch keep ; 

Rock me to sleep, mother,—rock me to sleep ! 

Backward, flow backward, 0 tide of the years ! 

I am so weary of toil and of tears,— 

Toil without recompense, tears all in vain,— 

Take them, and give me my childhood again ! 

I have grown weary of dust and decay,— 

Weary of flinging my soul-wealth away ; 

Weary of sowing for others to reap ; 

Rock me to sleep, mother,—rock me to sleep ! 

Tired of the hollow, the base, the untrue, 

Mother ! 0 mother ! my heart calls for you ! 

Many a summer the grass has grown green. 
Blossomed, and faded our faces between, 

Yet with strong yearning and passionate pain 
Long I to-night for your presence again. 

Come from the silence so long and so deep;— 
Rock me to sleep, mother,—rock me to sleep ! 

Over my heart in the days that are flown. 

No love like mother-love ever has shone ; 

No other worship abides and endures,— 

Faithful, unselfish, and patient like yours; 

None like a mother can charm away pain 
From the sick soul and the world-weary brain. 
Slumber’s soft calms o’er my heavy lids creep ;— 
Rock me to sleep, mother,—rock me to sleep ! 


































CHOICE POEMS. 



Come, let your brown hair, just lighted with gold, 
Fall on your shoulders again as of old; 

Let it drop over my forehead to-night. 

Shading my faint eyes away from the light; 

For with its sunny edged shadows once more 
Haply will throng the sweet visions of yore; 
Lovingly, softly, its bright billows sweep ;— 

Rock me to sleep, mother,—rock me to sleep ! 

Mother, dear mother, the years have been long 
Since I last listen’d your lullaby song; 

Sing, then, and unto my soul it shall seem 
"Womanhood’s years have been only a dream. 
Clasped to your heart in a loving embrace. 

With your light lashes just sweeping my face. 
Never hereafter to wake or to weep ; 

Rock me to sleep, mother,—rock me to sleep. 

E. A. Allen. 

MAID OF ATHENS. 

Maid of Athens, ere we part, 

Give, oh, give me back my heart! 

Or, since that has left my breast. 

Keep it now and take the rest! 

Hear my vow before I go. 

My life, I love you. 

By those tresses unconfined. 

Wooed by each Egean wind; 

By those lids whose jetty fringe 
Kiss thy soft cheeks’ blooming tinge; 

By those wild eyes like the roe, 

My life, I love you. 

By that lip I long to taste. 

By that zone-encircled waist; 

By all the token-flowers that tell 
What words can never speak so well; 

By love’s alternate joy and woe, 

My life, I love you. 

Maid of Athens, I am gone; 

Think of me, sweet! when alone,— 
Though I fly to Istambol, 

- Athens holds my heart and soul; 

Can I cease to love thee? No! 

My life I love you. 

—Lord Byron. 


Familiar Quotations 

The following selection of epigrams, proverbs, “ wise 
saws,” and original conceptions include some of the 
brilliant passages of standard authors — gleams of sun¬ 
light which here and there flash through the foliage of 
thought — as well as many gems of anonymous origin. 
They will be found not only full of entertainment and in¬ 
struction, but useful where a pertinent quotation is re¬ 
quired to illustrate ideas either in speech or writing. 

WORDS OF WIT AND WISDOM. 

’Tis strange the miser should his care employ. 

To gain those riches he can ne’er enjoy.— Pope. 

If you would not have affliction visit you twice, listen 
at once to what it teaches. 

Some sort of charity will swallow the egg and give away 
the shell. 

A word of kindness is seldom spoken in vain. It is a 
seed which, even when dropped by chance, springs up a 
flower. 


Mean souls, like mean pictures, are often found in good- 
looking frames. 

A child is eager to have any toy he sees, but throws it 
away at the sight of another, and is equally eager to have 
that. We are most of us children through life, and 
only change one toy for another from the cradle to the 
grave. 

Learning is wealth to the poor, an honor to the rich, 
an aid to the young, and a support and comfort to the 
aged. 

Love is the strongest holdfast in the world; it is 
stronger than death. 

Hope and fear, peace and strife, 

Make up the troubled web of life. 

False friendship, like the ivy, decays and ruins the wall 
it embraces; but true friendship gives new life and anima¬ 
tion to the object it supports.— Burton. 

A man who hoards riches and enjoys them not is like 
the ass which carries gold yet eats thistles. 

People should remember that it is only great souls that 
know how much glory there is in doing good. 

Happiness is a perfume that one can not shed over 
another without a few drops falling upon himself. 

With love the heart becomes a fair and fertile garden, 
glowing with sunshine and warm hues, and exhaling 
sweet odors; but without it, it is a bleak desert covered 
with ashes. 

Prosperity is no just scale, adversity is the only true 
balance to weigh friends. 

To discover what is true, and to practice what is good, 
are the two most important objects of life. 

Life has its hours of bitterness. 

Its joys, its hopes and fears; 

Our way is sometimes wreathed with smiles, 

And then baptized with tears. 

Prosperity is not without its trouble, nor adversity 
without its comfort. 

As riches and favor forsake a man we discover him to be 
a fool, but nobody could find it out in his prosperity.— 

Bruyere. 

Troubles are like babies—they only grow bigger by 
nursing. 

You can not injure anyone by elevating poor fallen hu¬ 
manity. It is the noblest work man can engage in, not 
only to elevate himself but to elevate others. 

Happiness is a butterfly, which, when pursued, is always 
just beyond your grasp, but which, if you will sit down 
quietly, may come and alight on you. 

Purchase not friends with gifts; when thou ceasest to 
give, such will cease to love.— Fuller. 

By humility, and the fear of the Lord, are riches, and 
honor and life.— Proverbs. 

Life appears to be too short to be spent in nursing ani¬ 
mosities or registering wrongs. 

If thou wouldst be borne with, bear with others.— Ful¬ 
ler. 

Ladies who have a disposition to punish their husbands 
should recollect that a little warm sunshine will melt an 
icicle much sooner than a regular northeaster. 

A wise man knows his own ignorance; a fool thinks he 
knows everything. 

Cyrus, the conqueror of Babylon, of whom we read in 
the Bible, was once asked what was the first thing he 
learned. “ To tell the truth,” was the reply. 

Every man can and should do something for the public, 
if it be only to kick a piece of orange-peel into the road 
from the pavement. 

A rich man who is not liberal resembles a tree without 
fruit. 



























FAMILIAR QUOTATIONS. 


143 


Iiow brightly do little joys beam upon a soul which 
stands on a ground darkened by clouds of sorrow! So do 
stars come forth from the empty sky when we look up to 
them from a deep well. 

It it not going into the furnace, but the coming out, 
which demonstrates the metal. 

Indulging in _ dangerous pleasures, saith a Burmese 
proverb, is like licking honey from a knife and cutting 
the tongue with the edge. 

There are more poor willing to give charity from their 
necessity than rich from their superfluities. 

Wealth does not always improve us. A man as he gets 
to be worth more may become worth-less. 

The greatest friend of truth is time, her greatest enemy 
prejudice, and her constant companion is humility.— Col¬ 
ton. 

Beauty unaccompanied by virtue is a flower without 
perfume. 

Virtue, like a dowerless beauty, has more admirers than 
followers. 

Never trouble trouble till trouble troubles you. 

Whoso hath this world’s goods, and seeth his brother 
have need, and shutteth up his bowels of compassion from 
him, how dwelleth the love of God in him. —1 John. 

Every good deed is a benefit to the doer as sure as to the 
receiver. 

We should value affliction as we do physic—not by its 
taste, but by its effects. 

He that giveth unto the poor shall not lack, but he that 
hideth his eyes shall have many a curse.— Proverbs. 

Most of the shadows that cross our pathway through 
life are caused by our standing in our own way. 

Avarice is like a graveyard; it takes all that it can get 
and gives nothing back. 

It is not wealth, but wisdom, that makes a man rich. 

Virtue, like a rich stone, looks best when plainest set. 

The duties and burdens of life should be met with cour¬ 
age and determination. No one has a right to be a wart 
on the fair face of nature, doing nothing useful, produc¬ 
ing nothing of utility or value. It is a gross and fatal 
error to suppose that life is to be enjoyed in idleness. It 
can never be. 

If a man be gracious to strangers, it shows he is a citi¬ 
zen of the world, and that his heart is no island cut off 
from the other lands, but a continent that joins them. 
— Bacon. 

True friendship is like sound health, the value of it is 
seldom known until it is lost. 

All our affections are but so many doors to let in 
Christ. 

Much wanted more, and lost all. 

Troubles are like hornets, the less ado you make about 
them the better, for your outcry will only bring the whole 
swarm upon you. 

God lays us upon our backs that we may look heaven¬ 
ward. 

The more liberal we are to others from a principle of 
faith and love, the more liberal God will be to us. 

The flowers that breathe the sweetest perfume into our 
hearts bloom upon the rod with which Providence chas¬ 
tises us. 

Be not stingy of kind words and pleasing acts, for such 
are fragrant gifts, whose perfume will gladden the heart 
and sweeten the life of all who hear or receive them. 

Rare as is true love, true friendship is still rearer. 
— Rochefoucauld. 

Learning by study must be won; 

’Twas ne’er entailed from sire to son. 

— Gay. 


The violet grows low, and covers itself with its own 
tears, and of all flowers yields the sweetest fragrance. 
Such is humility. 

We should not forget that life is a flower, which is no 
sooner fully blown than it begins to wither. 

He who has other graces, without humility, is one who 
carries a box of precious powder without a cover on a 
windy day. 

Heaven’s gates are not so highly arched as princes’ 
palaces. They that enter there must go upon their 
knees.— Webster. 

God strikes not as an enemy to destroy, but as a father 
to correct. 

This may be said of love, that if you strike it out of the 
soul, life would be insipid and our being but half animated. 

It is better to be poor, with a good heart, than rich, 
with a bad conscience. 

From the walks of humble life have risen those who are 
the lights and landmarks of mankind. 

The universal lot. 

To weep, to wander, die, and be forget. 

— Sprague. 

The path of sorrow, and that path alone. 

Leads to the land where sorrow is unknown; 

No traveler ever reached that blest abode, 

Who found not thorns and briars in his road. 

— Cowjoer. 

He that does good for good’s sake seeks neither praise 
nor reward, though sure of both at last. 

Living in the fear of God takes away the fear of death; 
for the sting of death is sin. 

Nothing is more dangerous than a friend without discre¬ 
tion; even a prudent enemy is preferable.— LaFontaine. 

The grand essentials to happiness in this life are, some¬ 
thing to do, something to love, and something to hope for. 

He that has never known adversity is but half ac¬ 
quainted with others, or with himself. Constant success 
shows us but one side of the world; for, as it surrounds us 
with freinds, who will tell us only our merits, so it silences 
those enemies from whom only we can learn our defects. 
— Colton. 

Base all your actions upon a principle of right; preserve 
your integrity of character, and, doing this, never reckon 
the cost. 

Adversity is the trial of principle. Without it a man 
hardly knows whether he is honest or not.— Fielding. 

Never be cast down by trifles. If a spider break his web 
twenty times, twenty times will he mend it. Make up 
your mind to do a thing and you will do it. 

A covetous man lives without comfort, and dies without 
hope. 

Whoso stoppeth his ear at the cry of the poor, he also 
shall cry himself, but shall not be heard.— Proverbs. 

Value the friendship of him who stands by you in 
storms. Swarms of insects will surround you in sunshine. 

Pleasures have honey in the mouth, but a sting in the 
tail, and often perish in the budding. 

Religion teaches the rich humility, and the poor content¬ 
ment. 

It is far more easy to acquire a fortune like a knave, 
than to expend it like a gentleman.— Colton. 

Excesses in our youth are drafts upon our old age, paya¬ 
ble, with interest, about thirty years after date. 

Riches and true excellence are seldom found together. 

The use of money is all the advantage there is in 
having it. 

Truth is a mighty weapon when wielded by the weakest 
arm.— Fletcher. 



































onsidering the vast amount of business tran¬ 
sacted by correspondence between the par¬ 
ties, Letter Writing seems only second in 
importance to book-keeping. The merchant of the smal¬ 
ler cities or towns, perhaps in the far west, desires to 
order articles of merchandise from the wholesale house 
in New York or Boston. Possibly a remittance is to be 
sent. It may be that an error has occurred and needs 
correction. Credit is to be asked, references given, and 
a multitude of other matters call for adjustment 
through correspondence. To 
write every conceivable var- 
iety and shade of meaning, 
expressing the proper 
thought iu the most fitting 
and appropriate language, is 
indeed a rare and valuable 
accomplishment. And when 
the proper language takes on 
the graceful and businesslike 
air of the well written letter, with its several parts 
harmoniously arranged, it is a combination of brain and 
skill which can hardly be overestimated. 

This subject, therefore, naturally divides itself into 
two parts: The Mechanical Structure, and the Liter¬ 
ature of a Letter. The former of these being the less 
difficult will be first considered. 

THE STRUCTURE OF A BUSINESS LETTER, 

Consists in the arrangement of its several parts, with 
a view to the most harmonious effect. Excellent pen¬ 
manship is very desirable, but not absolutely essential. 
The penmanship may indeed be poor, but the arrange¬ 
ment of the several parts of the letter, the neatness, 
and finish, may be such as to give it an attractive ap¬ 


pearance, while on the other hand, the letter may be 
clothed in the most elegant penmanship, and yet the 
construction be such as to stamp its author as a care¬ 
less and indifferent person, devoid of precision and 
order. 

No one great thing, but many little things carefully 
watched, and attentively practiced, make up the struc¬ 
ture and dress of a business letter, and give it a business¬ 
like air. The penmanship should be a neat, strong 
hand, very plain and legible, and devoid of all flourish. 

PAPER AND ENVELOPE. 

The paper and envelopes 
used in business correspond¬ 
ence should be of a good, dur¬ 
able quality, and a white 
color is preferable. Cheap 
materials are not only un- 
satisfactory to the writer, 
but may give the reader an 
unfavorable impression, which would be an injury far 
exceeding the cost of the best stationery fora life time. 
Persons form impressions from very little things 
sometimes. 

The size of a letter sheet in business correspondence 
should be about 8x10 inches. This sheet affords a 
sufficient space for a communication of ordinary length 
to be written on one side only, which is essential in 
case the letter is copied in a letter press. A sheet of 
paper, note size, (5x8) is oftentimes used for brief 
communications of no special importance, and not de¬ 
signed to be filed for future reference. Among profes¬ 
sional men the commercial note sheet is more extensively 
used, but with business men the letter size is considered 
preferable. 














































































































































































































HOW TO WRITE A BUSINESS LETTER. 


The envelope should correspond in size to 
that of the letter sheet, and should be a trifle 
longer than one-half the length of the sheet. 
Thus in a sheet eight by ten inches, one-half 
the length of the sheet is five inches, and this 
requires the length of the envelope to be about 
five and a quarter inches. Its width is usually 
about three inches. Avoid the use of fancy col¬ 
ored and fancy shaped paper and envelopes. 
These may not be objectional in social corre¬ 
spondence among ladies, but the gravity of bus¬ 
iness affairs does not admit of such display. 

THE HEADING. 


Diagram of the Structure of a Letter. 

8 INCHES. 


With most firms engaged in business it has 
become a custom to have the business adver¬ 
tisement placed at the head of the letter page, 
together with street, number and city. Thus 
leaving only the date to be inserted to complete 
the heading. 

In case the heading of the letter is to be en¬ 
tirely written, it should be placed so as to 
occupy the right hand half of the first two lines 
at the top of the page. If, however, the letter is 
to be a very brief one, occupying only three or 
four lines, the heading may then be placed 
lower down on the sheet, so as to bring the 
body of the letter about the center of the 
sheet. 

Writing from a large city the heading should 
contain the street and number. Your corre¬ 
spondent, in directing his answer will rely on 
the address given in the heading of your let¬ 
ter. Never be guilty of the blunder committed 
by ignorant persons of placing a part of the heading- 
under the signature. 


HEADING. 



O 

cr 

< 

2 


ADDRESS. 


COMPLIMENTARY ADDRESS. 


PARAGRAPH. 


PARAGRAPH. 


O 

B 

< 

5 


PARAGRAPH. 


COMPLIMENTARY CLOSING. 


SIGNATURE 




uttz. 


'UW# /C; 


The second line of the heading should begin a lit¬ 
tle farther to the right than the first line, as seen 
above. 

If the writer has a box at the Post Office and wishes 
his mail delivered there, he may head his letter, 
as on the following page: 


Chas. A. Roberts. 


Wm. j. Dennis. 


OFFICE OF 



ROBERTS & DENNIS, 

DEALERS IN FANCY AND STAPLE GROCERIES, 

320 Jefferson Street, 

. 


./<f- 



IQ INCHES. 


































































HOW TO WRITE A BUSINESS LETTER. 


9? <$. 

Qtytv (ftfcsiA; (fflyiy /6j /&<?£. 


Writing from the principal cities of the United 
States it is not necessary to make the name of the state 
a part of the heading, as that is supposed to be known 
and understood, but with smaller cities the name of 
the state also, should be given. Thus, there is a Quincy 
in Illinois, and also in Massachusetts, and unless the 
state were mentioned a person answering a letter from 
Quincy, would not know which state to direct his reply 
to. In writing from an obscure town or village, not 
only the state should be given, but the county as well. 




\ cewi^et /<5 r <5 r J2. 


The punctuation of the heading and other parts of 
the letter, is of great importance in the estimation of 
cultivated persons, and something which can be learned 
by a little attention on the part of anyone, in examin¬ 
ing the forms here given. 

MARGIN. 

A margin three-quarters of an inch in width should 
be left, on the side of the letter, as shown in the dia¬ 
gram. This is convenient for any mark or memoran¬ 
dum which your correspondent may desire to make 
concerning anything contained in the letter, but its 
greater value lies in the open, airy, and cheerful dress 
which it imparts to the letter. A margin too narrow 
conveys the idea of stinginess, as if to economize 
paper, while an irregular or zigzag margin conveys 
the idea of carelessness or want of precision. On a 
sheet of note paper the margin may be only one-half 
inch in width, thus making its width proportionate to 
the size of the sheet. 

ADDRESS. 

On the next line below the heading, that is the third 
line from the top of the sheet, and beginning at the 
left margin, should be placed the Address , which con¬ 
sists of the name of the person to whom the letter is 
written, together with his titles, if any, and his place 
of residence or business. The letter is not complete 
without all this, in the estimation of the business man. 
It does not fully explain itself, if the place of resi¬ 
dence is not down as well as the name, and in preserv¬ 
ing a letter press copy, this is quite essential for future 
reference. 






Or if the letter is written to a person living or doing 
business in a large city, thus • 

The names and residence should not be allowed to 
extend further to the right than about the center of 
the sheet, thus leaving an open space between this and 
the heading of your letter. In case the names or place 
of residence should be so long as to require it, they 
may be placed thus: 

The words Dear Sir or Gentlemen are sometimes 
placed farther to the left, as in the above example, but 
most business men in their correspondence place this 
complimentary address with reference to the words 
above them, about three-quarters of an inch farther to 
the right, as shown below. 


y 77 


604 


mi. 


The custom of placing the address beneath the body 
instead of at the beginning of the letter, is not much 
in vogue in business circles in this country, most busi¬ 
ness men preferring to place the name and address at 
the head of the sheet, and then write at it as if they 
were talking to the person himself. When, however, 
the address is placed below the letter it should occupy 
the same position as to the margin, etc., as if placed at 
the beginning. The custom is borrowed from the 
English, and its use is confined mostly to government 
officials and professional men. 

BODY OF THE LETTER. 

This constitutes the written message. It should 
begin on the same line with the words Dear Sir, or 
































HOW TO WRITE A BUSINESS LETTER. 


147 


Gentlemen , leaving after these words a small space. 
In case the place of residence or business is not written 
in the address, then the complimentary address of Dear 
Sir or Gentlemen will be placed on the next line under 
the name, or fourth line from the top of the sheet, and 
the letter will begin on the fifth line from the top, 
thus • 


the paragraph an inch from the margin, and it is really 
not so essential Avhat the distance is, as that it should be 
uniform, and all the paragraphs begin alike. A little 
attention is necessary here. In ordering goods make 
each article a separate paragraph. 

COMPLIMENTARY CLOSING AND SIGNATURE. 


©&.• 

twdt/j&L fa, e&k&nrct/ 


Sometimes for the sake of convenience, and the 
saving of time and labor, the letter head has printed in 
the left corner, above the address, a blank form of 
memorandum as follows: 

Referring to j In reply to | 

yours of S ’ your favor of j 

and after this introduction the writer is able speedily to 
get at the marrow of his letter, without acknowledg¬ 
ing the receipt of a former communication. 

The body of the letter should be divided into as many 
paragraphs as there are distinct subjects in the letter, 
or a new paragraph should be commenced at every 
change of the subject. The habit which some persons 
have of tacking one subject to the end of another, and 
thus making a letter one continuous paragraph of 
mixed up information, instructions and requests, is 
extremely objectionable. It destroys the force of what 
is said, instead of fixing each thought clearly on the 
mind of the reader; it leaves him confused, and he reads 
a second time and tries to get his ideas fixed and 
systematized, or he throws aside the letter until he 
has more time in which to study it and get the mean¬ 
ing clear. 

If the letter is long and is really concerning only one 
subject, then it may properly be divided into para¬ 
graphs by separating the different divisions of the sub¬ 
ject, and giving a paragraph to each. These should be 
arranged in their logical order. Wherever the letter 
is to contain numerous paragraphs to avoid omitting 
any of the items, it is best to jot them down on a slip 
of paper, then embody them in the letter in their 


The complimentary closing consists of such words 
as Yours truly, Respectfully, etc., and should be placed 
on the next line beneath the last one occupied by the 
body of the letter, commencing a little to the right of 
the middle. The signature should be placed under¬ 
neath the words of respect, and begin still a little 
farther to the right. Thus the conclusion of the letter 
will correspond in position and arrangement with the 
heading. 






The language of the complimentary closing should be 
governed by the relation between the parties, and 
should correspond with the complimentary address. 
The first letter between strangers should commence 
with Sir and end with the word Respectfully. After 
the exchange of a few letters and a sort of business 
acquaintance may be said to exist between the corre¬ 
spondents, then Dear Sir, and Yours truly, may properly 
be introduced. A little more cordial would be such a 
conclusion as the following: 


(2ft 


auto- -u> 




The man of business is apt, however, to have one 
stereotyped beginning and ending to all his letters, 
and seldom stops to discriminate between strangers and 
old customers in this respect. Often the conclusion 
may be connected to the closing paragraph with per¬ 
fect grace and ease thus : 


& 


fa, 'l&ct'fyuc f^a. tpc&afi. 


iaaf2a4tf afafani 





natural order. 

The first word of each paragraph should be in¬ 
dented, or moved in from the margin, usually about 
the width of the margin. Thus if the margin is three- 
fourths of an inch in width, the paragraph should 
begin three-fourths of an inch from the margin. Some 
writers, however, prefer to commence the first word of 


In the signature of a letter, especial care should be 
exercised. Bear in mind that names of persons are not 
governed by the rules of spelling, and words which 
precede or follow, proper names will not aid us in de¬ 
ciphering them if they are poorly written. 





































HOW TO WRITE A BUSINESS LETTER 


A MODEL BUSINESS LETTER. 


The young person who would learn to write a good 
business letter, should, with pen, ink and suitable 
paper, sit down and practice faithfully after the above 
model. Write and re-write it a dozen times or more, 
until your letter resembles it closely. Then take any 
of the models for letters given near the close of this 
chapter, and with this matter, write a letter which 
will conform with the foregoing model in appearance 
and dress. Write the same matter over again, 
and improve it in its defects. Criticise each line and 
word. See that no words or letters are omitted, and 
that the punctuation is according to the models in this 
book. Eliminate all ungainly letters, shorten the 
loops, see that each letter rests on the line, and that, 
withal your page is clean and regular. 

The person who will thus devote a little earnest 


study and practice, may early acquire the valuable 
accomplishment of writing a pleasing business letter, 
so far as the mechanical structure goes. 

ADDRESSING THE ENVELOPE. 

After the letter is finished, and while it yet lies open 
before you, the Envelope should be addressed. As 
before stated, the directions on the envelope must con¬ 
form to the address at the beginning of the letter, 
hence the necessity for addressing the envelope before 
the letter is folded. 

The first line of the address of the envelope should 
consist of the name of the person or firm to whom the 
letter is written, together with any appropriate titles, 
and should be written across or a little below the 
middle of the envelope, but never above it, beginning 




/rf> 6 QS, 
















































HOW TO WRITE A BUSINESS LETTER. 


14a 


near the left edge. The space between this first line 
and the bottom of the envelope should be about equally 


When writing to a person in a large city the number 
and street should be a part of the address, and may 
be placed as in the above form, or in the left hand lower 
corner as follows: 



In case the letter is addressed in care of any one this 
should be placed in the lower left corner. If a letter 
of introduction, the words Introducing Mr. John Smith , 
or similar words, should be placed in this corner. 

Letters addressed to small towns or villages should 
bear the name of the county as follows : 



divided among the other lines, each of which begins 
still farther to the right than the one above, thus: 


Or the name of the county may be placed in the 
lower left corner. The Post Office box number is 
usually placed in the lower left corner. 

FOLDING A LETTER 

Having written an excellent letter, and faultlessly 
addressed the envelope, all may be easily stamped as 
unbusiness-like, and spoiled, by improperly performing 
so simple a part as the folding. Remember that ex¬ 
cellent rule that, whatever is worth doing should be 
well done. 

With the letter sheet lying before you, turn the 
bottom edge up so that it lies along with the top 
edge, thus making a fold in the middle, which press 
down with the thumb nail or with a paper folder. 
Then fold the right edge over so that it falls two-thirds 
the distance across the sheet, and press down the edge. 
Next fold the left edge of the sheet over to the right, 
breaking the fold at the edge of the part folded over 
just before. 

In case a check, note, draft, bill or currency is to be 
sent by letter, it should be placed on the upper half of 
the sheet as it lies open, and then the letter should be 
folded the same as if it were not there. This will fold 
the paper or document in the letter so that it will be 
difficult to extract it while being transmitted in the 
mails, and so that it will not be dropped or lost in 
opening the letter. 

The letter is now folded so that it will be of equal 
thickness in every part of the envelope. Insert the 
last broken or folded edge in the envelope first, with 































































>—^9 .. 




c Lr^ r 

150 


HOW TO WRITE A BUSINESS LETTER. 




the original edges of the sheet at the end of the en¬ 
velope which the stamp is on; when taken from the 
envelope the letter will then be proper side up. 

THE LITERATURE OF A LETTER. 

To be able to compose a letter requires more ability 
than to give it the proper arrangement and mechanical 
dress. A mind well stored with useful knowledge as 
well as command of language, is necessary in writing a 
letter on general subjects. The strictly business letter 
requires a thorough understanding of the facts concern¬ 
ing which the letter is written, and these facts to be 
set forth in plain and unmistakable language. All 
display of rhetoric or flourish of words is entirely out 
of place in the sober, practical letter of business. The 
proper use of capital letters, punctuation, and correct 
spelling are essential to the well written letter, and 
with a little care and striving may be easily acquired. 

ARRANGEMENT OF ITEMS. 

As stated before, each item or subject in a letter 
should be embraced in a separate paragraph. These 
should be arranged in the order in which they would 
naturally come, either in point of time, importance, or 
as regards policy. Never begin a letter abruptly with 
a complaint, but rather bring in all unpleasant sub¬ 
jects toward the close. If an answer to u letter ot 
inquiry, take up the questions as they are asked, indi¬ 
cate first what the question is, andtnen state (pearly the 
answer. The first paragraph should acknowledge the 
receipt of the communication now to *be answered, 
giving date and indicating its nature and contents, 
thus: 

t r/ c t/d- i<L erfc. 

The closing paragraph usually begins with such 
words as Hoping, Trusting, Awaiting , Thanhing, or 
similar expressions, and is complimentary in its tone 
and designed as a courtesy. 

BREVITY. 

Business letters should be brief and to the point. 
The best letter states clearly all the facts in the fewest 
words. Brevity is not inconsistent with a long letter, 
as so much may need to be said as to require a long 
letter, but all repetitions, lengthy statements and mul¬ 
tiplication of words should be avoided. Use short 
sentences, and make every word mean something. 
Short sentences are more forcible, and more easily 
understood or remembered, than long drawn out utter¬ 
ances. 



STYLE 

Style refers to the tone, air, or manner of expression. 
Dignity and strength should characterize the style of 
the business letter. No ornament of expression or 
eloquence of language is necessary or appropriate in a 
correspondence between business men. Come to your 
meaning at once. State the facts. Let every sentence 
bristle with points. 

The successful business man must possess energy, 
decision, and force, and these qualities shoukLbe con¬ 
spicuous in his correspondence in order to command 
respect. Never use loose or slang expressions. The 
business man should be a gentleman. Indulge in no 
display of superior knowledge or education, but tem¬ 
per each paragraph with respect and deference to 
others. The learner who would aspire to write a good 
letter, should, after having finished his attempt, go over 
each sentence carefully and wherever the pronoun I 
occurs, modify the expression so as to leave this out. 

ORDERING GOODS. 

In ordering goods of any kind, care should be used 
to state very explicitly the color, size, quality, and 
quantity of the articles desired. If manufactured 
goods, the name of the manufacturer, or his trade mark 
or brand should be given. Also state when you desire 
the goods shipped and in what way. If by freight or 
express, state what Freight line or Express Company. 

SENDING MONEY BY LETTER. 

Paper currency should seldom be trusted to pass 
through the mails, as the liability to loss is too great. 
Better send draft or P. O. money order, and in every 
case the amount of the remittance should be stated in 
the letter, and also whether by draft or otherwise sent. 
The letter may become important evidence in regard 
to payment at some future time. 

INSTRUCTIONS. 

In giving instructions to agents, manufacturers and 
others, let each order occupy a separate paragraph. 
State in unmistakable language the instructions desired 
to be conveyed. If possible a diagram or plan should ; 
be enclosed in the letter. Cautions and complaints, if 
any, should be clearly set forth in paragraphs near the 
close of the letter. 

A DUNNING LETTER. 

State when the debt was contracted, its amount, the 
fact of it having been long past due, the necessity for 
immediate payment, and any other facts depending on 


■o —-CrsM 






























HOW TO WRITE A BUSINESS LETTER. 


151 


the peculiarities of the case, which it may seem best 
to make use of, such as promises to pay, which have 
not been met; the inconvenience as well as injury and 
distrust caused bv such irregularities, etc. 

LETTERS OF INTRODUCTION. 

Be just and truthful, avoiding any stereotyped form 
in letters of introduction. Never give a letter of in¬ 
troduction unless you have entire confidence in the per¬ 
son to whom it is given; it may reflect on your charac¬ 
ter or be used against you. Be very guarded that no 
expressions may be construed into a letter of credit, 
thus making the writer liable for payment. Use no 
unfounded statements or assertions, over-estimating 
your friend, as these may prove untrue. 

Willing to extend a favor to a friend by giving a 
letter of introduction, do not be guilty of introducing 
him to any one in whom he may not place confidence, 
as he might be a loser by such. 

-- 

Form of a Letter Ordering Goods. 

128 Jackson Street, 

Richmond, Va., May 24,18—. 

Messrs. Jones & Smith, 

867 Market St., Philadelphia. 

Gentlemen: Please ship me by Fast Freight as soon as possible the fol¬ 
lowing goods : 

3 lihds. N. O. Molasses. 

1 bbl. Granulated Sugar. 

5 chests English Breakfast Tea. 

2 sacks Mocha Coffee, wanted not ground. 

5 boxes Colgate’s Toilet Soap. 

I will remit the amount of the invoice immediately upon the receipt 
of the goods. 

Fours respectfully, 

JAMES C. ADAMS. 


Ordering Goods and Enclosing Price. 

Richmond, Ind., Dec. 20,18—. 

Messrs. Marshall Field & Co., 

Chicago, Ill. 

Gentlemen: Please forward me by American Express at once 
1 Lancaster Spread, $3.50 

12 yds. Gingham, small check. (15c.) 1.80 

3 doz. Napkins ($3.00), 9.00 

$14.30 

For which I inclose P. O. Money order. 

Hoping to receive the goods without delay, I am, 

Respectfully, 

WILLIAM L. MILLER. 


Desiring to Open an Account. 

Dayton, Ohio,O ct. 12,18— 

Messrs. Holmes & Wilson, 

Detroit, Mich. 

Gentlemen: Having recently established myself in the retail Hard¬ 
ware trade in this city, with fair prospects of success, and being in need 
of new goods from time to time, would like to open an account with your 
highly respectable house. 

My capital is small, but I have the satisfaction of knowing that what 
little I possess is the fruit of my own industry and saving. I can refer 
you to the well known firm of Smith, Day & Co., of this city, as to my 
character and standing. 

Should my reference prove satisfactory, please forward me at once by 
U. S. Express, 

2 Butchers’ Bow Saws, 


% doz. Mortise Locks, with Porcelain Knobs. 

2 kegs 8d Nails, 
and charge to my account. 

Hoping that my order may receive your usual prompt attention, 
I am, 

Yours respectfully, 

HENRY M. BARROWS. 


Letter of Credit. 

Lexington, Ky., June 25, 18—. 

Messrs. Dodge, Manor & Devoe, 

New York City. 

Gentlemen : Please allow the bearer of this, Mr. James Curtis, a credit 
for such goods as he may select, not exceeding One Thousand dollars, and 
if he does not pay for them, I will. 

Please notify me in case he buys, of the amount, and when due, and 
if the account is not settled promptly according to agreement, write me 
at once. 

Yours truly, 

HIRAM DUNCAN. 


Inclosing an Invoice. 

125 Lake Street, 

Chicago, Nov. 15,18—. 

Samuel D. Prentice, Esq., 

Vevay, Ind. 

Dear Sir: Inclosed please find invoice of goods amounting to $218.61, 
shipped you this day by the B. & O. Express, as per your order of the lltli 
inst. 

Hoping that the goods may prove satisfactory, and that we may be 
favored with further order’s, we remain, 

Yours truly, 

SIBLEY, DUDLEY & CO. 


Letter of Introduction. 

168 Olive Street, 

St. Louis, June 4,18—. 

Henry' M. Bliss, Esq., 

Boston. 

Dear Sir: This will introduce to you the bearer, Mr. William P. 
Hainline, of this city who visits Boston, for the purpose of engaging in 
the Hat, Cap and Fur trade. 

He is a young man of energy and ability, and withal, a gentlemen in 
every sense. 

Any assistance you may render him by way of introduction to your 
leading merchants or otherYvise, in establishing his new enterprise 
will be duly appreciated by both himself and 

Yours truly, 

JAMES W. BROOKING. 


Inclosing Remittance. 

Milwaukee, Wis., Feb. 18,18—. 

Messrs. Arnold, Constable & Co., 

New York. 

Gentlemen: The goods ordered of you on the 3d inst. have been re- 
ceived and are entirely satisfactory in both quality and price. 

Enclosed please find New York exchange for $816.23, the amount of 
your bill. 

Thanking you for your promptness in filling my order, I am, 

Yours respectfully, 

HENRY GOODFELLOW. 


Inclosing Draft for Acceptance. 

New York, Aug. 8, 18—. 

Messrs. Webster & Dunn, 

Cairo, Ill. 

Gentlemen: Inclosed we hand you Draft at 30 days for acceptance for 
$928.15, the amount of balance due from you to us to the present date. 

We shall feel obliged by your accepting the same, and returning it by 
due course of mail. 

Awaiting further favors, we are, 

Very truly yours, 

DODGE, HOLMES & CO. 




















































152 


HOW TO WRITE A BUSINESS LETTER. 


Inclosing a Statement of Account. 

Chicago, March 1,18—. 

Messrs. Chase & Howard, 

South Bend, Ind. 

Gentlemen: Inclosed please And a statement of your account for the 
past three months, which we believe you will find correct. 

We shall feel obliged by your examining the same at your earliest 
convenience, and shall be happy to receive your check for the amount 
or instructions to draw on you in the ordinary course. 

We are, gentlemen, 

Yours truly, 

J. V. FARWELL & CO. 


A Dunning Letter. 

Denver, Col., June 30,18—. 

James C. Adams, Esq., 

Great Bend, Kansas. 

Dear Sir: Allow me to remind you that your account with me has 
been standing for several months unsettled. 

I should not even now have called your attention to it, were it not 
that in a few days I must meet a heavy bill, and must rely in part on 
your account to furnish me the means. 

I would, therefore, esteem it a great favor if you would let me have 
either the whole, or at least the greater part of your account in the course 
of a week or ten days. 

Thanking you for past favors, I remain, Sir, 

Yours truly, 

A. R. MORGAN. 


An Application for a Situation in Business. 

Paste the Advertisement at the head uf the sheet, and write as follows: 

124 Fayette Street, 

Syracuse, N. Y., Sept, n, 18— 

H. Journal Office, 

City. 

Dear Sir: In reply to the above advertisement I would respectfully 
offer my services. 

I am 19 years of age, have a good educat ion, and have had some experi¬ 
ence in business, having assisted my father in his grocery store. I am 
not afraid of work, and never allow myself to be idle when there is work 
to be done. I can refer you as to my character, to Mr. J. H. Trout, presi¬ 
dent of the Gas Company, who has known me all my life. 

In reference to salary, I leave that with you, but feel certain that I 
could earn five dollars per week for you. 

Hoping to have the pleasure of an interview, I remain, 

Respectfully, 

HENRY OTIS. 


Inquiring as to Business Prospects. 

Newark, Ohio, June 15, 18 

Mr. J. D. Shay'Lor, 

Denver, Col. 

My Dear Sir: As I told you a year ago, I have been thinking seriously 
of disposing of my small business here and locating in some live and 
promising city out west, where I can grow up with the country as you are 
doing. 

Will you have the kindness to sit down and write me at your con¬ 
venience, full information in regard to the prospects of business, price of 
rents, cost of living, etc., in your city, and any other information, espe¬ 
cially in regard to the hardware trade. 

If you will thus kindly give me the facls on which I can base a calcu¬ 
lation, and all is favorable, I will probably visit Denver this fall, and 
eventually become your neighbor. 

Yours very truly, 

J. C. GOODRICH. 


Letter of Recommendation. 

Grand Haven, Mich., May 17,18—. 

To Whom it May Concern : 

Mr. Henry McPherson, who is now leaving our employ, has been in 
our office for the past two years, during w T hich time he has faithfully 
attended to his duties, proving himself to be industrious and thoroughly 
reliable. He is a good penman, correct accountant, and acquainted with 
correspondence. 

We shall at any time cheerfully respond to all applications we may 
have regarding his character and abilities, and wish him every success. 

Yours truly, 

WOOD & HILL. 


Notice of Dissolution of a Partnership. 

Davenport, Ia., Dec. 10,18—. 

Jas. L. Bingham & Co., 

Cedar Rapids, Ia. 

Gentlemen: On the 1st of January next the partnership for the past 
ten years existing between Geo. II. Clark and Henry Webster, wholesale 
grocers in this City, will expire by limitation of the contract. 

The Arm takes this opportunity to thank its customers and friends 
for their generous patronage and support, whereby the business of the 
house grew to such large proportions. 

After the Arst of January the business will be carried on at the old 
stand, Nos. 76 and 78 Main St., by Henry Webster and Cyrus D. Bradford, 
under the Arm name of Webster & Bradford. We are, gentlemen, 

Your obedient servants, 

CLARK & WEBSTER. 


Asking Permission to Refer to a Person. 

Syracuse, N. Y., Sept. 17,18—. 


J. H. Trout, Esq., 

Dear Sir : 

I beg to inform you that in applying for a situation this morning, 
advertised in the Journal, I took the liberty of using your name as a refer¬ 
ence. 

The length of time I have been honored with your acquaintance, and 
the words of encouragement which you have given me heretofore, lead 
me to hope you would speak favorably in this instance, adding this to 
the numerous obligations already conferred upon 

Your obedient servant, 

HENRY OTIS 


Recommending a Successor in Business. 

Cincinnati, Ohio, Dec. 15,18—. 

To The Public: 

It is with some feeling of regret that we announce our 
retirement from the business on the beginning of the new year. Our 
stock and premises will then be transferred to Messrs. Franklin and 
Warren, whom we cheerfully present to your notice, and feel it our duty 
to recommend them for a continuance of that liberal conAdence and 
patronage which you have bestowed on us during the past twenty years. 

Both these young gentlemen have been clerks of ours for several 
years past, and are in every way efficient and capable to continue the 
business. 

We are 

Respectfully, 

jK JOHNSON & FOX 































































LANGUAGE OF FLOWERS. 


153 


.. Language of Flowers .. 


Acacia—Concealed love. 

Adonis Vernalis — Sorrowful remem¬ 
brances. 

Almond—Hope. 

Aloe—Religious superstition. 

Alyssum, Sweet—Worth beyond beauty. 
Ambrosia—Love returned. 

Apple Blossom—Preference. 

Arbor Vitae—Unchanging friendship. 

Bachelor’s button—Hope in love. 
Balsam—Impatience. 

Begonia—Deformity. 

Bellflower—Gratitude. 

Belvidere, Wild (Licorice)—I declare 
against you. 

Blue Bell—I will be constant. 

Box—Stoical indifference. 

Briers—Envy. 

Burdock—Touch me not. 

Cactus—Thou leavest not. 

Camellia—Pity. 

Candytuft—Indifference. 

Canterbury Bell—Gratitude. 

Cape Jessamine—Ecstasy; transport. 
Calla Lily—Feminine beauty. 
Carnation (Yellow)—Disdain. 

Cedar—I live for thee. 

China Aster—I will see about it. 
Chrysanthemum Rose—I love. 

Cowslip—Pensiveness. 

Cypress—Mourning. 

Crocus—Cheerf illness. 

Cypress and Marigold—Despair. 

Daffodil—Chivalry. 

Dahlia—Forever thine. 

Daisy (Garden)—1 partake your senti¬ 
ment. 

Daisy (Wild)—I will think of it. 
Dandelion—Coquetry. 

Dead Leaves—Sadness. 

Dock—Patience. 

Dodder—Meanness. 

Dogwood—Am I indifferent to you? 

Ebony—Hypocrisy. 

Eglantine—I wound to heal. 

Elder—Compassion. 

Endive—Frugality. 

Evening Primrose—Inconstancy. 
Evergreen—Poverty. 

Everlasting—Perpetual remembrance. 
Fennel—Strength. 

Filbert—Reconciliation. 

Fir-tree—Elevation. 

Flax—I feel your kindness. 
Forget-me-not — True love; remem¬ 
brance. 

Fox-glove—Insincerity. 

Furze—Anger. 

Fuchsia—Taste. 

Gentian—Intrinsic worth. 

Geranium, Ivy—Your hand for the 
next dance. 

Geranium, Nutmeg—I expect a meet¬ 
ing. 


Geranium, Oak—Lady, deign to smile. 
Geranium, Rose—Preference. 
Geranium, Silver leaf—Recall. 
Gilliflower—Lasting beauty. 

Gladiolus —Ready; armed. 

Golden Rod—Encouragement. 

Gorse—Endearing affection. 

Gass—Utility. 

Harebell—Grief. 

Hawthorn—Hope. 

Hazel—Recollection. 

Hartsease—Think of me. 

Heliotrope—Devotion. 

Henbane—Blemish. 

Holly—Foresight. 

Hollyhock—Fruitfulness. 

Hollyhock, White—Female ambition. 
Honeysuckle—Bond of Love. 
Honeysuckle, Coral—The color of my 
fate. 

Hyacinth—Jealousy. 

Hyacinth, Blue—Constancy. 

Hyacinth, Purple—Sorrow. 

Hydrangea—Heartlessness. 

Ice plant—Your looks freeze me. 

Iris—Message. 

Ivy—Friendship; matrimony. 

Jessamine, Cape—Transient joy; ecs¬ 
tasy. 

Jessamine, White—Amiability. 
Jessamine, Yellow—Grace; elegance. 
Jonquil—I desire a return of affection. 
Juniper—Asylum; shelter. 

Justitia—Perfection of loveliness. 

Kalmia(Mountain Laurel)—Treachery. 
Kannedia—Mental beauty. 

Laburnum—Pensive beauty. 

Lady’s Slipper—Capricious beauty. 
Larch—Boldness. 

Larkspur—Fickleness. 

Laurel—Glory. 

Lavender—Distrust. 

Lettuce—Cold-hearted. 

Lilac—First emotion of love. 

Lily—Purity; modesty. 

Lily of the Valley—Return of happi¬ 
ness. 

Lily, Day—Coquetry, 

Lily, Water—Eloquence. 

Lily, Yellow'—Falsehood. 

Locust—Affection beyond the grave. 
Love in a Mist—You puzzle me. 

Love Lies Bleeding — Hopeless, not 
heartless. 

Lupine—Imagination. 

Mallow—Sweetness; mildness. 

Maple—Reserve. 

Marigold—Cruelty. 

Marjoram—Blushes. 

Marvel of Peru (Four O’clocks)—Tim¬ 
idity. 

Mint—Virtue. 

Mignonette — Your qualities surpass 
your charms. 


Mistletoe—I surmount all difficulties. 
Mock Orange (Syringa)—Counterfeit. 
Morning Glory—Coquetry. 

Maiden’s Hair—Discretion. 

Magnolia, Grandiflora—Peerless and 
proud. 

Magnolia, Swamp—Perseverance. 

Moss—Maternal love. 

Motherwort—Secret love. 

Mourning Bride—Unfortunate attach¬ 
ment. 

Mulberry, Black—I will not survive 
you. 

Mulberry, White—Wisdom. 

Mushroom—Suspicion. 

Musk-plant—W eakness. 

Myrtle—Love faithful in absence. 
Narcissus—Egotism. 

Nasturtium—Patriotism. 

Nettle—Cruelty; slander. 

Night Blooming Cereus — Transient 
beauty. 

Nightshade—Bitter truth. 

Oak—Hospitality. 

Oats—Music. 

Oleander—Beware. 

Olive-branch—Peace. 

Orange-flow'er—Chastity. 

Orchis—Beauty. 

Osier—Frankness. 

Osmunda—Dreams. 

Pansy—Think of me. 

Parsley—Entertainment; feasting. 
Passion-flower—Religious fervor; sus¬ 
ceptibility. 

Pea, Sweet—Departure. 

Peach Blossom—This heart is thine. 
Peony—Anger. 

Pennyroyal—Flee away. 

Periwinkle—Sweet remembrances. 
Petunia—Less proud than they deem 
thee. 

Phlox—Our souls are united. 
Pimpernel—Change. 

Pink—Pure affection. 

Pink, Double Red—Pure, ardent love. 
Pink, Indian—Aversion. 

Pink, Variegated—Refusal. 

Pink, White—You are fair. 
Pomegranite—Folly. 

Poppy—Consolation. 

Primrose—Inconstancy. 

Rhododendron—Agitation. 

Rose, Austrian—Thou art all that’s 
lovely. 

Rose, Bridal—Happy love. 

Rose, Cabbage—Ambassador of love. 
Rose, China—Grace. 

Rose, Damask—Freshness. 

Rose, Jacqueminot—Mellow love. 

Rose, Maiden’s Blush—If you do love 
me, you will find me out. 

Rose, Moss—Superior merit. 

Rose, Moss Rosebud—Confession of 
love. 
































154 


LANGUAGE OF FLOWERS. 


Eose, Sweet-briar—Sympathy. 

Eose, Tea—Always lovely. 

Eose, iVhite—I am worthy of you. 
Eose, York and Lancaster—War. 
Eose, Wild—Simplicity. 

Eue—Disdain. 

Saffron—Excess is dangerous. 
Sardonia—Irony. 

Sensitive Plant—Timidity. 
Snap-Dragon—Presumption. 
Snowball—Thoughts of Heaven. 
Snowdrop—Consolation. 

Sorrel—Wit ill-timed. 

Spear men t—Warm feelings. 

Star of Bethlehem—Eeconciliation. 


Strawberry—Perfect excellence. 

Sumac—Splendor. 

Sunflower, Dwarf—Your devout ad¬ 
mirer. 

Sunflower, Tall—Pride. 

Sweet William—Finesse. 

Syringa—Memory. 

Tansy—I declare against you. 

Teazel—Misanthropy. 

Thistle—Austerity. 

Thorn Apple—Deceitful charms. 
Touch-me-not—Impatience. 
Trumpet-flower—Separation. 

Tuberose—Dangerous pleasures. 

Tulip—Declaration of love. 


Tulip, Variegated—Beautiful eyes. 
Tulip, Yellow—Hopeless love. 

Venus’ Flytrap—Have I caught you at 
last. 

Venus’ Looking-glass—Flattery. 
Verbena—Sensibility. 

Violet, Blue—Love. 

Violet, White—Modesty. 

W allflower—Fidelity. 

Weeping Willow—Forsaken. 

Woodbine—Fraternal love. 

Yew—Sorrow. 

Zennse—Absent friends. 


MASTERPIECES OF ELOQUENCE 


The following masterpieces of elegiac eloquence are un¬ 
surpassed in the repertory of the English classics, for 
lofty and noble sentiment, exquisite pathos, vivid imagery, 
tenderness of feeling, glowing power of description, brill¬ 
iant command of language, and that immortal and seldom 
attained faculty of painting in the soul of the listener or 
reader a realistic picture whose sublimity of conception 
impresses the understanding with awe and admiration, 

S and impels the mind to rise involuntarily for the time to 
an elevation out of and above the inconsequent contempla¬ 
tion of the common and sordid things of life. 

AT HIS BROTHER’S GRAVE. 

The following grand oration was delivered by Hon. 
Eobert G. Ingersoll on the occasion of the funeral of his 
brother, Hon. Eben C. Ingersoll, in Washington, June 2 : 

“ My friends, I am going to do that which the dead oft 
promised he would do for me. The loved and loving 
brother, husband, father, friend, died where manhood’s 
morning almost touches noon, and while the shadows were 
still falling towards the west. He had not passed on life’s 
highway the stone that marks the highest point, but being 
weary for a moment he lay down by the wayside, and us¬ 
ing his burden for a pillow fell into that dreamless sleep 
that kisses down the eyelids. Still, while yet in love with 
life and raptured with the world, he passed to silence and 
pathetic dust. Yet, after all, it may be best, just in the 
happiest, sunniest hour of all the voyage, while eager 
winds are kissing every sail, to dash against the unseen 
rock and in an instant to hear the billows roar, ‘ A 
sunken ship;’ for whether in mid sea or among the 
breakers of the farther shore, a wreck must mark at last 
the end of each and all, and every life, no matter if its 
every hour is rich with love, and every moment jeweled 
with a joy, will at its close become a tragedy as sad and 
deep and dark as can be woven of the warp and woof 
of mystery and death. This brave and tender man in every 
storm of life was oak and rock, but in the sunshine he was 
vine and flower. He was the friend of all heroic souls. 
He climbed the heights and left all superstitions far below, 
while on his forehead fell the golden dawning of a 
grander day. He loved the beautiful, and was with color, 
form and music touched to tears. He sided with the 
weak, and with a willing hand gave alms. With loyal 
heart, and with the purest hand he faithfully discharged 
all public trusts. He was a worshiper pf liberty and 
a friend of the oppressed. A thousand times I have heard 
him quote the words, ‘For Justice all place temple, and 


all seasons summer.’ He believed that happiness was the 
only good, reason the only torch, justice the only wor¬ 
shiper, humanity the only religion, and love the priest. 
He added to the sum of human joy, and were everyone for 
whom he did some loving service to bring a blossom to his 
grave, he would sleep to-night beneath a wilderness of 
flowers. Life is a narrow vale between the cold and bar¬ 
ren peaks of two eternities. We strive in vain to look be¬ 
yond the heights. We cry aloud, and the only answer is 
the echo of our wailing cry. From the voiceless lips of the 
unreplying dead there comes no word, but the light of 
death. Hope sees a star, and listening love can hear the 
rustle of a wing. He who sleeps here when dying, mis¬ 
taking the approach of death for the return of health, 
whispered with his latest breath, “I am better now.” Let 
us believe, in spite of doubts and dogmas, and tears and 
fears, that these dear words are true of all the countless 
dead. And now, to you who have been chosen from 
among the many men he loved to do the last sad office for 
the dead, we give his sacred dust. Speech cannot contain 
our love. There was, there is, no gentler, stronger, man¬ 
lier man.” 

AT THE GRAVE OF A CHILD. 

Colonel Ingersoll upon one occasion was one of a little 
party of sympathizing friends who had gathered in a driz¬ 
zling rain to assist the sorrowing friends of a young boy—a 
bright and stainless flower, cut off in the bloom of its 
beauty and virgin purity by the ruthless north winds from 
the Plutonian shades—in the last sad office of committing 
the poor clay to the bosom of its mother earth. Inspired 
by that true sympathy of the great heart of a great man, 
Colonel Ingersoll stepped to the side of the grave and spoke 
as follows: 

“ My friends, I know how vain it is to gild grief with 
words, and yet I wish to take from every grave its fear. Here 
in this world, where life and death are equal kings, all 
should be brave enough to meet what all the dead have 
met. The future has been filled with fear, stained and 
polluted by the heartless past. From the wondrous tree 
of life the buds and blossoms fall with ripened fruit, and 
in the common bed of earth the patriarchs and babes sleep 
side by side. Why should we fear that which will come 
to all that is? We cannot tell; we do not know which is 
the greater blessing—life or death. We cannot say that 
death is not a good; we do not know whether the grave is 
the end of this life or the door of another, or whether the 
night here is not somewhere else a dawn. Neither can we 













































MASTERPIECES OF ELOQUENCE. 


155 


' tell which is the more fortunate, the child dying in its 
mother’s arms, before its lips have learned to forma word, 
or he who journeys all the length of life’s uneven road, 
taking the last slow steps painfully with staff and crutch. 
Every cradle asks us ‘ whence,’ and every coffin 
‘ whither?’ The poor barbarian, weeping above his 
dead, can answer these questions as intelligently and satis¬ 
factorily as the robed priest of the most authentic creed. 
The tearful ignorance of the one is just as good as the 
learned and unmeaniug words of the other. No man, 
standing where the horizon of life has touched a grave, 
has any right to prophesy a future filled with pain and 
tears. It may be that death gives all there is of worth to 
live. If those we press and strain against our hearts could 
never die, perhaps that love would wither from the earth. 
May be this common fate treads from out the paths be¬ 
tween our hearts the weeds of selfishness and hate, and I 
had rather live and love where death is king, than have 
eternal life where love is not. Another life is naught, un¬ 
less we know and love again the ones who love us here. 
They who stand with breaking hearts around this little 
grave need have no fear. The larger and the nobler faith 
in all that is and is to be, tells us that death, even at its 
worst, is only perfect rest. We know that through the 
common wants of life, the needs and duties of each hour, 
their grief will lessen day by day, until at last these graves 
will be to them a place of restand peace, almost of joy. 
There is for them this consolation, the dead do not suffer. 
If they live again, their lives will surely be as good as ours. 
We have no fear; we are all the children of the same 
mother, and the same fate aAvaits us all. We, too, have 
our religion, and it is this: ‘ Help for the living; hope for 
the dead.’ ” 


SUNDRY BRIEF ITEMS OF INTEREST. 

In 1492 America was discovered. 

In 1848 gold was found in California. 

Invention of telescopes, 1590. 

Elias Howe, Jr., invented sewing machines in 1846. 

In 1839 envelopes came into use. 

Steel pens first made in 1830. 

The first watch was constructed in 1476. 

First manufacture of sulphur matches in 1829. 

Glass windows introduced into England in the eighth 
century. 

First coaches introduced into England in 1569. 

In 1545 needles of the modern style first came into use. 
In 1527 Albert Durer first engraved on wood. 

1559 saw knives introduced into England. 

In the same year wheeled carriages were first used in 
France. 

In 1588 the first newspaper appeared in England. 

In 1629 the first printing press was brought to America. 
The first newspaper advertisement appeared in 1652. 
England sent the first steam engine to this continent in 
1703. 

The first steamboat in the United States ascended the 
Hudson in 1807. 

Locomotive first used in the United States in 1830. 

First horse railroad constructed in 1827. 

In 1830 the first iron steamship was built. 

Coal oil first used for illuminating purposes in 1836. 
Looms introduced as a substitute for spinning wheels in 
1776. 

The velocity of a severe storm is 36 miles an hour; that 
of a hurricane, 80 miles an hour. 

National ensign of the United States formally adopted 
by Congress in 1777. 

A square acre is a trifle less than 209 feet each way, 

----- 


Six hundred and forty acres make a square mile. 

A “hand” (employed in measuring horses’height) is 
four inches. 

A span is 104 inches. 

Six hundred pounds make a barrel of rice. 

One hundred and ninety-six pounds make a barrel of 
flour. 

Two hundred pounds make a barrel of pork. 

Fifty-six pounds make a firkin of butter. 

The number of languages is 2,750. 

The average duration of human life is 31 years. 

PHYSICIANS' DIGESTION TABLE. 

SHOWING THE TIME REQUIRED FOR THE DIGESTION OF 
THE ORDINARY ARTICLES OF FOOD. 

Soups.—Chicken, 3 hours; mutton, 34 hours; oyster, 34 
hours; vegetable, 4 hours. 

Fish.—Bass, broiled, 3 hours; codfish, boiled, 2 hours; 
oysters, raw, 3 hours; oysters, roasted, 34 hours; oysters, 
stewed, 3^ hours; salmon (fresh), boiled, If hours; trout, 
fried, \\ hours. 

Meats.—Beef, roasted, 3 hours; beefsteak, broiled, 3 
hours; beef (corned), boiled, 4f hours; lamb, roast, 24 
hours; lamb, boiled, 3 hours; meat, hashed, 24 hours; 
mutton, broiled, 3 hours; mutton, roast, 3f hours; pig’s 
feet, soused, 1 hour; pork, roast, 5f hours; pork, boiled, 
44 hours; pork, fried, 4f hours; pork, broiled, 34 hours; 
sausage, fried, 4 hours; veal, broiled, 4hours; veal, roast. 
44 hours. 

Poultry and game.—Chicken, fricasseed, 3f hours; 
duck (tame), roasted, 4 hours; duck (wild), roasted, 4f 
hours; fowls (domestic), roasted or boiled, 4 hours; goose 
(wild), roasted, 24 hours; goose (tame), roasted, 2f hours; 
turkey, boiled or roasted, 24 hours; venison, broiled or 
roasted, 14 hours. 

Vegetables.—Asparagus, boiled, 24 hours; beans (Lima), 
boiled, 24 hours, beans (string), boiled, 3 hours; beans, 
baked (with pork), 44 hours; beets (young), boiled, 3f 
hours; beets (old) boiled, 4 hours; cabbage, raw, 2 hours; 
cabbage, boiled, 44 hours; cauliflower, boiled, 24 hours; 
corn (green), boiled, 4 hours; onions, boiled, 3 hours; 
parsnips, boiled, 3 hours; potatoes, boiled or baked, 34 
hours; rice, boiled, 1 hour; spinach, boiled, 24 hours; 
tomatoes, raw or stewed, 24 hours; turnips, boiled, 34 
hours. 

Bread, Eggs, Milk, etc.—Bread, corn, 3f hours; bread, 
wheat, 34 hours; eggs, raw, 2 hours; cheese, 34 hours; 
custard, 2f hours; eggs, soft-boiled, 3 hours; eggs, hard- 
boiled or fried, 34 hours; gelatine, 24 hours; tapioca, 2 
hours. 


THEMES FOR DEBATE. 

Following are one hundred and fifty topics for debate. 
The more usual form in their presentation is that of a 
direct proposition or statement, rather than that of a 
question. The opponents then debate the “affirmative” 
and “negative” of the proposition. It is well to be very 
careful, in adopting a subject for a debate, to so state or 
explain it that misunderstandings may be mutually avoided, 
and quibbles on the meaning of words prevented. 

THEMES FOR DEBATE. 

Which is the better for this nation, high or low import 
tariffs? 

Is assassination ever justifiable? 

Was England justifiable in interfering between Egypt 
and the Soudan rebels? 

Is the production of great works of literature favored by 
the conditions of modern civilized life? 










































156 


THEMES FOR DEBATE. 


Is it politic to place restrictions upon the immigration of 
the Chinese to the United States? 

Will coal always constitute the main source of artificial 
heat? 

Has the experiment of universal suffrage proven a suc¬ 
cess? 

Was Grant or Lee the greater general? 

Is an income-tax commendable? 

Ought the national banking system to be abolished? 

Should the government lease to stockgrowers any por¬ 
tion of the public domain? 

Is it advisable longer to attempt to maintain both a gold 
and silver standard of coinage? 

Which is the more important to the student, physical 
science or mathematics? 

Is the study of current politics a duty? 

Which was the more influential congressman, Blaine 
or Garfield? 

Which gives rise to more objectionable idioms and lo¬ 
calisms of language, Hew England or the West? 

Was the purchase of Alaska by this government wise? 

Which is the more important as a continent, Africa or 
South America? 

Should the government interfere to stop the spread of 
contagious diseases among cattle? 

Was Ctesar or Hannibal the more able general? 

Is the study of ancient or modern history the more im¬ 
portant to the student? 

Should aliens be allowed to acquire property in this 
country? 

Should aliens be allowed to own real estate in this coun¬ 
try? 

Do the benefits of the signal service justify its costs? 

Should usury laws be abolished? 

Should all laws for the collection of debt be abolished? 

Is labor entitled to more remuneration than it receives? 

Should the continuance of militia organizations by the 
several States be encouraged? 

Is an untarnished reputation of more importance to a 
woman than to a man? 

Does home life promote the growth of selfishness? 

Are mineral veins aqueous or igneous in origin? 

Is the theory of evolution tenable? 

Was Rome justifiable in annihilating Carthage as a na¬ 
tion? 

W hich has left the more permanent impress upon man¬ 
kind, Greece or Rome? 

Which was the greater thinker, Emerson or Bacon? 

Which is the more important as a branch of education, 
mineralogy or astronomy? 

Is there any improvement in the quality of the literature 
of to-day over that of last century? 

Should the “ Spoils System” be continued in Ameri¬ 
can politics? 

Should the co-education of the sexes be encouraged? 

Which should be the more encouraged, novelists or 
dramatists? 

Will the African and Caucasian races ever be amalga¬ 
mated in the United States? 

Should the military or the interior department have 
charge over the Indians in the United States? 

Which is of more benefit to his race, the inventor or 
the explorer? 

Is history or philosophy the better exercise for the 
mind? 

Can any effectual provision be made by the State against 
“ hard times ?” 

Which is of the more benefit to society, journalism or 
the law? 


Which was the greater general, Napoleon or Welling¬ 
ton? 

Should the volume of greenback money be increased? 

Should the volume of national bank emulation be in¬ 
creased ? 

Should the railroads be under the direct control of the 
government ? 

Is the doctrine of “ State rights” to be commeded? 

Is the “Monroe doctrine” to be commended and up¬ 
held? 

Is the pursuit of politics an honorable avocation? 

Which is of the greater importance, the college or the 
university? 

Does the study of physical science militate against 
religious belief? 

Should “landlordism” in Ireland be supplanted by 
home rule? 

Is life more desirable now than in ancient Rome? 

Should men and women receive the same amount of 
wages for the same kind of work? 

Is the prohibitory liquor law preferable to a system of 
high license? 

Has any State a right to secede ? 

Should any limit be placed by the constitution of a 
State upon its ability to contract indebtedness? 

Should the contract labor system in public prisons be 
forbidden ? 

Should there be a censor for the public press? 

Should Arctic expeditions be encouraged? 

Is it the duty of the State to encourage art and litera¬ 
ture as much as science? 

Is suicide cowardice? 

Has our Government a right to disfranchise the polyga¬ 
mists of Utah? 

Should capital punishment be abolished ? 

Should the law place a limit upon the hours of daily 
labor for workingmen ? 

Is “socialism” treason? 

Should the education of the young be compulsory? 

In a hundred years will republics be as numerous as 
monarchies? 

Should book-keeping be taught in the public schools? 

Should Latin be taught in the public schools? 

Do our methods of government promote centralization? 

Is life worth living? 

Should Ireland and Scotland be independent nations ? 

Should internal revenue taxation be abolished? 

Which is of greater benefit at the present day, books or 
newspapers? 

Is honesty always the best policy? 

Which has been of greater benefit to mankind, geology 
or chemistry? 

Which could mankind dispense with at least incon¬ 
venience, wood or coal? 

Which is the greater nation, Germany or France? 

Which can support the greater population in proportion 
to area, our Northern or Southern States? 

Would mankind be the loser if the earth should cease 
to produce gold and silver? 

Is the occasional destruction of large numbers of people, 
by war and disaster, a benefit to the world ? 

Which could man best do without, steam or horse % 
power? 

Should women be given the right of suffrage in the 
United States? 

Should cremation be substituted for burial? 

Should the government establish a national system of 
telegraph? 

Will the population of Chicago ever exceed that of New 
York? 





































THEMES FOR DEBATE. 


Should the electoral college be continued ? 

Will the population of St. Louis ever exceed that of 
Chicago? 

Should restrictions be placed upon the amount of prop¬ 
erty inheritable? 

Which is more desirable as the chief business of a city— 
commerce or manufactures? 

Which is more desirable as the chief business of a city— 
transportation by water or by rail? 

Should the rate of taxation be graduated to a ratio with 
the amount of property taxed ? 

Will a time ever come when the population of the earth 
will be limited by the earth's capacity of food production? 

Is it probable that any language will ever become uni¬ 
versal? 

Is it probable that any planet, except the earth, is in¬ 
habited ? 

Should the State prohibit the manufacture and sale of 
alcoholic liquors? 

Should the government prohibit the manufacture and 
sale of alcoholic liquors? 

Should the guillotine be substituted for the gallows? 

Was Bryant or Longfellow the greater poet? 

Should the jury system be continued? 

Should the languages of alien nations be taught in the 
public schools? 

Should a right to vote in any part of the United States 
depend upon a property qualification? 

Can a horse trot faster in harness, or under saddle? 

Should the pooling system among American railroads 
be abolished by law? 

Is dancing, as usually conducted, compatible with a 
high standard of morality? 

Should the grand jury system of making indictments be 
continued? 

Which should be the more highly remunerated, skilled 
labor or the work of professional men? 

Which is the more desirable as an occupation, medicine 
or law? 

Should the formation of trade unions be encouraged? 

Which has been the greater curse to man, war or drunk¬ 
enness? 

Which can man the more easily do without, electricity 
or petroleum? 

Should the law interfere against the growth of class dis¬ 
tinctions in society? 

Which was the greater genius, Mohammed or Buddha? 

Which was the more able leader, Pizarro or Cortez? 

Which can to-day wield the greater influence, the orator 
or the writer? 

Is genius hereditary? 

Is Saxon blood deteriorating? 

Which will predominate in five hundred years, the Saxon 
or Latin races? 

Should American railroad companies be allowed to sell 
their bonds in other countries? 

Should Sumner's civil rights bill be made constitutional 
by an amendment? 

Does civilization promote the happiness of the world? 

Should land subsidies be granted to railroads by the 
government? 

Which is the stronger military power, England or the 
United States? 

Would a rebellion in Russia be justifiable? 

Should the theater be encouraged? 

Which has the greater resources, Pennsylvania or 
Texas? 

Is agriculture the noblest occupation? 

Can democratic forms of government be made univer¬ 
sal? 




Is legal punishment for crime as severe as it should be? 

Should the formation of monopolies be prevented by the 
State? 

Has Spanish influence been helpful or harmful to Mex¬ 
ico as a people? 

Which is of more importance, the primary or the high 
school? 

Will the tide of emigration ever turn eastward instead 
of westward? 

Should the art of war be taught more widely than at 
present in the United States? 

Was slavery the cause of the American civil war? 

Is life insurance a benefit? 


How to Make 32 Kinds of Solder.—1. Plumbers' 
solder.—Lead 2 parts, tin 1 part. 2. Tinmen's solder.— 
Lead 1 part, tin 1 part. 3. Zinc solder.—Tin 1 part, 
lead 1 to parts. 4. Pewter solder. Lead 1 part, bismuth 
1 to 2 parts. 5. Spelter soldier.—Equal parts copper 
and zinc. (!. Pewterers' soft solder.—Bismuth 2, lead 4, 
tin 3 parts. 7. Another.—Bismuth l,lead 1, tin 2 parts. 
8. Another pewter solder.—Tin 2 parts, lead 1 part. 9. 
Glaziers' solder.—Tin 3 parts, lead 1 part. 10. Solder 
for copper.—Copper 10 parts, zinc 9 parts. 11. Yellow 
solder for brass or copper.—Copper 32 lbs., zinc 29 lbs., 
tin 1 lb. 12. Brass solder.—Copper 61.25 parts, zinc 
38.75 parts. 13. Brass solder, yellow and easily fusible. 
—Copper 45, zinc 55 parts. 14. Brass solder, white.— 
Copper 57.41 parts, tin 14.60 parts, zinc 27.99 parts. 15. 
Another solder for copper.—Tin 2 parts, lead 1 part. 
When the copper is thick heat it by a naked fire, if thin 
use a tinned copper tool. Use muriate or chloride of zinc 
as a flux. The same solder will do for iron, cast iron, or 
steel; if the pieces are thick, heat by a naked fire or im¬ 
merse in the solder. 16. Black solder.—Copper 2, zinc 
3, tin 2 parts. 17. Another.—Sheet brass 20 lbs., tin 6 
lbs., zinc 1 lb. 18. Cold brazing without fire or lamp. 
—Fluoric acid 1 oz., oxy muriatic acid 1 oz., mix in a lead 
bottle. Put a chalk mark each side where you want to 
braze. This mixture will keep about 6 months in one 
bottle. 19. Cold soldering without fire or lamp.—Bis¬ 
muth ^ oz., quicksilver £ oz., block tin filings 1 oz., spirits 
salts 1 oz., all mixed together. 20; To solder iron to 
steel or either to brass.—Tin 3 parts, copper 39-J parts, 
zinc 7% parts. When applied in a molten state it will 
firmly unite metals first named to each other. 21. 
Plumbers' solder.—Bismuth 1, lead 5, tin 3 parts, is a 
first-class composition. 22. White solder for raised 
Britannia ware.—Tin 100 lbs., hardening 8 lbs., antimony 
8 lbs. 23. Hardening for Britannia.—(To be mixed 
separately from the other ingredients.) Copper 2 lbs., 
tin 1 lb. 24. Best soft solder for cast Britannia ware.—Tin 
8 lbs., lead 5 lbs. 25. Bismuth solder.—Tin 1, lead 3, 
bismuth 3 parts. 26. Solder for brass that will stand 
hammering.—Brass 78.26 parts, zinc 17.41 parts, silver 
4.33 parts, add a little chloride of potassium to your borax 
for a flux. 27. Solder for steel joints.—Silver 19 parts, 
copper 1 part, brass 2 parts. Melt all together. 28. 
Hard solder.—Copper 2 parts, zinc 1 part. Melt together. 
29. Solder for brass.—Copper 3 parts, zinc 1 part, with 
borax. 30. Solder for copper.—Brass 6 parts, zinc 1 
part, tin 1 part, melt all together well and pour out to 
cool. 31. Solder for platina.—Gold with borax. 32. 
Solder far iron.—The best solder for iron is good tough 
brass with a little borax. 

N. B.—In soldering, the surfaces to be joined are made 
perfectly clean and smooth, and then covered with sal. 
ammoniac, resin or other flux, the solder is then applied, 
being melted on and smoothed over by a tinned soldering 
iron. 







































158 


THE GREAT CIVIL AVAR. 





• THE GREAT CIVIL WAR ■ 

. . THE ENROLLMENT IN THE UNITED STATES ARMY . . 




«— 






w 




k 









& 


s 

«&? 

^5 




The folloAving table shows the total number of men fur¬ 
nished by each of the several States for the United States 
army during the Civil War of 1861-18G5. The first column 
of figures shows the number furnished under the call of 
President Lincoln for 75,000 troops, issued April 15,1861. 
The second column shows the aggregate number of white 
men furnished under all the calls: 


STATES. 


Maine. 

NeAV Hampshire.... 

Vermont. 

Massachusetts. 

Rhode Island. 

Connecticut. 

Hew York... 

New Jersey. 

Pennsylvania. 

Delaware. 

Maryland. 

West Virginia. 

District of Columbia. 

Ohio. 

Indiana. 

Illinois. 

Michigan. 

Wisconsin. 

Minnesota. 

Iowa. 

Missouri. 

Kentucky. 

Kansas. 

Tennessee. 

Arkansas. 

North Carolina. 

California. 

Nevada. 

Oregon . 

Washington. 

Nebraska. 

Colorado. 

Dakota. 

New Mexico. 


First 

Call. 


771 
779 
782 
3,736 
3,147 
2,402 
13,906 
3,123 
20,175 
775 


All Calls. 


Total. 


900 

4,720 

12,557 

4,686 

4,820 

781 

817 

930 

968 

10,501 


650 


1,510 


93,326 


71,715 

34,605 

35,246 

151,785 

23,711 

57,270 

464,156 

79,511 

366,326 

13,651 

49,731 

32,003 

16,872 

317,133 

195,147 

258,217 

90,119 

96,118 

25,034 

75,860 

108,773 

78,540 

20,097 

12,077 


7,451 

216 

617 

895 

1,279 

1,762 

181 

2,395 


2,688,523 


The following exhibit gives the number of colored and 
drafted troops furnished to the Union army by the differ¬ 
ent States including the States which Avere in rebellion; 
besides which 92,576 colored troops were included (with 
the white soldiers) in the quotas of the several States. 
Many Avho enlisted from the South were credited to North¬ 
ern States: 


STATES AND TERRITORIES. 


NEAV ENGLAND STATES. 

Connecticut. 

Maine. 

Massachusetts. 

NeAV Hampshire. 

Rhode Island. 

Vermont. 

Total. 

MIDDLE STATES. 

New Jersey. 

New York. 

Pennsylvania. 

Total. 


Western States and Territories 

Colorado Territory. 

Illinois. 

Indiana. 

IoAva. 

Kansas. 

Michigan. 

Minnesota. 

Ohio. 

Wisconsin. 

Total. 

BORDER STATES. 

DelaAvare. 

District of Columbia. 

Kentucky. 

Maryland. 

Missouri. 

West Virginia. 

Total. 

SOUTHERN STATES. 

Alabama. 

Arkansas. 

Florida. 

Georgia. 

Louisiana. 

Mississippi. 

North Carolina. 

South Carolina. 

Tennessee. 

Texas. 

Virginia. 

Total . 

Grand Total. 

At large. 

Not accounted for. 

Officers. 


Colored 

Troops, 

1861-65. 


1,764 

104 

3.966 

125 

1.837 

120 


7,916 


Number 

Drafted. 


Bounties Paid 
by States. 


12,031 

27,324 

41,582 

10,806 

4,321 

7,743 


103,807 


$ 6,887,554 
7,837,644 
22,965,550 
9,636,313 
820,769 
4,528,775 


52,676,605 


1,185 

4,125 

8,612 


13,922 


95 

1,811 

1,537 

440 

2,080 

1,387 

104 

5,092 

165 


32,325 

151,488 

178,873 


362,686 


23,868,967 

86,629,228 

43,154,987 


153,653,182 


12,711 


954 

3,269 

23,703 

8,718 

8,344 

196 


45,184 


4,969 

5,526 

1,044 


3,486 

17,869 

5,035 

5,462 

20,133 

47 


Total 


63,571 


173,079 


733 

5,083 

7,122 


186,017 


32,085 

41,158 

7,548 

1,420 

22,022 

10,796 

50,400 

38,395 


203,924 


8,635 

14,338 

29,421 

29,319 

21,519 

3,180 


106,412 


776,829 


17,296,205 

9,182,354 

1,615,171 

57,407 

9,664,855 

2,000,464 

23.557,373 

5,855,356 


69,229,185 


1,136,59 

134,01 

692,57 

6,271,99 

1,282,14 

864,73 


10,382,064 


$285,941,030 

























































































































































































































































THE GREAT CIVIL AVAR. 


The various calls for men by the President were as fol¬ 
lows, not including the militia brought into service during 
the different invasions of Lee's armies into Maryland and 
Pennsylvania: 



March, 1861. 

4th—Abraham Lincoln inaugurated President. 

26th—Sam Houston, Governor of Texas, deposed for 
refusal to take an oath of allegiance to the C. S. A. 



1861 

1861 

1862 

1862 

1864 

1864 

1864 

1864 


Call for three-months' men. 75,000 

Call for three years. 500,000 

Call for three years. 300,000 

Call for nine months. 300,000 

Call for three years, February. 500,000 

Call for three years, March. 200,000 

Call for three years, July. 500,000 

Call for three years, December. 300,000 


Total . 2,675,000 


The Provost-Marshal General in 1866 reported the fol¬ 
lowing as the number of casualties in the volunteer and 
regular armies of the United States during the Avar: 

Killed in battle, 61,362; died of wounds, 34,727; died 
of disease, 183,287 ; total died, 279,376 ; total deserted, 
199,105. 

Number of soldiers in the Confederate service who died 
of Avounds or disease (partial statement), 133,821; deserted 
(partial statement), 104,428. 

Number of United States troops captured during the 
war, 212,608; Confederate troops captured, 476,169. 

Number of United States troops paroled on the field, 
16,431; Confederate troops paroled on the field, 248,599. 

Number of United States troops Avho died while prison¬ 
ers, 29,725 ; Confederate troops who died while prisoners, 
26,774. 


A CORRECT AND CONCISE ACCOUNT OF THE VICTORIES AND 
DEFEATS AND IMPORTANT BATTLES. 


November, 1860. 

10th—Bill to equip and raise 10,000 volunteers intro¬ 
duced in South Carolina Legislature. 

18th—Georgia Legislature voted $1,000,000 to arm the 
State. 

20th-23d—Specie payment suspended by banks in Rich¬ 
mond, Baltimore, Washington, Philadelphia and Trenton, 
also generally through the South. 


May, 1861. 

2d—N. Y. 69th Regiment arrived in Washington. 

5th—General Butler took possession of Relay House. 

11th—Charleston blockade established. 

17th—S. C. Congress authorized issue of $50,000,000 
8 $, 20-year bonds. 

29th—President Davis reached Richmond. 

31st—Cavalry skirmish at Fairfax C. H., Ya. 

June, 1861. 

2d—Battle of Phillippo, Va.; Confederates routed. 

10th—Battle of Big Bethel, Ya.; Union forces repulsed. 

11th—Col. Wallace routed Confederate force of 800 at 
Romney, Va. 

14th—Confederates evacuated and burned Harper's 
Ferry, Va. 

18th—Battle of Booneville, Mo.; Confederates routed by 
Gen. Lyon. 

23d—Forty-eight B. & O. R. R. locomotives, valued at 
$400,000, destroyed by Confederates. 

29th—General Council of War held at Washington. 

July, 1861. 

5th—President Lincoln called for 400,000 men and 
$400,000,000 to put down the rebellion. 

5th—Battle of Carthage, Mo. 

10th—Battle of Laurel Hill. 

11th—Battle at Rich Mountain. 

18th—Battle near Centreville, Va., called by the Con¬ 
federates Battle of Bull’s Run. 

21st—Battle of Bull's Run, or (by the Confederates) 
Manassas. Conflict lasted ten hours, when panic seized 
the Union forces and they fled in disorder to Washington. 
The loss was: 

Confederate— 

630 killed; 2,235 Avounded; 150 missing—3,015. 
Union—481 killed; 1,011 wounded; 1,216 missing—2,698. 

The number engaged were: Union 40,000 vs. Confed¬ 
erate 47,000, Avhich Avere reinforced during the battle by 
20,000 or 25,000. 


December, 1860. 

3d—A John Brown anniversary meeting in Boston 
broken up by riot. 

10th—Louisiana Legislature voted $500,000 to arm the 
State. 

24th—Election in Alabama—60,000 majority for seces¬ 
sion. 

27th—Troops ordered out in Charleston. 

January, 1861. 

5th—Steamer Star of the West sailed from New York 
with supplies and reinforcements for Fort Sumter, 
arrived off Charleston on 9th, was fired upon and driven 
back to sea; returnel to New York on 12th with two shot 
holes in her hull. 

7th—Senator Toombs, of Georgia, made a secession 
speech in U. S. Senate. 

18th—Virginia Legislature appropriated $1,000,000 for 
the defense of the State. 

21st—Jefferson Davis withdrew from U. S. Senate. 

31st—U. S. mint at NeAv Orleans seized by State author¬ 
ities. 

February, 1861. 

9th—Jefferson Davis elected President of C. S. A. 

9th—U. S. $25,000,000 loan bill signed by the President. 



August, 1861. 

2d—Battle of Dug Spring, Mo. 

4th—Battle of Athens, Mo. 

7th—Hampton, Va., burned by Confederates. 

8th—Battle of Lovettsville, Va.; Confederates routed. 

10th—Battle of Wilson Creek, Mo. Union force, 5,200; 
Confederate force, 15,000. After six hours fighting, Con¬ 
federates repulsed. 

14th—Martial laAV declared in St. Louis. 

15th—President Davis ordered all Northern men to 
leave the Confederacy within forty days. 

20th—Skirmish of Hawk's Nest, Va.; 4,000 Confeder¬ 
ates attacked 11th Ohio Regt.; driven back with 50 killed. 

28th—Bombardment and Capture of Forts Clark and 
Hatteras. Confederate loss, 765 prisoners and 1,000 
stand of arms. 

29th—Lexington, Mo., attacked. 

September, 1861. 

6th—Paducah, Ky., occupied by United States forces. 

10th—Battle of Carnifex Ferry, Va. 

18th—Banks at New Orleans suspended specie payment. 

20th—Col. Mulligan surrendered at Lexington, Mo., 
with 2,500 men, to the Confederates. 

24th—Romney, Va., stormed and captured by United 
States troops. 



i 














































160 


THE GREAT CIVIL WAR. 


October, 1861. 

3d—Battle at Greenbrier, Ya. 

7th—Gen. W. T. Sherman relieved. 
16th—Battle near Pilot Knob, Mo. 
21st—Battle of Ball's Bluff. 

21st—Battle of Wild Cat, Ky. 

28th—Battle of Cromwell, Ky. 


November, 1861. 

1st—Winfield Scott, Commander of the United States 
army, retired, and Maj.-Gen. Geo. B. McClellan was ap¬ 
pointed in his place. 

7th—Great naval fight off Hilton Head. 

8th—Battle of Belmont, Mo. 

11th—Battle of Piketon, Ky. 

19th—English packet Trent boarded by Capt. Wilkes, 
and Mason and Slidell captured. On the 24th inst. they 
were placed in Fort Warren, Boston Harbor, from which 
they were released January 1, 1862, on a demand of the 
British government. 

December, 1861. 

2d—Naval engagement at Newport News. 

9th—Congress passed bill authorizing exchange of 
prisoners. 

10th—Shelling of Free Stone Point by Union gunboats. 

20th—Battle of Drainsville, Mo. 

30th—Banks of New York, Philadelphia, Albany and 
Boston suspended specie payment. 

January, 1862. 

2d—Battle on Point Royal Island, S. C. 

10th—Battle of Middle Creek, Ky. 

19th—Battle of Mill Spring, Ky. Confederate loss, 192 
killed, 68 wounded, 89 prisoners; Union loss, 39 killed, 
207 wounded. 

February, 1862. 

6th—Fort Henry captured by Union soldiers. 

7th and 8th—Battle of Roanoke Island. Union loss, 
50 killed, 222 wounded; Confederate loss, 13 killed, 39 
wounded, 2,527 prisoners. 

13th—Battle of Fort Donelson, which was kept up in¬ 
cessantly till the 16th, when the fort was surrendered to 
the Union forces. Union loss, 446 killed, 1,735 wounded, 
150 prisoners; Confederate loss, 237 killed, 1,007 wounded, 
13,300 prisoners. 

21st—Battle near Fort Craig, N. M. Union loss, 162 
killed, 40 wounded. 

March, 1862. 

6th to 8th—Battle of Pea Ridge, Arkansas. Union 
loss, 203 killed, 972 wounded, 176 missing; Confederate 
loss, 1,100 killed, 2,400 wounded, 1,600 prisoners. 

9th—First encounter of iron clad vessels, “Monitor" 
and “Merrimac,” in which the Merrimac was defeated. 

10th—Manassas, Va., evacuated by rebels. 

14th—Battle of Newbern, N. C. 

23d—Battle of Winchester, Ya. 

28th—Battle of Valles Ranch, N. M. 

31st—B. & O. R. R. reopened, after having been closed 
nearly a year. 

April, 1862. 

6th and 7th—Battle of Pittsburg Landing or “Shiloh." 
Union loss: 1,735 killed, 7,822 wounded, 4,044 missing. 
Over 3,000 Confederates were buried on the field. 

7th—Island No. 10, Mississippi River, surrendered after 
a twenty-three days’ bombardment. Confederate loss: 
j\ 125 guns, 13 steamers, 10,000 small arms, 2,000 horses, 
jj 1,000 wagons, and over 6,000 prisoners. 

11th—Pulaski surrendered after a thirty-hour bom- 
V bardment. 


16th—Battle of Lee’s Mills. 

19th—Battle of Camden, Nor Carolina. 

26th—Commodore Farragut demanded the surrender 
of New Orleans. 

May, 1862. 

1st—New Orleans captured by Union forces. 

5th—Battle of Williamsburg, Virginia. 

8th—Battle of West Point, Virginia. 

10th—Surrender of Norfolk, Virginia. 

10th—General Butler captured $800,000 in gold at New 
Orleans. 

23d—Battle of Front Royal, Virginia. 

25th—Battle of Winchester, Virginia. 

27th—Battle of Corinth. 

31st—Battle of Fair Oaks, Virginia. 

31st—Battle of Seven Pines, Virginia. 

June, 1862. 

4th—Battle of Tranter’s Creek, North Carolina. 

6th—Great gun-boat fight before Memphis, at the 
close of which Memphis surrendered unconditionally. 

8th—Battle of Cross Keys, Virginia. 

9th—Battle of Port Republic, Virginia. 

26th—Battle of Mechanicsville, Virginia. 

27th—Bombardment of Vicksburg, Mississippi. 

30th—Battle of White Oak Swamp. 

July, 1862. 

1st—Battle of Malvern Hill, the last of the seven days’ 
fight before Richmond. Total Union loss was 15,224, of 
which 1,565 were killed. 

1st—President Lincoln called for 600,000 men. 

5th—Bombardment of Vicksburg. 

17th—Postage stamps made a legal tender. 

20th—Morgan’s Guerillas overtaken and scattered. 

August, 1862. 

4th—President Lincoln ordered 300,000 men to be 
drafted. 

5th—Battle of Baton Rouge, Louisiana. 

5th—Attack on Fort Donelson, Tennessee. 

9th—Battle of Cedar Mountain. 

21st—Five Confederate regiments crossed the Rappa¬ 
hannock and almost walked into the masked batteries of 
General Sigel, which opened fire on them with grape and 
canister, mowfing them down by scores, 700 being killed 
and 2,000 captured. 

28th—Battle near Centreville, Mo. 

28th—Union forces evacuated Fredricksburg, Va. 

29th—Battle of Groveton, near Bull’s Run, Va. 

30th—Groveton battle renewed. Gen Pope defeated 
and what is known as the “Second Battle of Bull’s Run’’ 
ended. 

30th—Battle near Richmond, Ky. Union forces de¬ 
feated: 200 killed, 700 wounded and 2,000 prisoners taken. 

September, 1862. 

1st—Battle near Chantilly, Va, 

1st—Battle at Briton’s Lane, Tenn. 

12th—Harper’s Ferry invested by Confederates. 

14th—Battle of South Mountain, Md. Union loss: 
2,325. 

15th—Harper’s Ferry surrendered; 11,500 Federals sur¬ 
rendered. 

17th—Battle of Antietam. Each army numbered about 
100,000; Union loss, 12,469; Confederate loss, 25,542. 

17th—Munfordsville, Ky., surrendered to the Confed¬ 
erates; 4,600 Unionists captured. 

20th—Battle of Iuka, Miss. 

22d—Emancipation proclamation issued. 































THE GREAT CIVIL WAR. 


161 


October, 1862. 

3d and 4th—Battle of Corinth, Miss. Union loss, 
2,359; Confederate loss, 9,363. 

8th and 9th—Battle of Perryville, Mo. 
loth—Heavy fighting between Lexington and Rich¬ 
mond, Ky. 

18th—Morgan, the raider, dashed into Lexington and 
captured 125 prisoners. 

22d—Battle of Maysville, Ark. 

November, 1862. 

1st—Artillery fight at Philmont, Ya. 

3d—Reconnoissance at the base of BlueRidge Mount¬ 
ains—Confederates literally driven into the river and 
drowned by scores. 

4th—Galveston, Texas, surrendered. 

16th—Capt. Dahlgren, with 54 men, dashed into Fred- 
ricksburg, Ya., and routed 500 Confederates. 

21st—Gen. Sumner demanded the surrender of Fred¬ 
ericksburg, Va. 

27th—Battle near Frankfort, Va. 

28th—Battle of Cane Hill, Ark. 

December, 1862. 

4th—Winchester, Va., captured by Union soldiers. 

5th—Battle near Coffeeville, Miss. 

7th —Battle of Prarie Grove, Ark. 

11th—Fredricksburg, Va., shelled by Federalists. 

12th—Fredericksburg captured. 

13th—Battle of Fredericksburg, Va. 

29th—General Sherman repulsed by the Confederates. 
31st—Battle of Murfreesboro. 

January, 1863. 

1st—Battle of Galveston. 

1st—Battle of Murfreesboro renewed, with fearful 
results to the Federals. Union loss was 1,500 killed, 6,000 
wounded and 4,000 prisoners taken. 

7th—Battle of Springfield, Mo. 

March, 1863. 

21st—Battle of Cottage Grove, Tenn. 

28th—Battle of Somerville, Ky. 

May, 1863. 

2d—Battles of Fort Gibson, Miss., and Chancellorsville, 
Virginia. 

12th—Battle of Raymond, Miss. 

16th—Battle of Champion Hill, Miss. 

17th—Battle of Big Black River, Miss. 

19th—Repulse of the first Vicksburg assault. 

June, 1863. 

15th—Battle of Winchester, Va. 

25th—Chambersburg, Pa., captured by Confederates. 
30th—Battle of Hanover Junction, Va. 

July, 1863. 

2d—Battle of Gettysburg. 

4th—General Grant captured Vicksburg. 

9th—Surrender of Port Hudson. 

10th—Repulse of the assult on Fort Wagner. 

13th—Commencement of the New York draft riots. 

August, 1863. 

20th—Lawrence, Kansas, was burned. 


March, 1864. 

17th—General Grant assumed command of all the 
armies of the United States. 

May, 1864. 

4th—The Army of the Potomac crossed the Rapidan, 
and encamped in the “ Wilderness.” 

5th and 6th—Battles of the Wilderness, Virginia. 

6th—General Sherman began his Atlanta campaign 
9th—Battle of Spottsylvania, Virginia. 

14th—Battle of Resaca, Georgia. 

25th—Battle of New Hope Church Station, Georgia. 
26th—The Confederates were repulsed in an attack on 
City Point, Virginia. 

June, 1864. 

1st—Battle of Cold Harbor, Virginia. 

3d—A battle was fought near Cold Harbor, Virginia. 
16th—Federals were defeated in an attack on Peters¬ 
burg, Virginia. 

19th—The investment of Petersburg, Va., was begun. 
19th—The Alabama was sunk off Cherbourg, France, 
by the Kearsarge. 

21st and 22d—The Federals were repulsed in attacks 
upon the Weldon railroad, Virginia. 

27th—Battle of Kenesaw Mountain. 

28th—The Confederates moved on Washington by way 
of the Shenandoah Valley, Virginia. 

July, 1864. 

9th—Battle of Monocacy River, Maryland. 

20th—Battle of Peach Tree Creek, Georgia. 

22d—Battle of Decatur, Georgia. 

30th—Another unsuccessful assault was made by the 
Federals upon Petersburg, Virginia. 

August, 1864. 

6th—Fort Gaines, in Mobile Bay, surrendered to 
Admiral Farragut. 

21st—The Weldon railroad captured. 

31st—The battle of Jonesborough. 

September, 1864. 

2d—The Federals entered Atlanta. 

19th—The battle of Winchester, Virginia. _ 

22d—The battle of Fisher's Creek, Virginia. 

30th—Battle at Peeble’s Farm, Virginia. 

October, 1864. 

2d—Battle of Holston River, Virginia. 

6th—Battle of Allatoona Pass, Georgia. 

19th—Battle of Cedar Creek, Virginia. 

27th—The Federals were repulsed at Hatcher's Run, 
Virginia. 

November, 1864. 

16th—General Sherman began his march to the sea. 
December, 1864. 

13th—Fort McAllister was captured by the Federals. 
15th—The battle of Nashville, Tennessee. 

25th—The Federals were repulsed in an attack upon 
Fort Fisher, North Carolina. 

January, 1865. 

15th—Fort Fisher, N. C., was captured by the Federals. 


October, 1863. 

17th—President Lincoln called 300,000 more men. 
November, 1863. 

15th—Battle of Campbell's Station. 

24th—Battles of Lookout Mountain and Missionary 
Ridge were fought at Chattanooga, Tenn. 


February, 1865. 

5th—The Federals were repulsed at Hatcher's Run, 
Virginia. 

March, 1865. 

16th—Battle of Averysborough, North Carolina. 

18th—Battle of Bentonville, North Carolina. 
































162 


THE GREAT CIVIL WAR. 


May, 1865. 


25th—Fort Steadman, near Petersburg, was captured 
by the Confederates, and recaptured by the Federals. 

31st—The battle of Five Forks, Virginia. 

April, 1865. 

2d—Richmond was evacuated by the Confederates. 

6th—Battle of Farmville, Virginia. 

9th—Lee surrendered with 26,115 men. 

9th—General Lee with his army surrendered to Gen¬ 
eral Grant, at Appomattox Court House, Virginia. 

13th—Mobile surrendered to a combined army and 
naval attack. 

14th—The flag General Anderson had lowered at Fort 
Sumter was restored to its position. 

14th—President Lincoln was assassinated at Washington. 
He was shot in the back of the head at Ford’s Theatre by 
Wilkes Booth, and died next morning. 

15th—Andrew Johnson, Vice-President, took the oath 
of office as President. 

25th—Wilkes Booth shot in a barn in Virginia and died 
in twenty-four hours. 

26th—General Johnson surrendered to General Sherman 
in North Carolina. 


5th—Galveston, Texas, surrendered to the Federals. 

10th—Jeff. Davis captured in Georgia. 

13th—A skirmish took place near Brazos, in Eastern 
Texas. 

26th—The Confederates in Texas, under General Kirby 
Smith, surrendered. 

The armies of the East and West were disbanded and 
returned home, after a review at Washington. 

June, 1865. 

6th—An order was issued for the release of all prison¬ 
ers of war in the depots of the north. 

July, 1865. 

7th—Mrs. Surratt, Harold, Payne and Azertoth hanged 
at Washington for conspiracy in the murder of Lincoln. 

December, 1865. 

18th—Secretary Seward officially declared slavery 
abolished. 


COSMETIQUES. 

Complexion Wash. —Put in a vial one drachm of ben¬ 
zoin gum in powder, one drachm nutmeg oil, six drops of 
orange-blossom tea, or apple-blossoms put in half pint of 
rain-water and boiled down to one teaspoonful and 
strained, one pint of sherry wine. Bathe the face morn¬ 
ing and night; will remove all flesh worms and freckles, 
and give a beautiful complexion. Or, put one ounce of 
powdered gum of benzoin in a pint of whisky; to use, put 
in water in wash-bowl till it is milky, allowing it to dry 
without wiping. This is perfectly harmless. 

To Clear a Tanned Skin. —Wash with a solution 
of carbonate of soda and a little lemon juice; then with 
Fuller’s earth-water, or the juice of unripe grapes. 

Oil to Make the Hair Curl.— Olive oil, one pound; 
oil of organum, one drachm; oil rosemary, one and one- 
half drachms. 

Wrinkles in the Skin. —White wax, one ounce; 
strained honey, two ounces; juice of lily bulbs, two ounces. 
The foregoing melted and stirred together will remove 
wrinkles. 

Pearl Water for the Face. —Put half a pound 
best Windsor soap scraped fine into half a gallon of boil¬ 
ing water; stir it well until if cools, add a pint of spirits 
of wine and half an ounce of oil of rosemary; stir well. 
This is a good cosmetique, and will remove freckles. 

Pearl Dentifrice. —Prepared chalk, one-half pound ; 
powdered myrrh, two ounces; camphor, two drachms; 
orris-root powdered, two ounces. Moisten the camphor 
with alcohol and mix all well together. 

Wash for a Blotched Face.— Rose water, three 
ounces; sulphate of zinc, one drachm; mix. Wet the 
face with it, gently dry it and then toucli it over with 
cold cream, which also gently dry off. 

Face Powder.— Take of wheat starch, one pound; 
powdered orris-root, three ounces; oil of lemon, thirty 
drops; oil of bergamot, oil of cloves, each fifteen drops. 
Rub thoroughly together. 

Bandoline —To one quart of rose water add an ounce 
and a half of gum tragacanth; let it stand forty-eight 
hours, frequently straining it, then strain through a coarse 


linen cloth; let it stand two days, and again strain; add 
to it a drachm of oil of roses; used by ladies dressing their 
hair, to make it lie in any position. 

THE ART OF BEAUTY IN DRES 

It is far easier to find fault with existing customs 
than to devise and put in practice other and better ones. 

Ladies do not like to appear singular, and make them¬ 
selves conspicuous by wearing such articles of dress as are 
laughed at, possibly, certainly not worn by any other per¬ 
sons in the city or county in which she may belong. And 
so the matter goes on. Manufacturers, dry goods dealers 
and milliners and dressmakers carry the day with a high 
hand. Yet there is always some choice, and as, thanks to 
our civilized habits, a full-length mirror is obtainable by 
most ladies, given the resolution to make the most and 
best of themselves, the greater number of women can so 
study the art of dressing well as to produce some excellent 
results. 

It will hardly do to copy the old masters of painting in 
the arrangement of drapery, at least anyways closely, for 
no matter how well the voluminous folds may look 
painted, they certainly would be very much in the way in 
real life, and impede any free action of the muscles some¬ 
what, while the length of sweeping gowns certainly looks 
more in place on painted canvas than it can do on an 
ordinary walking dress. Ladies have realized this fact, 
however, and the short walking-skirt, at once pretty 
and convenient, has been the result. 

In some places the common sense shoe can be found, 
and this permits the muscles of the foot, if not the freest, 
yet fair play. One great mistake in the dressing of the 
feet is in getting the covering too short. It will throw 
back the toe joints, and a bunion is only too frequently 
the result. If the soles of the shoes are too thin, the feet 
become chilled, and disease ensues. Yet in repeated 
instances they have been known to draw the feet, and 
made them exceedingly tender and sore. A light cork 
sole sewed to a knitted worsted slipper will give a foot 
covering, equally light and far less injurious in its results. 

There are ladies who wholly ignore woolen hosiery, pre¬ 
ferring lisle thread, cotton or silk. Yet, in winter time, 
particularly for children, woolen stockings are almost a 
necessity, particularly if woolen is worn over the rest of 










































THE ART OF BEAUTY IN DRESS. 


the body. There are some people who cannot abide the 
feeling of woolen garments next the skin, and they are 
obliged to get their warmth of clothing in other than 
their undergarments. Heavy cutside garments are not 
quite so graceful as those of softer and lighter material, 
but if they must be worn they will bear a plainer cut 
than such clothes as are naturally clinging and adapt 
themselves to the figure. 

Solid and plain colors have a greater richness than 
mixed shades. If combined tints are used, they should 
only be such as harmonize well, and in the full-length fig¬ 
ure give a good personal effect. Probably more ladies err 
in getting good general effects than in any other one par¬ 
ticular. They have various garments, pretty enough, 
possibly, in themselves, yet which do not harmonize well 
together, either in material, color or cut, or possibly with 
their particular style of figure and shade of hair and com¬ 
plexion. For example, the skirt will have one style of 
trimming, the waist another, the bonnet may look exceed¬ 
ingly well with one suit and be quite out of keeping with 
another. A short, dumpy person will wear flounces, a 
tall, slim one stripes, while some red-haired woman will 
fancy an exquisite shade of pink, while green or blue 
would have been much more becoming. 

Black generally makes people look smaller and white 
larger. A very pale person can bear a certain amount of 
bright red. Any delicate complexion looks well with soft 
ruchings or laces at neck and wrist. Lace is so expensive 
that it cannot be so generally worn as it might be with 
excellent effect. Probably no prettier head-covering has 
ever been designed than the veils worn by the Spanish 
women. Certainly they are infinitely more graceful than 
a modern poke bonnet. 

Dress goods cut up into little bits and sewed together 
into fantastical shapes called trimmings are apt, if too 
freely used, to give an air of fussiness to the dress, and be 
withal a source of endless annoyance in catching dust and 
dirt. The former ideas of a border or hem to finish has 
become the greater part of the garment. 

Nothing is gained in grace by making any outside gar¬ 
ment skin-tight, while much is lost in comfort by so 
doing. A sleeve, for instance, to be serviceable and look 
well, should be loose and adapt itself somewhat to the 
curve of the arm. Likewise a dress waist looks far better 
a little loose, as well as being more healthful and wearing 
better. 

Large, stout persons can add to their appearence much 
by wearing all outside skirts buttoned on to fitted under¬ 
garments below the hips several inches, for gathers about 
the waist only add to their stoutness of look and are 
uncomfortable to carry about. A yoked petticoat answers 
the purpose very well in lieu of the buttoned skirts. 

A wrapper for a tall, slim person can have a Spanish 
flounce, while a slashed skirt with kilt inserts is more 
becoming to a short figure. Large folds are always more 
graceful than small pleats and puckers. One very great 
fault of our dressmaking lies in not allowing the goods 
to fall in large and natural folds, but in bunching and 
pleating it in folding, and pressing the goods down into 
fantastic and inartistic shapes. Added to this, paniers 
and padding, bustles and hoops, until an ordinary woman 
is forced to appear like a stuffed figure instead of a living 
human being. 

Every woman can modify, and arrange, and simplify, 
and that without becoming either ultra or conspicuous. 
It will take time. That cannot be helped, yet possibly 
^ the saving in comfort and expense may fully compensate 
4 for the few hours spent in studying her own dress with 
the mirror before her and with the determination to make 
the very best and most of herself. 




ALL ABOUT KITCHEN WORK. 

A lady who for a time was compelled to do all of her 
own kitchen work says: “If every iron, pot, pan, kettle or 
any utensil used in the cooking of food, be washed as soon 
as emptied, and while still hot, half the labor will be 
saved/’ It is a simple habit to acquire, and the washing 
of pots and kettles by this means loses some of its distaste¬ 
ful aspects. No lady seriously objects to washing and wip¬ 
ing the crystal and silver, but to tackle the black, greasy, 
and formidable-looking ironware of the kitchen take a 
good deal of sturdy brawn and muscle as well as common- 
sense. 

If the range be wiped carefully with brown paper, after 
cooking greasy food, it can be kept bright with little 
difficulty. 

Stoves and ranges should be kept free from soot in all 
compartments. A clogged hot-air passage will prevent 
any oven from baking well. 

When the draught is imperfect the defect frequently 
arises from the chimney being to low. To remedy the 
evil the chimney should be build up, or a chimney-pot 
added. 

It is an excellent plan for the mistress to acquaint her¬ 
self with the practical workings of her range, unless her 
servants are exceptionally good, for many hindrances to 
well-cooked food arises from some misunderstanding of, 
or imperfection in, this article. 

A clean, tidy kitchen can only be secured by having a 
place for everything and everything in its place, and by 
frequent scourings of the room and utensils. 

A hand-towel and basin are needed in every kitchen for 
the use of the cook or house-worker. 

Unless dish-towels are washed, scalded and thoroughly 
dried daily they become musty and unfit for use, as also 
the dish-cloth. 

Cinders make a very hot fire—one particularly good for 
ironing days. 

Milk keeps from souring longer in a shallow pan than 
in a milk pitcher. Deep pans make an equal amount of 
cream. 

Hash smoothly plastered down will sour more readily 
than if left in broken masses in the chopping bowl, each 
mass being well exposed to the air. 

Sauce, plain, and for immediate use, should not be put 
into a jar and covered when warm, else it will change and 
ferment very quickly. It will keep some days with care 
in the putting up. Let it stand until perfectly cold, then 
put into a stone jar. 

To scatter the Philadelphia brick over the scouring 
board on to the floor, to leave the soap in the bottom of 
the sccrubbing pail, the sappolio in the basin of water, and 
to spatter the black lead or stove polish on the floor are 
wasteful, slatternly habits. 

A clock in the kitchen is both useful and necessary. 

INTERESTING INDUSTRIAL ITEMS. 

Auburn, Maine, has the biggest shoe works in the 
world. 

Tempering copper, a lost art, is again accomplished. 

Pittsburg has the biggest ax factory ; makes 3,000 per 
day. 

This country has 1,000 canning factories and leads the 
world. 

Over 1,000 cattle were recently shipped to England on 
one boat. 

Mexican railroads have mahogany ties and stations of 
fine marble. 





































164 


HOW TO CALCULATE. 



PRACTICAL RULES, SHORT METHODS, AND PROBLEMS USED IN BUSINESS COMPUTATIONS. 


<3 








❖ 


■F 


£ 


Tk apidity and accuracy in making estimates 
# f y and in figuring out the result of business 
A Ik transactions is of the greatest necessity to 
,\the man of business. A miscalculation 
may involve the loss of hundreds or thou¬ 
sands of dollars, in many cases, while a slow and tedi¬ 
ous calculation involves loss of time and the advantage 
which should have been seized at the moment. It is 
proposed in the following pages to give a few brief 
methods and practical rules for performing calculations 
which occur in every-day transactions among men, 
presuming that a fair knowledge of the ordinary rules 
of arithmetic has previously been attained. 

ADDITION. 

To be able to add up long columns of figures rapidly 
and correctly is of great value to the merchant. This 
requires not only a knowledge of addition, but in order 
to have a correct result, one that can be relied upon, it 
requires concentration of the mind. Never allow other 
thoughts to be flitting through the mind, or any out¬ 
side matter to disturb or draw it away from the figures, 
until the result is obtained. Write the tens to be 
carried each time in a smaller figure underneath the 
units, so that afterwards any column can be added over 
again without repeating the entire operation. By the 
practice of addition the eye and mind soon become 
accustomed to act rapidly, and this is the art of addi¬ 
tion. Grouping figures together is a valuable aid in 
rapid addition, as we group letters into words in 
reading. 


862 1 
538 f 
674 ( 
843 [ 

2917 


Thus, in the above example, we do not say 3 and 4 
are 7 and 8 are 15 and 2 are 17, but speak the sum of 
the couplet, thus 7 and 10 are 17, and in the second 
column, 12 and 9 are 21. This method of grouping 
the figures soon becomes easy and reduces the labor of 
addition about one-half, while those somewhat expert 
may group three or more figures, still more reducing 
the time and labor, and sometimes two or more columns 
may be added at once, by ready reckoners. 

Another method is to group into tens when it can 
be conveniently done, and still another method in 
adding up long columns is to add from the bottom to 
the top, and whenever the numbers make even 10, 20, 
30, 40 or 50, write with pencil a small figure opposite, 
1, 2, 3, 4 or 5, and then proceed to add as units. The 
sum of these figures thus set out will be the number 
of tens to be carried to the next column. 


6 2 2 8 
3 5 2 4 1 
2 8 4 
9 6 2 
7 2 1 8 2 
8 3 2 5 
5 2 7 
l 1 3 2 1 
5 8 8 

5 0 2 8 


















































































HOW TO CALCULATE. 


SHORT METHODS OF MULTIPLICATION. 

For certain classes of examples in multiplication 
short methods may be employed and the labor of calcu¬ 
lation reduced, but of course for the great bulk of 
multiplications no practical abbreviation remains. A 
person having much multiplying to do should learn the 
table up to twenty, which can be done without much 
labor. 

To multiply any number by 10, 100, or 1000, simply 
annex one, two, or three ciphers, as the case may be. 
If it is desired to multiply by 20, 300, 5000, or a num¬ 
ber greater than one with any number of ciphers 
annexed, multiply first by the number and then annex 
as many ciphers as the multiplier contains. 


TABLE. 



Example. Find the cost of 20 bushels potatoes at 
$1.12J per bushel. 

8)2000 

250 

$22.50 

If the price is $2 or $3 instead of $1, then the num¬ 
ber of bushels must first be multiplied by 2 or 3, as the 
case may be. 

Example. Find the cost of 6 hats at $4.33J apiece. 

3)600 

4 


24.00 

2.00 


$26 


5 

cents equal 1-20 of a dollar. 

20 

cents equal 1-5 of a dollar. 

10 

44 

“ 1-10 “ 

(t 

25 

44 

44 ^ 44 44 

n i A 

44 

“ X 

(4 

33 % 

44 

“ X “ “ 

16% 

(4 

“ 1-6 “ 

44 

50 

44 

« 14 “ “ 


Articles of merchandise are often bought and sold 
by the pound, yard, or gallon, and whenever the price 
is an equal part of a dollar, as seen in the above table, 
the whole cost may be easily found by adding two 
ciphers to the number of pounds or yards and dividing 
by the equivalent in the table. 

Example. What cost 18 dozen eggs at 16fc per 
dozen? 

6 )1800 

$3.00 

Example. What cost 10 pounds butter at 25c per 
pound? 

4 )1000 

$2.50 


When 125 or 250 are multipliers add three ciphers 
and divide by 8 and 4 respectively. 

To multiply a number consisting of two figures by 
11, write the sum of the two figures between them. 

Example. Multiply 53 by 11. Ans. 583. 

If the sum of the two numbers exceeds 10 then the 
units only must be placed between and the tens figure 
carried and added to the next figure to the left. 

Example. Multiply 87 by 11. Ans. 957. 

FRACTIONS. 

Fractional parts of a cent should never be despised. 
They often make fortunes, and the counting of all the 
fractions may constitute the difference between the 
rich and the poor man. The business man readily 
understands the value of the fractional part of a bushel, 
yard, pound, or cent, and calculates them very sharply, 
for in them lies perhaps his entire profit. 

TO REDUCE A FRACTION TO ITS SIMPLEST FORM. 


Or, if the pounds are equal parts of one hundred 
and the price is not, then the same result may be 
obtained by dividing the price by the equivalent of the 
quantity as seen in the table; thus, in the above case, 
if the price were 10c and the number of pounds 25, it 
would be worked just the same. 

Example. Find the cost of 50 yards of gingham at 
14c a yard. 

2 )1400 

$7.00 


Divide both the numerator and denominator by any 
number that will leave no remainder and repeat the 
operation until no number will divide them both. 

Example. The simplest form of |~f is found by divid¬ 
ing by 9 = f. 

To reduce a whole number and a fraction, as 4^, to 
fractional form, multiply the whole number by the 
denominator, add the numerator and write the result 
over the denominator. Thus, 4 X 2 = 8 -f- 1 = 9 
placed over 2 is f-. 



When the price is one dollar and twenty-five cents, 
fifty cents, or any number found in the table, the result 
may be quickly found by finding the price for the extra 
cents, as in the above examples, and then adding this 
to the number of pounds or yards and calling the result 
dollars. 


TO ADD FRACTIONS. 

Reduce the fractions to like denominators, add their 
numerators and write the denominator under the result. 
Example. Add f to f. 


— t — t & 2 ~\~ tV — — V? Ans. 


n 










































166 


HOW TO CALCULATE. 


TO SUBTRACT FRACTIONS. 

Reduce the fractions to like denominators, subtract 
the numerators and write the denominators under the 
result. 

Example. Find the difference between f- and f. 


1 6 3 

2 0> 4 


15 16 _ 15 - 1 Ans 

2~fb 2 0 jo 2 0■ 


TO MULTIPLY FRACTIONS. 

Multiply the numerators together for a new numera¬ 
tor and the denominators together for a new denomi¬ 
nator. 

Example. Multiply | by f. 

I V A 35. AllS 

g /\ g j-J. x\-US. 

TO DIVIDE FRACTIONS. 

Multiply the dividend by the divisor inverted. 

Example. Divide | by 

| X | = H. Reduced to simple form by dividing 
by 2 is = 1 1 . Ans. 

TO MULTIPLY MIXED NUMBERS. 

When two numbers are to be multiplied, one of 
which contains a fraction, first multiply the whole 
numbers together, then multiply the fraction by the 
other whole number, add the two results together for 
the correct answer. 

Example. What cost yards at 18c a yard? 

18c 

H 

18 X 5 = 90 
18 X 3 = 6 


96c 


When both numbers contain a fraction, 

First, multiply the whole numbers together, 

Second, multiply the lower whole number by the 
upper fraction; 

Third, multiply the upper whole number by the 
lower fraction; 

Fourth, multiply the fractions together; 

Fifth, add all the results for the correct answer. 

Example. What cost 12-f pounds of butter at 18fc 
per pound? ** 

18f 

12f 


18 X 12 = 216 
12 X t = 9 

18 X 1= 12 
Xf = 


6 

TJ 


.oti 


Common fractions may often be changed to decimals 
very readily, and the calculations thereby made much 
easier. 

TO CHANGE COMMON FRACTIONS TO DECIMALS. 

Annex one or more ciphers to the numerator and 
divide by the denominator. 

Example. Change f to a decimal. Ans. .75. 

We add two ciphers to the 3, making it 300, and 
divide by 4, which gives us .75. I 11 the same way 

u = .5, or § = .75, and so on. When a quantity is in 
dollars and fractions of a dollar, the fractions should 
always be thus reduced to cents and mills. 








«jj|f ^COMMISSION. 



—*- 




IT commission mer- 
M chant is one 
: ^who sells mer- 
lg chandise or 
property for 
another. The 
former may 
§|ship his stock, 
produce, or 
fruit direct to 
the commission 
merchant in the large city, who sells it at the highest 
market price, or holds it, according to the instructions 
of the shipper, for sale on his account. The country 



-V— 


merchant ships butter, eggs, cheese, poultry, and other 
produce from the farm, for sale in this way. The city 
merchant finds in his stock of boots and shoes, dry 
goods or groceries, goods which are unsalable for the 
season, and not desiring to “ carry them over,” he 
sends them to the commission merchant to be disposed 
of at the most favorable price. Hence may be found 
in the large cities, Grain Commission Merchants, who 
deal exclusively in wheat, corn, oats, etc.; Stock Com¬ 
mission Merchants, who sell cattle, sheep, and hogs; 
Produce Commission Merchants, who handle only pro¬ 
duce and fruit, and so on. 

The goods shipped to a commission merchant are 
said to be consigned, and are called a consignment. 



















































HOW TO CALCULATE. 


The shipper is called the consignor and the person to 
whom shipped is called the consignee. 

Commission merchants charge a fee for their services 
in selling the goods, either at a certain price per car 
load, as in stock, or at a certain per cent on the sales, 
as in most articles of merchandise. 

Rates of commission may depend upon the vol¬ 
ume and kind of business transacted, but the com¬ 
mission merchants generally have a uniform price 



for buying and selling the various articles of mer¬ 
chandise. 

After the property has been sold, a statement is 
rendered by the consignee, showing the particulars as 
to the sale of the consignment, the charges, commis¬ 
sion, and net proceeds due the consignor; this state¬ 
ment is called an Account Sales. The charges other 
than commission, embrace, cooperage, storage, insur¬ 
ance, measuring, etc. 


FORM OF AN ACCOUNT SALES. 


Sale No.A*L 

Folio.-???- 



..y/r 


Account Sales of. 


Sold for acc 5 t of ^ 



*>9 


Received iaMJMh.:.. 


IT 


JkSOH & 

COMMISSION MERCHANTS, 

Rendered by.. 157 south water street. 




$350 

16 

48 


2 

60 


24 

50 

43 



$306 


SOLD F. <D. Baxter , 

250 bu. Early Bose Potatoes. 


$1.40 


CHARGES. 

Freight and Cartage Paid. 
Storage. 

Insurance. 

Commission and Guaranty, 

E. Si O. E. 


Net Proceeds. 


58 


42 


HOW TO FIND THE COMMISSION. 

Multiply the amount of the sales by the rate per 
cent and the product will be the commission. 

Example. A commission merchant sold a consign¬ 
ment for $600 on 4 per cent commission. What was 

his commission ? 

Sales, $600 

Rate per cent, 04 

Commission, $24.00 

Example. A commission merchant sold a consign¬ 
ment of apples for $124, and charged 3| per cent com¬ 


mission. He paid freight, $8.40, and drayage, $2.75. 
What were the net proceeds? 

Sales, $124 

Rate per cent, 03 b 


124 X 3 = $372 
124 X I = 62 


Sales, 

Charges, 


$124.00 

15.49 


Commission, 

Freight, 

Drayage, 


$4.34 

8.40 

2.75 


Net proceeds, $108.51 


Total charges, $15.49 




































































168 


HOW TO CALCULATE. 




. LS J>.. 
®>,.-cy|o3V 


®*s 




, x _ *f« 

Ap- ©To T> 

Ts#- 


INSURANCE,, 






contract between two parties 
in which, for a certain fee, 
one agrees to indemnify the 
other against loss by any species 
of casualty is called insurance. 
Companies organized for the pur¬ 
pose of engaging in insurance 
usually confine themselves to a 
particular class of risks. Fire 
Insurance, Life Insurance, Acci¬ 
dent Insurance and Marine Insur¬ 
ance are names for different kinds 
of risks. 

The written contract between 
the company and the insured is called a policy, which 
recites the particulars in a special case, specifying the 


premium or other consideration, the amount insured, 
the risks, etc., for which indemnity is stipulated. The 
sum paid for insurance is called the premium, and is 
usually reckoned at a certain rate per cent on the size 
of the risk assumed. 

In order to find the premium on a fire policy, multi¬ 
ply the amount insured by the rate, thus : 

Example. A merchant insured his stock of goods 
for $3,250 at 1^ per cent. What was paid for premium? 

$ 3250 

Olj 

Premium at 1 


i 

i 

H 


per cent $32.50 
“ 8.125 


“ 40.625 

To find the premium on a life policy, find the pre¬ 
mium, from the tables, on a policy of $1000, and multi¬ 
ply this by the number of thousands in the policy. 





n the calculations 
of the business 
man, the reckon¬ 
ing of gains and 
losses form no un¬ 
important part. 
An article having 
cost a certain 
amount, at what 
price must it be 
sold to make a just 
profit, taking into 
consideration freight or express charges, rent of store, 
bad debts, clerk hire and other expenses; what is the 
gain per cent on the different classes of goods sold; 
which yields the best income, and what interest on the 
capital invested, do I make? are questions which the 
prudent, careful and successful merchant is continually 
asking himself. It is not too much to say that the 
failure of a large proportion of the farmers and mer¬ 
chants who do fail, is owing to a liarem-scarem, reck¬ 
less method of doing business, disregarding all rules 
of arithmetic or book-keeping, and in their ignorance 
supposing that they are getting rich, until the crisis 


comes, and all at once the true condition of affairs 
dawns on them and the sheriff closes them out. Their 
neighbors say, “ bad management,” but the thoughtful 
business man, speaking more definitely, says it was 
paying eight per cent interest and only making seven 
and a half per cent net profit on goods sold. 

Having given the cost of an article and the per cent, 
to be gained or lost, to find the gain or loss, 

Multiply the cost by the rate per cent and the pro¬ 
duct will be the gain or loss. 

Example. A farmer bought a cow for $36 and sold 
her at 20 per cent profit. What does he gain? 

. Cost, $36 

Gain per cent, .20 

Gain, $7.20 

Example. The cost of an invoice of goods is $68.60 
and freight $4.30 additional. What is the gain by 
selling at 33J per cent profit ? 

Goods, $68.60 

Freight, 4.30 

33^ percent = J)72.90 
Gain, $24.30 

Having thus found the gain, the selling price is 
easily found by adding the gain, or subtracting the 
loss from the cost. 
















































































HOW TO CALCULATE. 


169 


Given, the cost and the selling price, in order to find 
the rate per cent of gain or loss. 

Take the difference between the cost and selling 
price, and divide this by the cost price, the quotient 
will be the rate per cent of gain or loss. 

Example. A suit of clothes cost $16 and sold for $20. 

Selling price, $20 
Cost, 16 

16) 4.00(25 per cent. 

3.2 

80 


Example. Bought corn at 50c per bushel and sold it 
at 46c per bushel. What was the per cent of loss? 

Cost, 50c 

Selling price, 46 

50) 4.00( 8 per cent. loss. 

4.00 

The gain or loss is always reckoned on the cost, 
never on the selling price, hence the reason for always 
dividing by the cost, and thus using it as a basis of 
calculation or measurement. 



^MARKING GOODS. 








This is easily done by adopting any word or phrase 
having ten letters, no two alike, to represent the nine 
digits and cipher. Such words and phrases as the fol¬ 
lowing may be used: 


Gas Fixture. 
Black Horse. 
Misfortune. 
Importance. 


Fish Tackle. 
Cash Profit. 
So Friendly. 
Gainful Job. 


Brown Sugar. 
Now Be Sharp. 
Elucidator. 

Of Industry. 


Each figure is given a letter to represent it, and 
when it is required to mark a box or package the letter 
is used instead of the figure. Thus, 


IPETITION in trade, the peculiarities of 
customers, cost of rents, clerk hire, 
advertising, freight or express charges, 
and interest on the capital invested, are 
factors which the merchant must con¬ 
sider in deciding at what profit he may mark his goods. 
Certain classes of goods which are salable only during 
a certain brief period in the year, should be sold at a 
higher profit, to compensate for carrying over, any 
portion of the stock which remains unsold, while on 
other articles an ordinary rate of profit is made. In 
order to secure custom, merchants sometimes resort to 
the method of selling staple articles, such as calico or 
sugar, at almost cost, and making up this loss on other 
articles concerning the cost of which the public are not 
so well informed. Large trade is often attracted in 
this way, and fortunes have by it been made. 

In marking goods most merchants prefer to use a 
system of characters or letters understood only by 
themselves and their salesmen, to represent the cost 
price of goods, and in some cases the selling price also, 
the object being to conceal from the customer, the 
amount of profit made. 


CASHPROFIT 

1234567890 

In marking an article, the cost of which is $3.75 and 
the selling price is $4.50, by substituting the letters 
we have S O P—H P T, and as the cost and selling 1 
price are usually written in the form of a fraction with 
the cost price above, we have -AA. An extra letter 
called a repeater is often used to avoid the repetition 
of a letter which might disclose the private mark, thus 
in writing $1.22, instead of using the key letters, 
which would be C A A, we substitute for the last let¬ 
ter, some extra letter, as W, and make it read C A W. 
Fractions may be written thus; 426f, H A R-A. 

Instead of letters, merchants sometimes adopt a sys¬ 
tem of characters, such as follows: 

12 3456 7 890 Repeater. 
ilDLauvad+ o 

A great many articles are bought by merchants by 
the dozen, such as hats and caps, boots and shoes, and 
notions, and while pricing such goods in the wholesale 
house, it becomes important to know readily what 
profit will be yielded by selling' the articles singly in 

















































170 


HOW TO CALCULATE. 


the buyer’s market at a certain price, or what the arti¬ 
cles should retail for to make a profit of 20 per cent. 

Divide the cost of the articles by the dozen by 10, 
which is done by removing the decimal point one place to 
the left. 

Thus, when straw hats are wholesaled at $13.50 per 
dozen, the buyer knows at once that each hat must be 
sold for $1.35 in order to yield him a gross profit of 20 
per cent, and he can then decide whether it would be 
profitable to buy. 

Using 20 per cent as a basis, a larger or smaller 
gain may be readily found by adding to, or subtracting 
from, the selling price. The cost of an article is 100 
per cent, and if 20 per cent gain is made, the selling 
price is represented by 120 per cent. Suppose the 
merchant desires to make a profit of 30 per cent. 
Removing the decimal point one place to the left, he 
has the selling price of the article at 20 per cent 
profit, and as he desires 10 per cent more profit, which 
is fj of 120, this is found by adding T V to the selling 
price of the article. Hence the following table: 

To make 20 p. ct. remove the point one place to the left. 
80 “ “ “ and add \ itself. 

60 “ “ “ “ £ 

50 “ “ “ “ l 

44 “ 

40 “ 

37 “ 

35 “ 


o make 30 p 

. ct. remove the point and add T V 

itself. 

4 4 

28 

4 4 4 4 

4 4 

“ tV 

4 4 

44 

26 

4 4 4 4 

4 4 

JT 

4 4 

4 4 

25 

4 4 4 4 

4 4 

«< 1 

44 

4 4 

12J 

4 4 4 4 

4 4 

subtract Tj- 

4 4 

4 4 

lfif 

4 4 4 4 

4 4 

(« i 

3T 

4 4 

44 

18f 

4 4 4 4 

4 4 

<« 1 

77 

4 4 

Example. 

If I buy 

one dozen shirts for $26, what 


t < 


4 i 


4 4 


4 4 


44 


it 


i i 


i 4 


i i 


i i 


33 ^ “ 


i i 


< < 


i 

T 

1 

T 

1 

T 

1 

8 

1 

7 


< < 


i ( 


«i 


shall I retail them at to make 50 per cent? Ans. $3.25. 

Remove the point one place to the left, making $2.60, 
then add j, or 65c for extra gain, and the result ivill 
be $3.25. 

Merchants, in marking goods, usually make the per 
cent of profit some even part of a dollar, for con¬ 
venience, and when articles are not bought by the 
dozen, but singly, the following table for finding the 
selling price will be useful: 

To make 10 per cent profit, add T V to the cost. 

8 


i i 
4 i 

44 
11 
a 
11 
t 4 
11 
11 
i 6 


12J 
if 


16 f 


20 

25 

33i 

40 

50 

66f 

75 

87^ 


i i 
i i 
4 4 
4 4 
44 
4 4 
4 4 
4 4 
44 
44 


1 

* 

t 

1 

2 

2 

3 

I 

1 

8 


4 4 
4 4 
4 4 
4 4 
4 4 
44 
44 
44 
4 4 
44 


4 4 
4 4 
4 4 
44 
4 4 
44 
44 
4 4 
44 


To make 32 p. ct. remove the point and add T V itself. 

7- - 


Example. A book cost the book-seller $1.08, at 
what price must it be marked to make a profit of 33J 
per cent? Ans. $1.44. One-third of $1.08 is 36c, 
which, added to the cost, gives the selling price. 


-<>- 







TRADE DISCOUNTS. 



-O- 




<T—EELr- 

erchants, in certain lines of business, 
manufacturers, and publishers of books, 
have a printed price list of their goods 
and wares. For all the fluctuations in 
market value, it would be very inconvenient, if not 
impossible, to issue a new catalogue of prices, and 
hence the market price is reached by giving discounts 
from the “ list price.” Suppose the regular discount 
on an article, “ to the trade,” that is to other dealers, 
is 40 per cent, and it is desired to give a greater reduc¬ 
tion, this is done by an extra discount, and we would 
then have 40 and 10 off, and if, on account of buying a 
large quantity, it is desirable to give still a better 
reduction, we would have 40, and 10, and 5 off, as in 


the following bill: 






August 10 , . x / p pA. 



essrs. Geo. Brown & Co., 


bought of The National School Furniture Co., 

Manufacturers and Dealers in 

SCHOOL FURNITURE AND SCHOOL SUPPLIES. 


20 

Double School Desks , A , §9 

180 




40 off , 

72 





108 




20 *ff, 

10 

80 




97 

20 



5 off , 

4 

86 

#92 


.9 4 




































































HOW TO CALCULATE. 


To persons ignorant of the principles of discounting, 
in the foregoing bill the discounts would appear to be 
equal to a single discount of 55 per cent, but such is 
not the ease, as they are in reality less than 50 per cent, 
seen by comparing the final result with the original 
price. The reason of this is that all the discounts are 
not computed on the list price, but only on the sum 
remaining after the previous discount has been de¬ 
ducted. 

EXAMPLES SHOWING THE DIFFERENCE IN DISCOUNTS. 


List price, $250 
40 off 100 


20 oft' 

10 ©ft* 
Net, 


150 

30 

120 

12 

$108 

75 


List price, $250 
70 oft* 175 

Net, $ 75 


$ 33 Difference between the methods. 

In marking goods, as seen in the previous chapter, 
the selling price is usually placed at a certain per cent 
above cost, and in case a discount is given, it is im¬ 
portant to know what discount may be allowed. Thus 
if an article is marked 40 per cent above cost and a dis¬ 
count of 25 per cent allowed from the marking price, 
the gain would not still be 15 per cent, as might be 



supposed, but only 5 per cent, and if 30 per cent dis¬ 
count were allowed, instead of leaving a profit of 10 
per cent, the merchant would be actually losing 2 per 
cent. Thus may losses arise when profits are supposed 
to be made, through lack of knowledge of discounting. 

The reason for this seeming deception is, that dis¬ 
counts are reckoned on a greater sum than the cost. 
Thus, if the cost is $1.00, and a profit of 40 per cent is 
marked, the selling price is $1.40. Now 30 per cent 
of $1.40 is 42c, which deducted leaves the selling price 
at 98c, which is 2c less than the actual cost. 

Example. What is the actual profit to a merchant 
who marked an article of hardware which cost him $10 
at 50 per cent profit and in order to effect a sale threw 
off 30 per cent? 

Cost price, $10.00 

50 per cent profit, 5.00 

Marking price, $15.00 

30 per cent discount, 4.50 

Selling price, 

Cost, 

Net gain, 


$10.50 

10.00 

.50 


Discounts should never be given at random, but only 
after careful calculation, as the merchant may be thus 
very easily deceived and led into a loss while supposing 
he is making a good profit. 



* ^ •%— 






INTEREST.+ 






AjLOj!° ‘ta 





ne of the most 
important cal¬ 
culations met 
with in busi¬ 
ness is that of reckon¬ 
ing 1 interest. Time was 
in the dark ages, when 
all interest was usury, and illegal, for the reason, as 
said, that money could not grow or increase, and that 
a man would “ only borrow under the impulse of hard 
necessity.” But later, men perceived that with money 
they could buy that which would increase; and as com¬ 
merce revived, instead of borrowing under necessity, 
money was borrowed and interest paid for the bene¬ 
fits which accrue from the use of capital. In our 
own time usury is the taking of interest higher than 
the rate allowed by law, and a few of the states have 
even abolished usury laws, and allow any rate of inter¬ 



est to be charged. 


There is no doubt but that eventu¬ 
ally all distinctions of legal and illegal interest will 
disappear, and the laws of supply and demand will 
regulate the price paid for money, as it now regulates 
the price of commodities, or labor, the equivalents of 
money. 

The legal rate of interest is the rate established by 
law for all contracts in which no rate of interest is 
mentioned. 


Rate of inter¬ 
est will de- < 
pend upon 


f 1 The personal character of borrower. 
1 Risk. -j 2 The nature of the business. 

(.3 The character of the government. 


2 Convenience of 
investment. 


1 Facility of Transfer. 

2 Permanency of the loans. 
L 3 Punctuality in payment. 

3 Profits of use. 

4 Supply and demand. 


The sum for which interest is paid is called the prin¬ 
cipal, and the number of cents paid for the use of every 
dollar for one year is called the rate. 





























































172 


HOW TO CALCULATE. 


Unfortunately no uniformity exists in calculating 
the time for which interest is charged. The United 
States government, in the case of bonds, estimates 365 
days to the year, and while some bankers have adopted 
this in calculating interest, others estimate 360 days to 
the year, and 30 days to the month, therefore as one- 
twelfth of a year, and a day as one-thirtieth of a 
month. This is most commonly used, and calculations 
made are usually based on 360 days to the year. 

A very large proportion of the calculations in inter¬ 
est are in days, usually 30, 60 or 90 days. Banks do 
not like to handle paper for a longer time than 90 
days, and merchants sell goods on 30, 60 or 90 days’ 
credit. In most of the states of the United States, 
and in Canada, the legal rate is 6 per cent. The fol¬ 
lowing rule for finding the interest at 6 per cent when 
the time is in days, will be found excellent: 

SIXTY DAYS METHOD OF INTEREST. 

Remove the point two places farther to the left in 
the principal, this will give the interest for 60 days at 
6 per cent. 

Example. What is the interest on $250 for 60 days 
at 6 per cent? Ans. $2.50. 

To find the interest for 30 days, take one-half, and 
for 90 days add one-half to the interest for 60 days. 

Example. What is the interest on $600 for 30 days 
at 6 per cent? Ans. $3.00. For 90 days? Ans. $9.00. 

Notes given usually have 3 days of grace, so that the 
time would be 33, 63 or 93 days, in which case, first 
find the interest for the time without grace, and then 
add A of the 60 days’ interest, or A °f 30 days’ 
interest. 

Example. What is the interest on a note for $240, 
93 days, 6 per cent? 

Interest for 60 days 

“ “ 30 “ 

<< a g a 

*• “ 93 “ $3.72 

To find interest for 10 days take a of the interest for 60 days, 

“ (e “ “ ie l (( « <( « 


$2.40 

1.20 

12 


it 

it 

it 

20 

“ “ i “ 

it 

tt 

t, 

it 

it 

6% 

40 

“subtracts from 

a 

a 

tt 

tt 

it 

it 

45 

tt 1 u 

4 

tt 

a 

tt 

tt 

it 

it 

75 

“ add 4 to the 

it 

a 

it 

it 

it 

it 

120 

“ double the 

tt 

a 

a 

Using 

60 days 

as 

a basis, the interest 

may thus 


found for any number of days by adding to or sub¬ 
tracting from, the interest for 60 days. 

TO FIND THE INTEREST AT ANY RATE. 

First find the interest at 6 per cent for the given 
time, and if the rate is greater or less than 6 per cent, 
add to, or subtract from, the interest at 6 per cent, as 
follows: 



To find 

the interest 

at 3 % take \ 

it 

it 

a 

4 % subtract ^ 

tt 

tt 

a 

“ i 

it 

it 

tt 

5^ “ 1 

it 

a 

a 

7 % add i 

it 

a 

is. 

“ i 

tt 

a 

it 

8 % “ i 

it 

a 

a 

9 % “ \ 

a 

a 

a 

10 % “ t 



a 

tt 

it 

tt 

tt 

u 

a 

it 


it 

it 

it 

a 

tt 

.i 

it 

it 


The foregoing method will be found of great value 
in all cases where the time is short, and a little prac¬ 
tice will lead to its adoption by all who desire a quick 
and simple method of casting interest. 

TO FIND THE INTEREST AT ANY RATE FOR ANY TIME. 

If the time is in months and days, reduce it to days, 
or if the time is in years and months only, reduce to 
months. Place the principal, time, and rate on one 
side of a line, and if the time is in months, place 12, 
or if in days, place 360, on the opposite side of the 
line. Shorten the operation by canceling, multiply 
together the remaining numbers, and point off two 
places for cents. 

Example. Find the interest on $560 at 9 per cent 
for 5 months 12 days. 


5 mo. 12 da. = 162 da. 



14 


UW 

QUA 

tJTjTJ 

162 

40 

.09 

Example. 

Find 


162 X 14 = $22.68 Ans. 


drawing 7 per cent interest for 1 year 8 months. 
24 

1 yr. 8 mo. = 20 mo. 


IS 


20 


.07 24 x 20 = 480 X .07 = $33.60 Ans. 

In some cases very little canceling can be done, but 
even if none is done, this method is then as short as 
any other, for working the same problem. 


HOW INTEREST ACCUMULATES. 


If 

one 

dollar be 

invested ; 

Did 

the 

interest added to 

the principal, annu 

ally , at the r; 

ates 

named, we shall 

have 

the 

following 

result as 

the 

accumulation of one 

hundred 

years: 





One Dollai 

r, 100 years, at 1 Ip cent 



. $2.75 

it 


a 

2 “ 




it 


a 

2K “ 



. 11.75 

U 


a 

3 “ 




it 


a 

3^ “ 



. 31.25 

a 


a 

4 “ 



. . . . 50.50 

it 


u 

4X “ 




it 


a 

5 “ 

. . « . 

> • • • • 

. 131.50 

it 


u 

6 “ 




it 


a 

7 “ 




it 


a 

8 “ 



. 2,203.00 

it 


a 

9 “ 




it 


u 

10 “ 



13,809.00 

it 


a 

12 “ 



. 34,675.00 

it 


a 

15 “ 



. 1.174,405.00 

a 


a 

18 “ 




u 


a 

24 “ 



. 2,551,799,404.00 































































HOW TO CALCULATE• 


173 



o find the value of a debt or note before it 
is due, the interest on it for the unexpired 
time must be deducted, and because it is 
deducted this interest is called discount. 
Discount differs in no way from simple interest, and is 
calculated by the rules previously given for reckoning 
interest. 

In Bank Discount three days of grace are included, 
and with some banks the day, when the note is dis¬ 
counted is added, making four extra days. The reason 
of this is that the note may have been discounted and 
the funds advanced early in the morning, and paid late 
on the last day of grace, so that the bank loses the use 
of the money while the borrower receives its use, for 
really four extra days. 


The discount deducted from the face of the note, or 
debt, leaves the Proceeds. In case a note bearing 
interest is discounted, the interest to the time of 
maturity must first be computed and added to the note 
and then the discount taken on this amount. 

The amount due at maturity is the face of the note, 
among bankers. 

Example. What is the discount at 6 per cent and 
proceeds of a note for $1500 due 60 days hence? 

Discount for 60 days, $15.00 


“ “ 3 “ .75 

“ “ 63 “ 15.75 

Face of note, $1500 
Discount, 15.75 

Proceeds, $1484.25 




hen the interest on a debt is payable at 
stated intervals, as yearly, half yearly, 
or quarterly, and is not paid when 
due, it may, by agreement between 
the parties, be added to, and become a part of, the debt 
or principal and draw interest with it. I his interest 
on interest and principal combined is called compound 
interest. 

In casting up the compound interest on a debt or 
obligation, the interest must first be found for the 
year, half year, or quarter, as the case may be, and 
added to the principal and then interest for the next 
interval of a year, half year, or quarter computed on 
this amount and added, and so on. 

Example. Find the amount due at compound inter¬ 
est of a debt of $600, in 3 years, at 8 per cent, com¬ 
pounded annually. 


Principal, $600 
.08 


Int. for 1st year, 48 

600 


Amount at end of 1st year 

, 648 

.08 

Int. for 2d year, 

51.84 

648 

Amount at end of 2d year, 

699.84 

.08 

Int. for 3d year, 

55.9872 

699.84 


Amount due at end of 3d year, $755.82+Ans. 

Reckonings for a long period of time or with fre¬ 
quent compoundings, entail considerable labor, and it 
is well, therefore, to have near at hand, a table which 
can be easily referred to, and thus save the labor and 
liability to error of a long calculation. 





















































































174 


HOW TO CALCULATE 


TABLE SHOWING THE AMOUNT OF $i AT COMPOUND INTEREST FOR ANY NUMBER 

OF YEARS, FROM i YEAR TO 50 YEARS INCLUSIVE. 


Years. 

4£ Per Cent. 

5 Per Cent. 

6 Per Cent. 

7 Per Cent. 

8 Per Cent. 

9 Per Cent. 

10 Per Cent. 

Years 

1 

1.0450 0000 

1.0500 000 

1.0600 000 

1.0700 000 

1.0800 000 

1.0900 000 

1.1000 000 

1 

2 

1.0920 2500 

1.1025 000 

1.1236 000 

1.1449 000 

1.1664 000 

1.1881 000 

1.2100 000 

2 

3 

1.1411 6612 

1.1576 250 

1.1910 160 

1.2250 430 

1.2597 120 

1.2950 290 

1.333P 000 

3 

4 

1.1925 1860 

1.2155 063 

1.2624 770 

1.3107 960 

1.3604 890 

1.4115 816 

1.4641 000 

4 

5 

1.2461 8194 

1.2762 816 

1.3382 256 

1.4025 517 

1.4693 281 

1.5386 240 

1.6105 100 

5 

6 

1.3022 6012 

1.3400 956 

1.4185 191 

1.5007 304 

1.5868 743 

1.6771 001 

1.7715 610 

6 

7 

1.3608 6183 

1.4071 004 

1.5036 303 

1.6057 815 

1.7138 243 

1.8280 391 

1.9487 171 

7 

8 

1.4221 0061 

1.4774 554 

1.5938 481 

1.7181 862 

1.8509 302 

1.9925 626 

2.1435 888 

8 

9 

1.4860 9514 

1.5513 282 

1.6894 790 

1.8384 592 

1.9990 046 

2.1718 933 

2.3579 477 

9 

10 

1.5529 6942 

1.6288 946 

1.7908 477 

1.9671 514 

2.1589 250 

2.3673 637 

2.5937 425 

10 

11 

1.6228 5305 

1.7103 394 

1.8982 986 

2 1048 520 

2.3316 390 

2.5804 264 

2.8531 167 

11 

12 

1.6958 8143 

1.7958 563 

2.0121 965 

2.2521 916 

2.5181 701 

2.8126 648 

3.1384 284 

12 

13 

1.7721 9610 

1.8856 491 

2.1329 283 

2.4098 450 

2.7196 237 

3.0658 046 

3.4522 712 

13 

14 

1.8519 4492 

1.9799 316 

2.2609 040 

2.5785 342 

2.9371 936 

3.3417 270 

3.7974 983 

14 

15 

1.9352 8244 

2.0789 282 

2.3965 582 

2.7590 315 

3.1721 691 

3.6424 825 

4.1772 482 

15 

16 

2.0223 7015 

2.1828 746 

2.5403 517 

2.9521 638 

3.4259 426 

3.9703 059 

4.5949 730 

16 

17 

2.1133 7681 

2.2920 183 

2,6927 728 

3.1588 152 

3.7000 181 

4.3276 334 

5.0544 703 

17 

18 

2.2084 7877 

2.4066 192 

2.8543 392 

3.3799 323 

3.9960 195 

4.7171 204 

5.5599 173 

18 

19 

2.3078 6031 

2.5269 502 

3.0255 995 

3.6165 275 

4.3157 011 

5.1416 613 

6.1159 390 

19 

20 

2.4117 1402 

2.6532 977 

3.2071 355 

3.8696 845 

4.6609 571 

5.6044 108 

6.7275 000 

20 

21 

2.5202 4116 

2.7859 626 

3.3995 636 

4.1405 624 

5.0338 337 

6.1088 077 

7.4002 499 

21 

22 

2.6336 5201 

2.9252 607 

3.6035 374 

4.4304 017 

5.4365 404 

6,6586 004 

8.1402 749 

22 

23 

2.7521 6635 

3.0715 238 

3.8197 497 

4.7405 299 

5.8714 637 

7.2578 745 

8.9543 024 

23 

24 

2.8760 1383 

3.2250 999 

4.0489 346 

5.0723 670 

6.3411 807 

7.9110 832 

9.8497 327 

24 

25 

3.0054 3446 

3.3863 549 

4.2918 707 

5.4274 326 

6.8484 752 

8.6230 807 

10.8347 059 

25 

26 

3.1406 7901 

3.5556 727 

4.5493 830 

5.8073 529 

7.3963 532 

9.3991 579 

11.9181 765 

26 

27 

3.2820 0956 

3.7334 563 

4.8223 459 

6.2138 676 

7.9880 615 

10.2450 821 

• 13.1099 942 

27 

28 

3.4296 9999 

3.9201 291 

5.1116 867 

6.6488 384 

8.6271 064 

11.1671 395 

14.4209 936 

28 

29 

3.5840 3649 

4.1161 356 

5.4183 879 

7.1142 571 

9.3172 749 

12.1721 821 

15.8630 930 

29 

30 

3.7453 1813 

4.3219 424 

5.7434 912 

. 7.6122 550 

10.0626 569 

13.2676 785 

17.4494 023 

30 

31 

3.9138 5745 

4.5380 395 

6.0881 006 

8.1451 129 

10.8676 694 

14.4617 695 

19.1943 425 

31 

32 

4.0899 8104 

4.7649 415 

6.4533 867 

8.7152 708 

11,7370 830 

15.7633 288 

21.1137 768 

32 

33 

4.2740 3018 

5.0031 885 

6.8405 899 

9.3253 398 

12.6760 496 

17.1820 284 

23.2251 544 

33 

34 

4.4663 6154 

5.2533 480 

7.2510 253 

9.9781 135 

13.6901 336 

18.7284 109 

25.5476 699 

34 

35 

4.6673 4781 

5.5160 154 

7.6860 868 

10.6765 815 

14.7853 443 

20.4139 679 

28.1024 369 

35 

36 

4.8773 7846 

5.7918 161 

8.1472 520 

11.4239 422 

15.9081 718 

22.2512 250 

30.9126 805 

36 

37 

5.0962 6049 

6.0814 069 

8.6360 871 

12.2236 181 

17.2456 256 

24.2538 353 

34.0039 486 

37 

38 

5.3269 1921 

6.3854 773 

9.1542 524 

13.0792 714 

18.6252 756 

26.4366 805 

37.4043 434 

38 

39 

5.5658 9908 

6.7047 512 

9.7035 075 

13.9948 204 

20.1152 977 

28.8159 817 

41.1447 778 

39 

40 

5.8163 6454 

7.0399 887 

10.2857 179 

14.9744 578 

21.7245 215 

31.4094 200 

45.2592 556 

40 

41 

6.0781 0094 

7.3919 882 

10.9028 610 

16.0226 699 

23.4624 832 

34.2362 679 

49.7851 811 

41 

42 

6.3516 1548 

7.7615 876 

11.5570 327 

17.1442 568 

25.3394 819 

37.3175 320 

54.7636 992 

42 

43 

6.6374 3818 

8.1496 669 

12.2504 546 

18.3443 548 

27.3666 404 

40.6761 098 

60.2400 692 

43 

44 

6.9361 2290 

8.5571 503 

12.9854 819 

19.6284 596 

29.5559 717 

44.3369 597 

66.2640 761 

44 

45 

7.2482 4843 

8.9850 078 

13.7646 108 

21.0024 518 

31.9204 494 

48.3272 861 

72.8904 837 

45 

46 

7.5744 1961 

9.4342 582 

14.5904 875 

22.4726 234 

34.4740 853 

52.6767 419 

80.1795 321 

46 

47 

7.9152 6849 

9.9059 711 

15.4659 167 

24.0457 070 

37.2320 122 

57.4176 486 

88.1974 853 

47 

48 

8.2714 5557 

10.4012 697 

16.3938 717 

25.7289 065 

40.2105 731 

62.5852 370 

97.0172 338 

48 

49 

8.6436 7107 

10.9213 331 

17.3775 040 

27.5299 300 

43.4274 190 

68.2179 083 

106.7189 572 

49 

50 

9.0326 3627 

11.4673 998 

18.4201 543 

29.4570 2 51 

46.9016 125 

74.3575 201 

117.3908 529 

50 




























































HOW TO CALCULATE. 


175 






STOCKS, BONDS £ INVESTMENTS. 





~S*9 



Market - 

Quotations 


IT 




42r- 

'$ 8 . 



he capital stock of 
Railway, Telegraph, 
Insurance, Banking, 
and other corporations 
is divided into equal 
parts called shares, 
ranging from $10 to 
$1000 each, hut usually 
$100, and to each stock¬ 
holder is issued a cer¬ 
tificate of stock duly 
signed by the proper 
officers, specifying the 
number of shares by 
him owned and their 
par value. 

This stock certificate is transferable and may be 
bought and sold the same as other species of property. 
If sold above par it is said to be at a premium, or if 
below par, at a discount. Persons who make a busi¬ 
ness of buying and selling stocks are called stock 
brokers, and their occupation is denominated Stock 
Jobbing. The cause of the rise and fall of the market 
value of stocks is due, first, to the condition or success 
of the corporation in which the stock is owned, the 
dividend paid and its prospects for the future, and 
second, to the combinations and manipulations of stock 
brokers, as will be explained in another part of this 
work. 

Instead of dividing the profits, as is done by a firm 
or partnership, the corporation “ declares a dividend,” 
either annually, semi-annually or quarterly, and pays 
to each stockholder the profits on his stock, reckoned 
at a certain per cent upon its par value. This dividend 
is generally paid in cash, but when it is the wish of the 
directors to increase the efficiency of the company by 
retaining the profits and using them for its benefit, a 
certificate is issued to the stockholder, entitling him to 
the sum specified therein with interest, and this is 
called a scrip dividend. 


Out of the net earnings is first set aside what is 
called a “ Reserve Fund,” or “ Sinking Fund,” and 
the remainder declared as a dividend. This fund thus 
accumulates and furnishes the means for any emergency 
without taxing the stockholders, and if in any case the 
profits were not sufficient to justify the usual dividend, 
this fund is drawn on to make up the deficiency, thus 
keeping the dividend from year to year certain—retain¬ 
ing faith and credit in the company and in the value of 
its stock. 

When the charter of a corporation forbids the 
declaring of a dividend which will exceed a certain per 
cent of the par value of its stock, then, new .stock is 
sometimes issued, thus securing the stockholders the 
same profit though at a smaller rate per cent of divi¬ 
dend in consequence of the increase of the capital stock. 
This process is called “watering” stock. Common 
and preferred stock are so called because the latter has 
the preference in the matter of dividends. 

To find the dividend on stocks, multiply the par 
value by the rate per cent of dividend which the stock 
pays. 

Example. A owned $500 of Northwestern Railroad 
stock on which a dividend is declared of 8 per cent. 
What is his dividend? 

Par value, $500 
Rate per cent, .08 
Dividend, $40.00 

When stock is bought or sold above or below par, to 
find the cost, multiply the par value of the stock by 
100 per cent plus the advance, if at a premium, or 100 
per cent less the discount, if at a discount. 

Example. What will 12 shares ($100 each) of Erie 
stock cost at 4f per cent premium? 

Par value, $1200 

Value of $1 worth of stock, 1.04f 


450 

4800 

1200 


Cost of the stock, 







































































HOW TO CALCULATE. 


BONDS. 

A bond is in the nature of a promissory note. From 
the day laborer who pays as he goes, and the contented 
man of humble walk who never owes a debt, up to the 
corporation with its wealth and power, we find indebt¬ 
edness and financial embarrassment increasing, so that 
the per centage of those under pecuniary difficulties 
constantly augments as we go upwards, until we come 
to municipalities, states and governments whose reve¬ 



nue is counted by millions, and we hardly find one that 
is not deeply involved in debt. 

In prosecuting the war of the rebellion our govern¬ 
ment found it necessary to borrow large sums of money 
to meet the enormous expenditure, and in return issued 
interest-bearing bonds. States, counties and cities, 
engaged in public improvements raise money in this 
way. A coupon bond is one with interest-bearing cer¬ 
tificates, or coupons attached, and as these fall due they 


FORM OF A SHARE OF BANK STOCK. 




are clipped off and cashed, as in the case of United States 
bonds, at any national bank, or may pass as money. 
Coupon bonds are payable to bearer, and if lost or 
stolen the amount cannot be recovered from the govern¬ 
ment or corporation issuing them. Registered bonds 
are those payable to the order of the holder or owner, 
and registered on the books of the United States 
Treasury, or corporation. 

When bonds are issued by the government and are 


payable at a specified time, the rate of interest with 
the date, constitutes the name by which they are gen¬ 
erally known, as “ 5’s of ’81,” or “ 4’s of ’91,' etc. 
Those payable at the option of the government within 
a certain number of years before the date of maturity, 
as between 5 and 20 years, are generally designated by 
combining the number of years for which they were 
issued by the time within which they may be called in, 
as “ 5-20s,” or “ 10-40s.” 









































































































HOW TO CALCULATE. 



Bonds issued by states, counties, or corporations, 
usually derive their name from the source that issues 
them, together with the rate of interest they bear. 
Thus, “ U. S. Pacific currency 6’s ” were issued by the 
government to aid in the construction of railroads to 
the Pacific coast, and on the completion of each twenty 
miles of track, to receive at the rate of $10,000, 
$22,000 or $48,000 per mile, according to the difficul¬ 
ties of constructing the same. They are payable thirty 
years from date of issue and are registered in bonds of 
$1000, $5000 and $10000. 

Money is sometimes borrowed by corporations on 
their property as security. For loans thus received they 
issue mortgage bonds payable at a specified time with 
interest. These bonds are secured by a mortgage on 
the property of the company. 

INVESTMENTS. 

The statement is perhaps true, that it is more diffi¬ 
cult to keep money than to make it. By injudicious 
investments oftentimes the accumulations of years are 
swept away; but happy is that rich man who so wisely 
employs and invests his wealth as to escape the anxie¬ 
ties and cares which harass and torment, in the evening 
of life, when the possession of wealth should bring 
enjoyment instead of misery. 

Widows and youthful heirs, who have little or no 
knowledge of business, are liable to have their fortunes 
swept away by trusting their investments entirely to 
others, or else through being seduced by tempting 
advertisements of brokers and their representatives to 
place their funds in worthless stocks or inadequate 
securities. 

The first element of a good investment is that the 
principal should be secure, that it shall not be dimin¬ 
ished through depreciation of values, nor lost through 
want of sound security. The second element is, that 
the principal can be readily obtained if it is wanted; 
security must be convertible, that is, easily realized. 
An investment, however secure, which ties up money 
irrevocably for years, is not a first-class one. The 
other and secondary elements of a good investment 
are, that the interest or return should be promptly 
paid, and that it should be as large as possible. 

The legul rate of interest in most of the states of 
the American Union, is six per cent, and this is con¬ 
ceded by business men to be a fair price for the use of 
money or capital. When this interest is collected 
promptly and reinvested the income will be equivalent 
to the compound interest on the capital, and hence a 
net income of six per cent compound interest may be 



regarded as a standard in measuring the value of invest¬ 
ments. It may be laid down as a rule, that where 15 
or 20 per cent is promised from the loan or investment, 
a portion of this is in consideration of the insecurity 
of the principal, and this is a frequent source of loss. 

Through miscalculation and the temptation of a large 
annual per centage, regarding 6 per cent compound 
interest as too small, persons often make the mistake 
of not receiving so much. Deducting commissions on 
the purchase or sale, taxes, insurance, assessments, 
buying above par and risk of the principal, and an 
income of 15 per cent will often be reduced to less 
than 6 per cent, as the following calculation will show: 
Suppose A buys unimproved land to the extend of 
$12000, and after holding it eight years, sells it at 
$21000. Inasmuch as $12000 at compound interest for 
eight years would amount to only $19126.18, it would 
appear that he had made a fine investment. But mean¬ 
while he had incurred unavoidable expenses for fencing, 
taxes, surveying the property, commissions on sale, 
etc., which averaged 2 per cent a year, or $240. He 
must therefore deduct from the gross proceeds, 

$240 at compound interest for 7 years, $360.86 

240 “ “ “ 6 ^ “ 340.32 

240 “ “ “ 5 “ 321.17 

240 “ “ “ 4 “ 302.98 

240 “ “ “ 3 “ 285.84 

240 “ “ “ 2 “ 269.66 

240 “ simple “ 1 “ 254.40 

240 cash ------ 240.00 


Land sold for 
Deduct, 

Net sale, 

Amount at 6 per cent, 
Deduct 


$2375.23 

$21000 

2375.23 

$18624.77 

$19126.18 

18624.77 


Loss over 6 per cent investment, $ 501.41 

The most common investments are made in Real 
Estate, Government Bonds, Corporation Bonds, Bank 
Stock, Manufacturing Stock, etc., the income being 
derived from interests, dividends and rents. 

REAL ESTATE INVESTMENTS. 

In buying real estate the first point to be considered 
is the title. A competent person should be employed 
to examine the records. The purchaser should also 
ascertain if there exists any incumbrance by grant, 
prescription or necessity (not on record), such as a 
right of way, drain, fence, privy, overhanging eaves, 
trees, water-course, nuisance, etc., and if all taxes and 
assessments have been paid. Mortgages and liens 
should be closely scrutinized, and all receipts for taxes 








































178 


HOW TO CALCULATE. 


and insurance policies should be produced and delivered 
up to the purchaser. Finally, the deed should be 
drawn and executed with the utmost accuracy. (See 
Legal Forms.) 

Instead of investing money in real estate many per¬ 
sons prefer to make loans on real estate security, thus 
avoiding the inconvenience of collecting rents and the 
various outlays for repairs, incident to the ownership 
of property. Such loans are usually secured by mort¬ 
gages or deeds of trust. 

A mortgage is an instrument by which, if the debt 
secured by it is not paid at the time agreed upon, the 
creditor may take possession of the property, by what 
is termed a foreclosure, subject, however, to the 
debtor’s right of redemption within a specified time. 
(See Legal Forms.) Mortgages are first, second, 
third, etc., in their order of record. A first mortgage 
is superior to all others, and careful investors refuse to 
loan money except on first lien. The reasons are, that 
if the property is sold to pay the debts, the first mort¬ 
gage must be paid in full before anything is paid on 
the second, and if the property depreciates through 
fire or flood the first mortgage has still sufficient 
security, but subsequent mortgages may have all their 
security swept away. A safe rule is not to loan on 

mortgage for more than one-half of the value of the 
© © 

real estate. 

From respective considerations, it is doubtful that 
the annual net income from real estate in the country 
at large, exceeds four per cent. In some business cen¬ 
ters or certain localities, the increase in value alone 
gives larger average yearly increase than the rate 
named; but the fact that such increase is first obtained 
by very liberal expenditure for street improvements, 
sewers, etc., should not be lost sight of. This increase 
in one locality is sometimes made at the expense of 
some other locality, whose property values are there¬ 
fore reduced in greater or less ratio. The growth 
of certain localities in some parts of the country is 
promoted thus by the transfer of capital and popu¬ 
lation. From this transfer of capital and popula¬ 
tion, or other changes affecting the growth and 
decline of towns and cities, there arises a disposi¬ 
tion to discriminate in favor of other classes of invest¬ 
ments. But there are many instances where money 
can be well invested in real estate, by parties who 
use caution in making selections and then taking 
pains to make judicious outlays for the improvement 
of the property. It is best to be well posted on 
all the points relating to real estate before invest¬ 
ing in it. 


UNITED STATES BONDS. 

United States Bonds are regarded as exceptionally 
good investments, based as they are on the faith and 
credit of the government. The rate of interest is not 
large, but owing to the certainty of payment of inter¬ 
est and principal they are much sought after by per¬ 
sons who desire Safe investments rather than a large 
profit together with risk and inconvenience. 

SMALL SAVINGS. 

Experience and observation show that no more cer¬ 
tain plan of inculcating prudent and temperate habits, 
modest living, and general well-being in a community 
can lie devised than to afford the poorer classes facili¬ 
ties for saving their small gains, and increasing them 
with interest. The animosity between capital and 
labor, money and work, is diminished, for even the 
poorest is thus enabled to taste the pleasures of wit¬ 
nessing his capital increase without toil. 

Every man who is obliged to work for his living 

should lay aside a little money for the “rainy day,” 

which all are liable to encounter, and the best way to 

do this is to open an account with some savings bank. 

Accumulated money is always ready to use when 

needed. Scrape together five dollars, make your 

deposit, get your bank book, and then resolve to 

deposit a given sum, small though it be, once a month 

or once a week, according to circumstances. Nobody 

knows without trying it, how easy a thing it is to save 

money when an account with a bank has been opened. 

With such an account a man feels a desire to enlarge 

© 

his deposit. It gives him lessons in frugality and 
economy, weans him from habits of extravagance, and 
is the very best guard against intemperance and dissi¬ 
pation. The laboring man who saves one hundred dol¬ 
lars a year, or about a quarter of a dollar a day, and 
deposits it in a savings bank which pays 7 per cent 
interest compounded quarterly, will find himself, in a 
score of years, worth nearly jive thousand dollars , from 
this source alone, without any trouble and very little 
self-denial. He should aim to do this for every child 
that is born to him. 


TABLE SHOWING THE RESULT OF SAVINGS. 


SAVING. 

HOW OFTEN 
DEPOSITED. 

INTEREST. 

IIOW OFTEN 
COMPOUN’D. 

TIME 

AMOUNT 

TO 

OR IN 

AMOUNT 

TO 

$1 

Monthly. 

6 per cent. 

Semi-an’ly. 

10 yr. 

$ 101.22 

20 yr. 

$ 452.41 

2 

<( 

6 per cent. 

44 

10 yr. 

322.44 

20 yr. 

904 84 

1 

Weekly. 

6 per cent. 

44 

10 yr. 

908.62 

20 yr. 

1900.43 

2 

44 

6 per cent. 

44 

10 yr. 

1397.24 

20 yr. 

3920.86 

3 

44 

6 per cent. 

«< 

10 yr. 

2095.80 

20 yr. 

5881.29 

5 

it 

6 per cent. 

it 

10 yr. 

3493.10 

20 yr. 

9802.15 

8 

u 

6 per cent. 

44 

10 yr. 

7748.90 

20 yr. 

15683.44 
























































HOW TO CALCULATE. 


179 



C orn is extensively 
put up in cribs 
made of rails, but 
the rule will apply to 
any kind of a crib. 
Level the corn, then 
measure the hight 
of the corn in the 
crib, the length, and 
also the width, allow¬ 
ing for the thickness 
of the crib in outside 
measure, then multi¬ 
ply the length in feet 
by the breadth in feet 
and this again by the 
hight in feet, which 
last product multiply by 8 and cut off one figure from 
the result. This will give so many bushels and deci¬ 


mals of a bushel. After being shelled there will, on 
an average, be one-half as many bushels of shelled 
corn. 

Example. A crib of corn is 9 feet high, 20 feet long 
and 12 feet wide. How many bushels of corn does it 
contain? 

20 X 9 = 180 X 12 = 2160 X 8 = 1728.0 bu. 

When a crib is flared at the sides, as represented by 
the illustration, a rule is to multiply half the sum of 
the bottom breadths in feet by the perpendicular hight 
in feet, and the same again by the length in feet, mul¬ 
tiply the last product by .63 for heaped bushels of ears, 
and by .42 for the number of bushels in shelled corn. 
This rule is based on the generally accepted estimate 
that three heaped half bushels of ears, or four even 
full, form one of shelled corn. 

A barrel of corn is five bushels shelled. By this 
latter measure crops are estimated, and corn bought 
and sold in most southern and western states. 



MEASURING HAY. 


O f course the only 
accurate method of 
finding the amount 
of hay in a given bulk 
is to weigh it. This, 
in many cases, is im¬ 
possible, owing to its 
bulk and character, 
and it then becomes 
necessary to have some 
other method of arriv¬ 
ing at the quantity, 
which can only be done 
approximately. Some 
kinds of hay are light 
while others are heavy, 
but for all ordinary 
purposes of estimating the amount- of hay in mows 
and stacks the following rules will be found sufficient : 

When loaded on wagons or stored in barns, 20 cubic 
yards of hay make a ton. 


When well settled in mows or stacks, 15 cubic yards 
make a ton. This is for medium sized mows or stacks; 
if the hay is piled to a great hight, it will be much 
more compact and near the bottom will be much 
heavier per cubic yard. 

TO FIND THE NUMBER OF TONS IN LONG SQUARE STxYCKS. 

Multiply the length in yards by the width in yards 
and that by half the hight in yards, and divide by 15. 

Example. How many tons in a rick of hay 20 yards 
long, 5 yards wide and 8 yards high? 

20 X 5 = 100 X 400 = 400 + 15 = 26f tons. Ans. 

TO FIND THE NUMBER OF TONS IN CIRCULAR STACKS. 

Multiply the square of the distance round the stack 
in yards by the hight in yards and divide by 25. 
This will give the number of cubic yards in the stack; 
then divide by 15 for the number of tons. 

Example. How many tons of hay in a circular stack, 
whose measurement around the base is 20 yards and 
hight 8 yards? 

20 X 20 = 400 X 8 = 3200 + 25 = 128 + 15 = 

tons. Ans. 









































































HOW TO CALCULATE. 


Common clover and timothy hay packed under ordi¬ 
nary circumstances, will measure 500 cubic feet to the 
ton. In calculating the weight of hay in bulk, very 
often many things have to be taken into consideration, 
and hence it is difficult to ascertain it precisely. 

TO FIND THE VALUE OF HAY OR OTHER ARTICLES SOLD 

BY THE TON. 

Multiply the number of pounds of hay (coal or any¬ 
thing else which is bought or sold by the ton) by one- 
half the price per ton, and point off three figures from 
the result; the remaining figures will be the price of 
the hay. 

Example. What cost 1460 lbs. of hay when hay is 
selling at $12 per ton? 

$12 -4- 2 = $6 and 1460 X 6 = $8,760. Ans. 

Dividing by 2 gives us the price of a half ton or 
1000 lbs. and pointing off three figures to the right is 
dividing by 1000. 


A ton 

of hay is 


2000 fts. 

A bale 

4 4 

4 4 4 4 


300 

4 4 

A truss 

4 4 

“ new 

is 

60 

44 

A “ 

4 4 

‘ ‘ old 

44 

56 

44 

A “ 

4 4 

straw 

4 4 

40 

4 4 

A load 

4 4 

hay 

4 4 

36 

trusses. 


When hay sells at $16.00 a ton the bale is worth $2.40 
“ “ “ “ 15.00 “ “ “ 2.25 

When hay sells at 14.00 a ton the bale is worth 2.10 


When hay sells at $13.00 a ton the bale is worth $1.95 



4 4 

4 4 

4 4 

4 4 

12.00 

4 4 

4 4 

4 4 

1.80 

4 4 

4 4 

4 4 

4 4 

11.00 

4 4 

4 4 

4 4 

1.65 

44 

44 

4 4 

44 

10.00 

4 4 

44 

4 4 

1.50 


TO FIND THE WEIGHT OF CATTLE BY MEASUREMENT. 

Multiply the girth in inches by the distance along the 
back from the tail to the fore part of the shoulder 
blade, and divide by 144 for the superficial feet. Then 
multiply the superficial feet by the number of pounds 
allowed for cattle of different girths and the product 
will be the number of pounds of beef, veal or pork in 
the animal. 

Cattle having a girth of from 5 to 7 feet, allow 23 
lbs. to the superficial foot. 

Cattle having a girth of from 7 to 9 feet, allow 31 
lbs. to the superficial foot. 

Small cattle and calves having a girth of from 3 to 5 
feet, allow 16 lbs. to the superficial foot. 

Pigs and sheep having a girth of less than 3 feet, 
allow 11 lbs. to the superficial foot. 

Example. What is the weight of beef in a steer, 
whose girth is 80 inches and length is 68 inches? 

80 inches in girth X 68 inches in length = 5440 -J- by 
144 = 37f square feet X 23 = 868| lbs. 

When the animal is but half fattened a deduction of 
1 lb. in every 20 is made, and if very fat 1 lb. for every 
20 must be added. 


MEASURING GRAIN. 


TO FIND THE CONTENTS OF A BIN IN BUSHELS. 




'V\y the United States standard 2150.42 cubic 
inches make a bushel. As a cubic foot con- 
A | tains 1728 cubic inches, a bushel is to a 
* cubic foot nearly as 2150 to 1728; or for all 

practical purposes as 5 to 4. Therefore, to convert 
cubic feet into bushels, it is only necessary to multi¬ 
ply by 


Example. How many bushels of wheat in a bin 12 
feet long, 8 feet wide and 4 feet deep? 

12 X 8 = 96 X 4 = 384 cubic feet; 384 X | = 
S07j bushels. 

In order to find the number of bushels which a bin 
of a given size will hold, find the contents of the bin 
in cubic feet, then diminish the contents by one-fifth, 
and the result will be the contents in bushels. 

CAPACITY OF BOXES. 

The following table will often be found convenient, 
taking inside dimensions: 


A box 24 inclie9 by 16 inches, and 28 
inches deep will contain a barrel. 

A box 26 inches by 15X inches, and 8 
inches deep will contain a bushel. 

A box 13J4 inches square and 11% 
inches deep, will contain a bushel. 

A box 12 inches by 1154 inches, and 9 
inches deep will contain a half 
bushel. 

A box 10 inches square and 10% inches 
deep, will contain a half bushel. 


A box 81-5 inches by 8 inches square, 
and 8 inches deep, will contain a 
peck. 

A box 8 inches square and 454 inches 
deep, will contain a gallon. 

A box 7 inches square and 4J4 inches 
deep, will contain a half gallon. 

A box 3 Inches square and 41-5 inches 
deep, •nail contain aquart. 

A box 3 inches square and 3 % inches 
deep, will contain a pint. 


A wagon-box or bed 10 feet long, 4 feet wide, and 
15 inches deep, lias a capacity of 40 bushels. 


sSs 

















































































HOW TO CALCULATE. 


TO FIND THE CAPACITY OF A CISTERN OR WELL. 


CYLINDRICAL VESSELS OF UNIFORM WIDTH. 



hie gallon is, accord¬ 


ing to the United 


States standard, 231 
cubic inches, and in 
order to find the num¬ 
ber of cubic inches in 
a cask, we square the 
diameter in inches, and multiply by the decimal .7854 
to find the surface of the base, then multiply this by 
the depth in inches. Now since multiplying by .7854 
and afterwards dividing by 231 is equivalent to multi¬ 
plying only by 34, it will be seen that we have the 
following rule: 

Multiply the square of the diameter in inches, by 
the depth in inches, and this by 34, and point ofl* four 
figures; the result will be the capacity in gallons and 
decimals of a gallon. 


Example. A can measures 15 inches in diameter, 
and is 2 feet 2 inches deep. How many gallons of oil 
will it contain? 

15 X 15 = 225 X 34 = 7650 X 26 = 19.8900. 



Ans. 


1Q_89_ 
Ai7 l 0 O' 


If the can is not full, stand it on the end, and multi¬ 
ply by the height of the liquid instead of the length 
of the can, for the actual contents. 


CISTERNS WIDER AT ONE END THAN THE OTHER. 

Add the width at the top and the width at the base 
together and take half, to find the average diameter, 
then square this diameter, multiply by 34, and this 
result again by the depth, and the result will be in 
gallons and decimals of gallons as in the previous 
rule. 

In calculating the capacity of cisterns, etc., 31J 
gallons are estimated to one barrel, and 63 gallons to 


1 hogshead. 



"^5 



M EASUR I N G LAND. 




urveying seems to 
have arisen from the 
practice of regulat¬ 


ing the limits of lands 


which were from time 
to time impaired from 
the overflow of the 
Nile. From survey- 




the ancient sci- 


JUL.fC* OVMLl 5fXC 


ence of geometry took 
its rise, and the Egyp¬ 
tians bestowed atten¬ 
tion to it at a very 
early period. The 
mathematical princi¬ 
ples of geometry are 
now used in surveying. 


Every citizen of the nation has more or less relative 
interest in the art of determining the boundaries and 
superficial extent of tracts of ground, the plans of 
towns, the courses of roads, rivers, etc. 

In surveying, a representation of all the above- 
named objects is made, and frequently the slopes of the 



hills are delineated as the whole would appear if pro¬ 
jected on a horizontal plane. When railways or canals 
are to be constructed, a survey of the ground is com¬ 
bined with the operations of leveling, in order to 
obtain, besides a horizontal plan, the forms of vertical 
sections of the ground along the proposed course of 
the railway or canal, and thus to ascertain the quanti¬ 
ties of earth to be removed. 

There are many kinds of surveying in use, each dis¬ 
tinct from the other; thus we have marine surveying, 
land surveying, house surveying, military surveying, 
etc. In the more limited acceptation of the word, 
however, land surveying only is intended. This is 
conducted in several manners, according to the nature 


of the ground; for example, supposing it should 


be an irregular field, it would be measured by tak¬ 
ing the base line along the field, and by means of 
the theodolite, the cross, or some other instrument, 
taking lines perpendicular to this, reaching to the 
various angles. If the length of these lines be 
taken, and also the various distances along the base 
line where they start from, it will divide the field into 
a number of right-angled parallelograms or right- 











12 






























































































182 


HOW TO CALCULATE. 


angled triangles. The contents of each is calculated, 
and then the sum of all of them is the contents of the 
field. Or the field may be divided into triangles, the 
contents of each is ascertained, and the area found as 
before, by adding their areas together. 

Oftentimes the intervention of water, wood, corn¬ 
fields, etc., prevents the actual passage of the surveyor 
over the ground; in that case he must contrive to take 
some one base line across a field or along a hedge, and 
from the ends of that line take the angular position of 
distant points, calculating afterward the remaining 
sides of the triangles thus got out by trigonometry. 
Marine surveying, such as that of harbors, bays, etc., 
is performed by this method. The implements used in 
surveying are Gunter’s Chain, the Cross, and the 
Theodolite. 

Congress, in May, 1796, made provision for a uni¬ 
form system of surveys of public lands. Thomas Jef¬ 
ferson is named as the author of it. A lot (No. 16) in 
each township was set apart for the benefit of public 
schools. After 1852, two sections in each township 
were set apart as the quantity to be used for this pur¬ 
pose. Surveys are not extended across Indian reserva¬ 
tions, nor over any lands not property of the United 
States. Much land in the territories still remains 
unsurveyed. 

In the United States the public lands are divided 
into townships, and these are divided into sections. 
These townships and sections are denominated by a 
simple system of numbering, of which all the Western 
and some of the Southern states make constant use. 
Through some convenient point in a territory to be 
surveyed, generally some natural landmark, a meridian 
or true north and south line, for instance, such as those 
running respectively from the mouths of Little Blue 
creek (Indiana), Ohio river, Illinois river (Illinois), 
Arkansas river, etc., is carefully run to the limits of 
the tract, or through several states, as the case may be. 
This is called the Principal Meridian. Through a con¬ 
venient point upon the principal meridian, a true par¬ 
allel of latitude is run and measured in both directions 
from the meridian. This cross line is called the Base 
Line. At the end of every mile and half mile, and 
at the end of every six miles, stakes, monuments, or 
other marks are set, by which boundaries are marked. 
Additional parallel lines, according to later surveys, 
are called Correction Lines, and are twenty-four or 
thirty miles apart; also, true meridian lines fifty-four 
miles apart, are known as guide meridians. These 
lines, from principal meridian inclusive, are astronomi¬ 
cal lines. All other lines are run with chain and com¬ 


pass. These latter are subject to mistakes which arise 
from variation of the needle, and from the fact that a 
perfectly accurate measurement cannot be made with 
the chain. 

A principal meridian line, a base line, correction 
lines, township boundary or meridian lines on the east 
and west, and parallels of latitude on the north and 
south, are shown in the diagram. 

PRINCIPAL OR ASTRONOMICAL LINES. 


N 



Correc 

tion 


5 

Line. 

T.5 N. 
R. 3E 



T.4N. 
R. 3 W. 



4 







dian. 

3 



T.3N. 
R. 4 E. 


T.2N. 
R3 W. 


u 

s 

2 

T.2N. 
R. 2 E. 





Base 


1 

Line. 



IV. 

III. 

II. 

I. 

I. 

1 

II. 





T. 2 S. 
R. 2 W. 

cipal 

2 







Prin 

3 


T.3S. 
R. 3 E. 



T.4S. 
R. 3 W. 



4 





Correc 

tion 


5 

Line. 


T. S 8. 
R. 4 E. 




1 

| 




S 


Townships are represented by the squares. Figures 
on the principal meridian show Townships North and 
South of the base line. Numerals on the base line 
show Ranges East and West of the Principal Meridian. 

Example. Township 2 North, Range 3 West, is the 
second square above the base line, in the row of squares 
whose range is west either north or south of the base 
line. 

As distinguished from the above example, a square 
on the other side of the principal meridian is east, 
whether it be north or south of the base line. 

Example. Township 5 South, Range 4 East. Ex¬ 
amine the diagram. 

Correction lines on the north of the base line are 
twenty-four miles, or equal to four townships apart— 
south of the base line they are five townships, or thirty 
miles apart, in consequence of the greater convergence 
of the meridians in the higher latitudes. 





































































HOW TO CALCULATE. 


183 


A true meridian must be established, and this serves 
as a basis for all surveys. A surveyor begins a survey 
from some particular point, setting a stake called a 
“quarter stake” at each half-mile point, and a mark 
called a “section corner” at each mile point. A town¬ 
ship corner is marked at each six-mile point, and is 
called “ township corner.” Township boundaries are 
the lines six miles apart—meridians on the east and 
west, and parallels of latitude on the north and south. 

A Township, being six miles square, it therefore con¬ 
tains 36 square miles, or 23,040 acres. It is subdivided 
into Sections, each a square mile, containing 640 acres. 

A Quarter Section, a half-mile square, contains 160 
acres, and is divided into lots of 40 acres each. 

An Eighth of a Section is one-half mile long and 80 
rods wide, and contains 80 acres. 

TOWNSHIP. 


36 sections. N 23,040 acres. 


6 

5 

1 mile 

4 

square. 

3 

2 

1 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

18 

17 

16 

15 

14 

13 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

30 

29 

21 

27 

26 

25 

31 

32 

33 

34 

640 

35 

acres. 

36 


s 


Sections of a township are, strictly, each one mile 
square “as nearly as may be.” The sections are num- 


in unbroken order, so that sections always join each 
other in the order of their numbers. 

Lands of the United States are surveyed into the 
parcels called sections, and are subdivided into quarters, 
and sometimes into eighths and sixteenths. The dia¬ 
gram shows the divisions and subdivisions of a section, 
and the method of describing them. 

When the number and range of a township are 
given, it is required to know from what meridian it is 
reckoned, and where its base line crosses that meridian, 
in order to locate the township. 

There are as many as twenty-three principal merid¬ 
ians in the United States, the first one being same as 
west boundary of Ohio, with base line same as south 
boundary of Western Reserve. Second principal merid¬ 
ian runs due north from the mouth of Little Blue 
creek, in Indiana, the base line crossing it near New 
Albany. Other principal meridian lines are located 
still further west and in other parts of the country. 

CONVERGING LINES. 

Township comers on a base line or on a correction 
line, are carefully marked at distances of six miles 
apart. Owing to the convergence of meridians, how¬ 
ever, the townships accurately surveyed are not perfect 
squares, being longer on the southern than on the 
northern boundary. In consequence of the rotundity 
of the earth, as well as on account of our position on 
its surface north of the equator or widest part, all 
measurements of the land must be accommodated to 
lines which incline and approach nearer together as 
they are extended in the direction of the pole. This 
convergence of lines is illustrated by a simple cut. 

CONVERGENCE OF ASTRONOMICAL LINES. 


SECTION. 


1 mile square. N 040 acre*. 


N. X Sec «©», 320 acres. 

N. W.X of 

s. w. 

E. Vt of 

s. w. 

80 acres. 

S. E. X, 160 acres. 

S. Vf-H of 
S. W. K. 


s 


bered, beginning at the northeast corner, as shown in 
the illustration of the township, and these numbers run 



All sections are surveyed from north to south. With 
regard to deficiencies and excesses, the law requires that 
“In all cases where the exterior lines of townships, 



































































184 


HOW TO CALCULATE. 


thus to be divided into sections or half-sections, shall 
exceed or shall not extend six miles, the excess or 
deficiency shall be specially noted, and added to or 
deducted from the western or northern ranges of sec¬ 
tions in such township.” 

TABLE. 

G mi. X G mi. = 3G sq. mi. = 23040 acres = 1 Township. 


1 “ 

XI 

a 

= l 

a 

= 640 


= 1 Section. 

1 “ 

x4 

« 

— 4 

a 

= 320 

(C 

= $ Section. 

4" 

x4 

a 

- 4 

a 

= 160 

iC 

= 1 Quarter-Section. 

i « 

y 

x4 

u 

_ i 

= ¥ 

« 

= 80 

u 

= $ Quarter-Section. 

i “ 

4 

xi 

a 

_ 1 

— T¥ 

a 

= 40 


= 4 Quarter-Section. 


Though no survey can be absolutely correct, the 
government presumes that each township or regular 
parcel or part of the same contains the number of 
acres indicated by the table, “be the same more or 
less.” Exceptions are only in cases of irregular lots 
adjoining lakes, rivers, private claims, etc., and on the 
north and west sides of a township. 


In laying off small lots the following admeasurements 
will be found to be both accurate and useful: 


52f 

feet 

square, 

or 2,722^ 

square 

feet, 

= T 1 6 - of an 

acre. 

73$ 

i( 

a 

5,445 

a 

U 

= 4 “ 

cc 

104^ 

U 

u 

10,890 

« 

« 

= 4 “ 

(( 

120$ 

U 


14,520 

a 

u 

= 4 “ 


147 t V “ 

a 

21,780 

<c 

(l 

= 4 “ 

a 

208f 

6C 

u 

43,560 

u 

u 

= 1 acre. 



To find the number of acres in a body of land, mul¬ 
tiply the length by the width (in rods), and divide the 
product by 160; the result will be the answer in acres 
and hundredths. 

To obtain the result required, when the opposite 
sides of a piece of land are of unequal length, add 
them together and take one-half for the mean length 
or width. Multiply this by the depth, and divide 
by 31$. 

The number of acres of public lands surveyed in the 
United States and territories, up to June 30, 1882, is 
831,725,863. 




S''*- 





RULES FOR MECHANICS. 




4--3-sS 


■4"-*"e) 



J n the construction or repairing of buildings, 
it becomes necessary to form estimates of 
the expense, and hence all persons should 
have some knowledge of the rules by which 
mechanics make their calculations. 

TIMBER MEASURE. 

The unit of measure is a square foot 1 inch thick, in 
measuring boards, plank and timber. 

TO MEASURE INCH BOARDS. 

Multiply the length of the board in feet by its 
breadth in inches, and divide the product by 12; the 
quotient will be the number of square feet in the 
boards. 


When the board is wider at one end than the other, 
take the average width, which is found by adding the 
width of both ends together and taking half the sum. 

Example. How many square feet in a board 10 feet 
long and 14 inches wide at one end and 10 inches wide 
at the other? 

14 -j- 10 = 24 —■ 2 = 12, average width, 12 X 10 = 
120 -s- 12 = 10 feet. Ans. 

TO FIND THE NUMBER OF FEET IN SCANTLING. 

Multiply the width in inches by the thickness in 
inches, and that by the length in feet and divide by 12. 

Example. How many feet of lumber in 15 joist 14 
feet long, 8 inches wide and 2 inches thick? 

8 X 2 = 16 X 14 feet = 224 -f- 12 = 18$ feet in one 
joist, 18f X 15 = 280 feet. 

After having ascertained the number of feet in a 
given quantity of lumber, sold by the 1000 feet, multi¬ 
ply the number of feet by the price and point off* three 
figures from the right, the remaining figures will rep¬ 
resent the price in dollars. 

Example. What cost 280 feet of lumber, as in the 
above example, when joists are selling at $14 per 
thousand feet? 

280 X 14 = $3,920. Ans. 















































































HOW TO CALCULATE. 


185 


TO FIND THE QUANTITY OF LUMBER IN A LOG. 

Multiply the diameter in inches at the small end by 
one-half the number of inches, and this product by the 
length of the log in feet, which last product divide 
by 12. 

Example. How many feet of lumber can be made 
from a log 30 inches in diameter and 14 feet long? 

30 X 15 = 450 x 14= 6300 -f- 12 = 525 feet. Ans. 

TO '•TELL THE SOUNDNESS OF TIMBER. 

Apply the ear to the middle of one of the ends, while 
another party strikes the other end. The blow will be 
clearly and distinctly heard, however long the beam 
may be, if the wood is sound and of good quality, but 
if decay has set in, the sound will be muffled and indis¬ 
tinct. The toughest part of a tree will always be found 
on the side next the north. 

SCANTLING AND TIMBER MEASURE REDUCED TO ONE 
INCH BOARD MEASURE. 

Explanation. To ascertain the number of feet of 
scantling or timber, say 18 feet long and 2 by 3 
inches. Find 2 by 3 in the top columns, and 18 in 
the left hand column, and under 2 by 3 and against 18 
is 9 feet. 

If the scantling is longer than contained in the table, 


add two lengths together. If shorter, take part off 


same length. 


THICKNESS AND WIDTH IN INCHES. 


0) 

2x2 

2x3 

2x4 

2x5 

2x6 

2x7 

2x8 

2x9 

3x3 

3x4 

3x5 

3x6 

3x7 3x8 

3x9 

4x4 

6 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

0 . 

7. 

8. 

9. 

4.6 

6. 

7 6 

9. 

10.6 

12. 

13.0 

8. 

7 

2.4 

3.0 

4.8 

5.10 

7. 

8.2 

9.4 

10.6 

5.3 

7. 

8.9 

10.6 

12.3 

14. 

15.9 

9.4 

8 

2.8 

4. 

5.4 

6.8 

8. 

9.4 

10.8 

12. 

6. 

8. 

10. 

12. 

14. 

16. 

18. 

10. 

!* 

3. 

4.0 

6. 

7.0 

9. 

10.6 

12. 

13.0 

6.9 

8. 

11.3 

13.6 

15.9 

18. 

20.3 

12. 

10 

3.4 

5. 

6.8 

8.4 

10 

11.8 

13.5 

15. 

7.6 

10. 

12.6 

15. 

17.0 

20. 

22.0 

13.4 

11 

3 8 

5 0 

7.4 

9 2 

11 

12.10 

14.8 

16.6 

8.3 

11. 

13.9 

16.6 

19.3 

22. 

24.9 

14.8 

12 

4 

6. 

8. 

10 

12. 

14. 

10. 

18. 

9 

12. 

15. 

18. 

21. 

24. 

27. 

16. 

13 

4 4 

6.6 

8 8 

10.10 

13. 

15.2 

17.4 

19.6 

9.9 

13. 

16.3 

19.6 

22.9 

26. 

29.3 

17.4 

U 

4.8 

7. 

9.4 

11 8 

14 

10.4 

18.8 

21. 

10.6 

14. 

17 0 

21. 

24.6 

28. 

31.0 

18.8 

15 

5. 

7.6 

10. 

12 6 

15. 

17.0 

20. 

22.6 

11 3 

15. 

18.9 

22.6 

26.3 

30. 

33.9 

20.0 

Hi 

5.4 

8. 

10.8 

13.4 

10. 

18.8 

21.4 

24 

12 

10. 

20. 

24. 

28. 

32. 

30. 

21.4 

17 

5-8 

8.6 

11.4 

14.2 

17. 

19.10 

22.8 

25, 0 

12.9 

17 

21.3 

25.6 

29.9 

34. 

38.3 

22.8 

18 

6. 

9. 

12. 

15. 

18 

21 

24. 

27. 

13 6 

18. 

22.6 

27. 

31.6 

30. 

40.6 

24. 

19 

6.4 

9.6 

12 8 

15.10 

19. 

22 2 

25.4 

28.6 

14 3 

19. 

23.9 

28.6 

33 3 

38. 

42.9 

24.4 

20 

0.8 

10. 

13.4 

16.8 

20 

23.4 

26.8 

30 

15. 

20. 

25 

30. 

35. 

40. 

45. 

20.8 

21 

7. 

10.6 

14. 

17.6 

21. 

24.6 

28. 

31 6 

15 9 

21. 

26.3 

31.6 

36.9 

42. 

47.3 

28. 

22 

7.4 

11. 

14.8 

18.4 

22. 

25 8 

29.4 

33. 

16.6 

22. 

‘27 .(I 

33. 

33.6 

44. 

49. (i 

29.4 

23 

7.8 

11-6 

15.4 

19.2 

23. 

20 10 

30.8 

34.6 

17 3 

23. 

28.9 

34.6 

40.3 

ki. 

51.9 

30.8 

24 

8. 

12. 

16. 

20. 

24. 

28 

32 

36 

18 

24. 

30. 

36. 

42. 148. 

54. 

32 

25 

8.4 

12.6 

10.8 

20 10 

*25. 

29. 2 

33.4 

37 6 

18.9 

25. 

31.3 

37 0 

43.9 

50. 

50.3 

33.4 

30 

10- 

15. 

20. 

25. 

30. 

35. 

40 

45, 

22.6 

30. 

37.6 

45. 

52.6 

60. 

67.0 

40. 

34 

11.4 

17. 

22.8 

28.4 

34. 

39 3 

45 4 

51. 

25.6 

34 

42.0 

51. 

59.0 

68. 

76.0 

45.4 

40 

13.4 

20. 

20.8 

33.4 

40 

46 8 

53.4 

60. 

30.0 

40. 

50 

60. 

70. 

80. 

90. 

53. 


THICKNESS AND WIDTH IN INCHES. 


Ph 

5x4 

4x6 

4x7 

4x8 

4x9 

5x5 

5x6 

5x7 

5x8 

5x9 

6x0 

6x7 

6x8 

6x9 

6x10 

6 

10 

12. 

14, 

10. 

18. 

12.6 

15. 

17.6 

20 

22 6 

18. 

21. 

24. 

27. 

30. 

7 

11.8 

14. 

10- 4 

18.8 

21. 

14 7 

17.6 

20.5 

23.4 

26.3 

21. 

24.6 

28. 

31.6 

35. 

8 

13 4 

16. 

18.8 

21.4 

24. 

16.8 

20. 

23.4 

26.8 

30. 

24. 

28. 

32. 

36. 

40. 

9 

15. 

18. 

21. 

24. 

27- 

1A9 

22.6 

26.3 

30. 

33.9 

27. 

31 6 

36. 

40.6 

45. 

10 

16.8 

20. 

23.4 

26.8 

30 

20-10 

25. 

29.2 

33.4 

37.6 

30. 

35. 

40. 

45. 

50. 

11 

18-4 

22. 

25.8 

29.4 

33- 

22.11 

27.6 

32.1 

36.8 

41.3 

33. 

38.6 

44. 

49.6 

55. 

12 

20. 

24. 

28. 

32. 

36. 

25. 

30. 

35. 

40. 

45. 

36. 

42. 

48. 

54. 

60. 

13 

21.8 

26. 

30 4 

34.8 

39, 

27.1 

32.6 

37.11 

43.4 

48.9 

39. 

45.6 

52. 

58.6 

65. 

14 

23-4 

28. 

32.8 

37.4 

42. 

29.2 

35. 

40.10 

46.8 

52.0 

42. 

49. 

56. 

63. 

70. 

15 

25. 

30. 

35. 

40. 

45. 

31.3 

37.6 

43.9 

50. 

50.3 

45. 

52.6 

00. 

67.6 

75. 

16 

26.8 

32. 

37.4 

42.8 

48. 

33.4 

40. 

46.8 

53.4 

60. 

48. 

56. 

64. 

72. 

80. 

17 

28.4 

34. 

39.8 

45.4 

51. 

35 5 

42.6 

49.7 

56.8 

63.9 

51. 

59.6 

08. 

70.6 

85. 

18 

30 

36. 

42 

48. 

54. 

37.6 

45. 

52.6 

60. 

67.6 

54. 

63. 

72. 

81. 

90. 

19 

31.8 

38. 

44-4 

50.8 

57. 

39.7 

47.6 

55.5 

63.4 

71.3 

57. 

00.6 

76. 

85.6 

95. 

20 

33.4 

40 

40.8 

53.4 

00. 

41.8 

50. 

58.4 

66.8 

75. 

60. 

70. 

80. 

90. 

100. 

21 

35. 

42. 

49. 

56. 

63. 

43-9 

52.6 

61.3 

70. 

78.9 

63. 

73.6 

84. 

94.6 

105. 

22 

36 8 

44. 

51.4 

58.8 

66. 

45.10 

55. 

64.2 

73.4 

82.6 

06. 

77. 

88. 

99. 

110. 

23 

38.4 

46. 

53.8 

61-4 

69 

47.11 

57.6 

67.1 

76.8 

86.3 

69. 

80.6 

92. 

103.0 

115. 

24 

40. 

48 

56. 

64. 

72. 

50. 

60. 

70. 

80. 

90.0 

72. 

84. 

96. 

108. 

120. 

25 

41.8 

50. 

58.4 

66.8 

75. 

52.1 

62.6 

72.11 

83.4 

93.9 

75. 

87.6 

100. 

112.6 

125. 

30 

50. 

60. 

70. 

80 

90. 

62.6 

75. 

87.6 

100. 

112.6 

90. 

105. 

120. 

135. 

150. 

34 

56-8 

68, 

79.4 

90.8 

102. 

70.10 

85. 

99.2 

113.4 

127.6 

102. 

119. 

136. 

153. 

170. 

40 

66.8 

80. 

93.4 

106.8 

120. 

83.4 

100. 

116.8 

133.4 

160. 

120. 

140. 

160. 

180. 

200. 


WOOD MEASURE. 



ood is measured, and bought and sold 
by the cord, and fractions of a cord. 
A cord of wood is a pile 8 feet long, 4 
feet wide and 4 feet high, and there¬ 
fore contains 128 cubic feet. When the wood is cut 4 
feet long and corded in a pile 4 feet high and 8 feet 
long, this will be a cord. Hence, divide by 128 to find 
the number of cords. 


Example. How many cords of wood in a pile 4 feet 
wide, 5 feet high and 28 feet 6 inches long? 

4 x 5 = 20 X 28 feet 6 inches or 28^ feet = 570 cubic 
feet -f- 128 = 4 b cords nearly. Ans. 

GROWTH, QUALITY, AND WHEN TO SECURE TIMBER. 

Timber grown in the northern states and Canada is 
hardy and more merchantable, but a northern climate 
is inimical to mahogany, box, lignumvitae, and other 
dense tropical woods which require a warm climate. 
Trees grown in wet localities, with the exception of 
cedar, willow, poplar, etc., are not so firm and durable 
as those grown on dry and elevated positions, where 
the soil is largely composed of loam, interspersed with 
sand, gravel and stones. 

Those found in the depths of the forest are usually 
straighter, less knotty, and more merchantable than 
trees exposed to the ravages of storms, etc., bordering 
on clearings, or on hill sides and exposed places. While 
sheltered positions are most favorable for the growth of 
timber, the quality of hardness is imparted by exposure. 










































































































18(3 


HOW TO CALCULATE. 





BRICKLAYERS’ AND STONE-MASONS’ WORK. 








tone walls are measured and estimated by 
the perch, which is equal to 24f cubic feet. 
Cut stone, ordered to certain sizes, for 
arches or fronts to buildings, is sold by 
the cubic foot. In estimating the stone in a wall, no 
deductions are made for the openings, such as doors 
and windows, less than one perch, and the perch is 
then usually reckoned at 25 cubic feet. The labor of 
plumbing and squaring openings for doors and windows 
is equivalent to laying the solid wall, hence no deduc¬ 
tions are made for the labor on account of openings, 
and, in fact, where there are many windows, something 
is added. 

Bricklayers’ work is estimated by the thousand brick 
laid in the wall. A certain number of bricks are 
allowed to the superficial foot. The usual size of a 
brick is 8 inches long, inches wide, and 2\ inches 
thick, but in different localities and by different manu¬ 
facturers the size varies a little. The mortar used in 
the wall is about one-eighth additional to the bricks. 

SCALE. 

4| inch wall ( | brick) per superficial foot, 7 bricks. 


9 

4 4 

4 4 

(1 brick) 

4 4 

44 

44 

14 

4 4 

13 

4 4 

44 

(1J bricks) 

44 

44 

44 

21 

4 4 

18 

44 

44 

(2 bricks) 

44 

4 

44 

28 

44 

22 

4 4 

44 

(2J bricks) 

4 4 

40 

44 

35 

4 4 


and seven bricks additional for each half brick added to 
the thickness of the wall. 

To find the number of bricks in a wall, multiply the 
length in feet by the hight in feet, deduct for the 
openings, and multiply by the number of bricks in the 
above scale, corresponding to the thickness of the wall. 

A load of mortar measures 1 cubic yard, or 27 cubic 
feet, and requires one cubic yard of sand, and 9 bushels 
of lime, and will fill 30 hods. A bricklayer’s hod is 1 
foot 4 inches x 9 inches x 9 inches, and will carry 20 


bricks, or f cubic foot ot mortar, or nearly J bushel. 
Bricks absorb ^ of their weight in water. 

Classes of work in masonry are three, which consist 
of rubble work, wherein the stones are not squared; 
coursed work, in which the stones are set in courses; 
and ashlar, in which each stone is squared and dressed. 

plasterers’ work. 

The square yard is the unit of measurement for plas¬ 
tering plain work, such as walls and ceilings. Mould¬ 
ings, cornices, center pieces and panels are charged for 
by the square foot or by the linear foot. No deduc¬ 
tions are made for openings less than about 5 square 
yards, and sides of chimneys and strips of plastering 
less than 12 inches are measured as 12 inches wide. 
Where the plastering is finished down upon the wain¬ 
scoting or base boards, add six inches to the hight of 
the wall. In closets add one-half to the measurement. 
Circular work, mouldings, etc., are usually charged 
for according to the time and skill required, and really 
bear no proportion to the cost of ordinary plastering. 

TO FIND THE NUMBER OF YARDS OF PLASTERING IN A 

ROOM. 

Find the surface of each wall separately by multi¬ 
plying its length by its breadth in feet, add together 
these various surfaces, and divide by 9 to find the num¬ 
ber of yards of plastering, and this multiplied by the 
cost per yard of plastering will give the cost of plaster¬ 
ing the room. 

One thousand lath will cover 70 yards of surface, 
and 11 lbs. of lath nails will nail them on. 8 bushels 
of good lime, 16 bushels of sand, and one bushel of 
hair will make enough good mortar to plaster 100 
square yards of wall two coats. 100 lath make a bun¬ 
dle, and on the wall they should be set i inch apart. 

PAINTERS AND CALCIMINERS’ WORK. 

Painters’ work is estimated by the square, which is 
100 square feet, or a surface 10 feet long and 10 feet 
wide. No deductions are made for windows, and some¬ 
thing is added for difficult cornices, balusters, etc. 

Multiply the length of each surface painted by its 
width and point off' two places from the right, this 
will give the number of squares, which multiplied by 
the price will give the cost of painting for one, two, 
or three coats, as the case may be. 






































































HOW TO CALCULATE. 


187 



4g 




>E»N AILS. 




rOnze nails were used in ancient Egypt. 
The Tahitians, wlio had no idea of metal, 
at first planted nails in the ground, and 
waited for them to grow. They mistook 
them for shoots of some hard wood. 
Their tools were made of stone, shell, 
wood, or bone. 

Nails were formerly forged from the bar by hand. 
As early as 1606, in England, Sir Davis Bulmer obtained 
letters patent for a machine for cutting nail-rods by 
water power. An im¬ 
provement on his ma¬ 
chine was made in 1618 
by Clement Dawbeny. 

These machines were 
probably of little or no 
practical use. Machin¬ 
ery for splitting rods 
for nail - manufacture 
was first introduced in 
Sweden. Mr. Foley, 
of Stourbridge, Eng¬ 
land, during a journey, 
played his fiddle before 
the workmen at the 
mills in Sweden, and 
thus, by making him¬ 
self acceptable, was 
allowed to observe 
chinery. A factory 
England as a result of 
The first machine for 
contrived by Mr. 
borne, Staffordshire, in 
saved by working the 
In 1810 a machine was 
States by which nails 
operation, at the rate 



their ma- 
was established in 
his observations, 
nail-making was 
French, of Wim- 
1790. In it, labor was 
| hammers by water power, 
invented in the United 
were cut and headed at one 
of more than 100 a minute. 


As many as twenty-three patents were granted for 
improvements in nail-machines at the close of last 
century. 

Nails are wrought, cut, or cast. Until a compara¬ 
tively recent date, nails were made only by hand, but 
are now, of course, extensively made by machinery. 
The making of hand-made or wrought nails, usually 



retains the cnaracter of a domestic manufacture, and 
forms the employment of a class of blacksmiths, who 
forge them on a steel anvil. Some blacksmiths acquire 
great dexterity in their work as nail-makers. One 
man has been known to make 34,000 flooring nails in a 
fortnight, which would require on an average 1,030,656 
strokes of the hammer. 

Cast nails have long been used for the same purposes 
as wrought nails. Cut nails were first made in this 
country; a machine for making them was invented by 

Mr. Odin, of Massa¬ 
chusetts, in 1816. The 
machines of Reed, and 
“ Hunt, followed the 
last-named in 1841. 

Birmingham is the 
great seat of nail 
manufacture. Some of 
the establishments produce 
upward of 40,000,000 cut 
nails a week. Sixty thou¬ 
sand persons were employed 
there in forging nails before the 
introduction of machine - made 
nails. There are said to be three hundred 
varieties of nails made in England, each variety 
including ten sizes. 

Nails are of various sorts and named from the uses 
to which they are put, as clasp-nail, door-nail, fencing- 
nail, horseshoe-nail, screw-nail, trunk-nail, etc. 

Some varieties of nails number so many to the 
pound. As between ours and the English mode of 
numbering there is much variation. According to the 
latter, seven pounds, eight pounds, etc., denotes that 
1000 of each of those varieties would have those 
weights. Several kinds and sizes of nails in common 
use are shown in the illustration. Lengths and num¬ 
ber of nails to the pound in several varieties are given 



i i 


4 < 


i may be in the following 
2-penny, 1 inch long, 

table: 

800 

to pound. 

3 “ 

1^ inches “ 

464 

it 

4 “ 

H “ “ 

296 

it 

5 “ 

1| « « 

224 

it 

6 “ 

2 “ “ 

168 

i i 

7-penny, 

2\ inches long, 120 

to pound. 

















































































































































































































































188 


HOW TO CALCULATE. 


Common, 

8-penny, 

2| inches long, 

88 

to pound. 

Cut Spikes 10-penny, 3 inches long, 28 to pound. 

4 i 

9 

4 4 

2f 

4 4 

44 

70 

4 4 

“ 20 “ 4 “ “ 141 “ 

4 i 

10 

4 4 

3 

44 

44 

60 

44 

“ 30 “ 41 “ “ 121 “ 

44 

12 

44 

3i 

4 4 

44 

48 

44 

“ 40 “ 5 “ “ 91 “ 

44 

20 

44 

4 

44 

44 

24 

44 

“ 50 “ 51 “ “ 8 

4 4 

30 

44 

4J 

44 

44 

17 

44 

“ 60 “ 6 “ “ 6 

44 

40 

4 4 

5 

44 

44 

13 

44 

Cut Boat Spikes are of various sizes and number all 

4 4 

60 

44 

6 

44 

44 

8 

44 

the way from eighteen to three to the pound. 

Clinch, 

6 

4 4 

2 

44 

<< 

95 

44 

Common nails are used for common purposes—any 

44 

8 

4 4 

2! 

44 

4 4 

62 

44 

purpose they may be made to serve. 

44 

10 

44 

3 

44 

44 

46 

44 

Clinch nails are a variety that are capable of being 

4 4 

12 

44 

3i 

44 

44 

42 

44 

made fast by bending over the point. 

4 4 

20 

44 

4 

4 4 

44 

33 

44 

Fencing nails are heavy, being nearly twice the 

44 

30 

44 

41 

44 

4 4 

20 

44 

weight of common nails of similar numbers. This 

Fence, 

6 

44 

2 

44 

44 

84 

44 

variety of nail is adapted for fastening on fencing- 

4 4 

8 

4 4 

21 

44 

a 

48 

44 

boards. A specimen of the fencing nail is shown in 

44 

10 

44 

3 

4 4 

44 

30 

44 

the illustration. 

44 

12 

44 

31 

44 

44 

24 

44 

Finishing nails are specially adapted for the interior 

44 

20 

44 

4 

44 

44 

16 

4 4 

liftings of a house, such as the stairs, skirting-boards, 

Finishing, 

2 

c< 

1 

44 

u 

1100 

44 

flooring, doors, windows, etc., and are used by the 

44 

3 

44 

11 

44 

44 

720 

44 

joiner, as distinguished from the carpenter, whose 

44 

4 

44 

11 

4 4 

4 4 

523 

44 

/ occupation requires that rough work of great strength 

<< 

5 

C( 

n 

44 

44 

410 

44 

and durability shall be put together. 

44 

6 

<< 

2 

c< 

4 4 

268 

44 

Casing nails are smooth, slender, flat and wedge- 

44 

8 

44 

21 

44 

44 

146 

44 

shaped; are suited to that kind of work next to finish- 

44 

10 

44 

3 

44 

44 

102 

44 

ing, as casing or framing in carpentry. Casing and 

44 

20 

u 

4 

4 4 

44 

54 

44 

finishing nails are similar in shape. An eight-penny 

Fine, 

2 

(( 

1 

44 

44 

1000 

44 

casing nail is represented in the illustration. 

44 

3 

u 

H 

44 

44 

800 

<< 

A six-penny shingle nail is a cut nail for fastening 

44 

4 

< c 

11 

44 

44 

368 

44 

shingles on a roof. 

Barrel, 

— 

— 

3 

T 

u 

44 

800 

44 

Brads are a kind of nail used in building, having no 

44 

2 

a 

1 

44 

4 4 

376 

44 

heads like other nails, as joiners’ brads, flooring brads, 

44 

4 

44 

11 

44 

44 

180 

44 

batten brads. Spikes are large and long (six inches, 

Casing 

4 

44 

11 

4 4 

44 

398 

4 4 

more or less) having great heads. These are used in 

4 4 

6 

<( 

2 

44 

<< 

224 

4 4 

fastening down planks of a floor or bridge. 

4 4 

8 

<« 

21 

44 

44 

128 

4 4 

Nails are made by machinery which cut sheets of 

44 

9 

44 

2f 

44 

44 

110 

44 

iron into strips, each strip as wide as the length of the 

4 4 

10 

4 4 

3 

44 

44 

91 

44 

nail to be made; this cutting is effected by a kind of 

44 

12 

44 

31 

4 4 

44 

71 

44 

enormous shears, worked by steam power. The strips 

44 

20 

44 

4 

44 

4 4 

40 

(( 

are then cut up into, nails. In one form of machine, 

4 4 

40 

44 

5 

44 

44 

27 

44 

the piece of iron, after being cut from the strip, is 

Shingle, 

5 

44 

If 

4 4 

44 

178 

44 

caught by a kind of clasp, and exposed to a pressure 

44 

8 

44 

21 

4 4 

4 4 

74 

44 

which gives it a head. Spike nails are made by ma- 

44 

9 

44 

2f 

44 

4 4 

60 

44 

chinery in a different way. A square rod of iron, of 

44 

10 

4 4 

3 

44 

44 

52 

4 4 

the proper thickness, is cut into lengths; and each 

Brads, 

6 

44 

2 

44 

44 

126 

44 

length or piece is exposed to such powerful pressure 

44 

7 

44 

21 

4 4 

44 

98 

44 

as to squeeze it into the form of a nail; this more 

4 4 

9 

44 

2| 

44 

44 

65 

44 

resembles a wrought than a cut nail. All cut nails are 

44 

10 

44 

3 

44 

44 

55 

44 

annealed or rendered tough by keeping them for a 

44 

12 

4 4 

31 

44 

44 

40 

4 4 

length of time at a very low heat, and afterward cool- 

Brads, 

16- 

■penny, 

31 

inches long, 

27 

to pound. 

them very slowly. 














































HOW TO CALCULATE. 


189 



^.-v^gLVvr>^ ' j>T^pp,Ti^r i .p.' n ' -’Ci>^ocyT' g Oi>^r. - ;>T,iCj^j^ 


^tei TABLES of weights and measures. 


KsSHAs- 




LONG, OR LINEAR MEASURE. 

Used to compute distances in any direction, 

12 inches (in.) make 1 foot—ft. 

3 ft. “1 yard—yd. 

5| yd. “ 1 rod—rd. 

40 rd. “1 furlong—fur. 

8 fur. “ 1 mile—mi. 

Also, 

3 barley corns make 1 inch, used by shoemakers. 

4 inches “ 1 hand, “ to measure horses. 

6 feet, “ 1 fathom, “ depths at sea. 

1.15 statute miles make 1 geographic mile, used to 

measure depths at sea. 

3 geographic miles “ 1 league. 

60 geographic miles ) . d 
69J statute “ \ 1 ae to ree * 

360 degrees, the circumference of the earth. 

MARINERS’ MEASURE. 

The distance or speed which a ship travels is meas¬ 
ured by the number of knots of the log line run off in 
a half minute. 

6 feet make 1 fathom. 

120 fathoms “ 1 cable length. 

51 feet (nearly) “ 1 knot of log line. 

1 geographic mile “ 1 knot of distance at sea. 


7.92 inches 
25 1. 

4 rd. or 66 ft 
10 sq. chains 
640 a. 

36 sq. mi. 


SURVEYORS’ MEASURE. 

make 1 link—1. 

1 rod—rd. 

1 chain—ch. 


U 


< < 


iC 


1 acre—a. 

1 sq. mile—sq. mi. 
1 township. 


CIRCULAR MEASURE. 

Used to determine localities by estimating latitude 
and longitude, and measure difference of time. All 
circles, of whatever size, are supposed to be divided 
into the same number of parts—as quadrants, de¬ 
grees, etc. 

60 seconds (") make 1 minute—•' 

60 ' “1 degree—° 

30 ° “1 sign—S. 

12 S. or 360° “ 1 circle—C. 



CLOTH MEASURE. 

21 inches make 1 nail—na. 

4 na. “ 1 quarter—qr. 

4 qr. “ 1 yard—yd. 

5 qr. “ 1 Ell English—E.E. 

SQUARE MEASURE. 

Used in measuring surfaces. 

144 square inches make 1 square foot—sq. ft. 

9 sq. ft. “1 square yard—sq. yd. 

30| sq. yd. “ 1 square rod—sq. rd. 

40 sq. rd. “1 rood—R. 

4 sq. R. “1 acre—a. 

640 sq. a. “1 square mile—sq. mi. 


CUBIC MEASURE. 

Used in measuring solids of all kinds. 

1728 cubic inches make 1 cubic foot—cu. ft. 

27 cubic feet “ 1 cubic yard—cu. yd. 

16 cubic feet “ 1 cord foot—crd. ft. 

8 cord feet, 

128 cu. ft. 

2150.4 cu. in. “ 1 bushel—bu. 

268.8 cu. in. “1 gallon—gal. 


h or | <( 


1 cord of wood—C. 


TIME MEASURE. 

60 seconds (sec) make 1 minute—min. 
60 min. “ 1 hour—hr. 

24 hr. “ 1 day—da. 


7 da. 

365i da. 

10 yr. 

10 dec. or 100 yr. 


“ 1 week—wk. 

“ 1 year—yr. 

“ 1 decade. 

“ 1 century. 

LIQUID OR WINE MEASURE. 

Used in measuring liquids, such as molasses, milk 
and various liquids. 

4 gills make 1 pint—pt. 

2 pt. “ 1 quart—qt. 

4 qt. “ 1 gallon—gal. 

31J gal. “ 1 barrel—bbl. 

2 bbl. “ 1 hogshead—hhd. 

Also, 36 gallons make 1 barrel of ale or beer. 

54 “ “1 hogshead “ “ 

42 “ “1 tierce. 

2 hogsheads “ 1 pipe or but. 

2 pipes “ 1 tun. 

231 cubic inches = 1 gallon. 



































HOW TO CALCULATE. 


DRY MEASURE. 

Used in measuring grain, fruit and vegetables. 

2 pints (pt.) make 1 quart—qt. 

8 qt. “1 peck—pk. 

4 pk. “ 1 bushel—bu. 

AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT. 

Used in weighing hay, grain, groceries, and all 
coarse articles. 

437J grains make 1 ounce—oz. 

16 oz. “ 1 pound—ft*. 

25 lb. “1 quarter—qr. 

4 qr. “ 1 hundred weight—cwt. 

20 CAvt. “ 1 ton (short). 

2240 lbs. “1 long ton. 

The long ton is used in the United States custom 
houses and in England. 

TROY WEIGHT. 

For weighing gold, silver and jewels. 

24 grains (gr.) make 1 pennyweight—pwt. 

20 pAvt. “ 1 ounce—oz. 

12 oz. “ 1 pound—lb. 

APOTHECARIES’ AVEIGHT. 

Used by druggists in compounding medicines, al¬ 
though drugs are bought at Avholesale by avoirdupois 
weight. 

20 grains (gr. xx) make 1 scruple —$ 

3 scruples (S iij) “ 1 dram—3 

8 drams (3 viij) “ 1 ounce—§ 

12 ounces (§ xij) “ 1 pound—lb. 


PAPER AND BOOKS. 


Flat cap, 
CroAvn, 

Folio, - 

Demy, 

Medium, 

Koyal, 

Super Royal, - 
Imperial, - 
Elephant, 


14x17 inches. 
15x19 “ 

17x22 
16x21 
18x23 
19x24 
20x28 
23x31 
23x28 


4 4 
44 
4 4 

44 



Book 

papers, 

- 

- 

28x42 “ 

A sheet folded in 

2 leaves is called a folio. 

4 4 

4 4 

4 4 

4 

4 4 4 4 

a quarto. 

44 

44 

4 4 

8 

4 4 4 4 

an octavo. 

4 4 

4 4 

4 4 

12 

4 4 4 4 

a 12 1110 . 

4 4 

4 4 

4 4 

18 

4 4 4 4 

an 18 1110 . 

4 4 

4 4 

4 4 

24 

4 4 4 4 

a 24 1110 . 

4 4 

4 4 

4 4 

32 

4 4 4 4 

a 32 mo. 



24 sheets of paper make 1 quire. 

20 quires “ 1 ream. 

2 reams “ 1 bundle. 

5 bundles “ 1 bale. 



UNITED STATES AND CANADA MONEY. 

The money of Canada Avas originally the same as 
that of GreaLBritain, but Avas for convenience, changed 
to same denominations as the United States. 

10 mills make 1 cent—ct. or 

10 ct. “ 1 dime. 

10 dimes “ 1 dollar—$ 

10 dollars “ 1 eagle. 

The mill is not coined but is used only in computa¬ 
tions. 

MISCELLANEOUS TABLE. 


12 

units 

make 1 dozen. 

12 

dozen 

4 4 

1 gross. 

12 

gross 

4 4 

1 great gross. 

20 

things 

4 4 

1 score. 

100 

pounds 

4 4 

1 quintal of fish. 

196 

4 4 

4 4 

1 barrel of flour. 

200 

4 4 

4 4 

1 “ pork t 

56 

4 4 

4 4 

1 firkin of butter. 

14 

4 4 

4 4 

1 stone of iron or 

21* 

4 4 

4 4 

1 pig. 

8 

pigs 

4 4 

1 t’other. 

3 

inches 

4 4 

1 palm. 

4 

4 4 

44 

1 hand. 

9 

4 4 

4 4 

1 span. 

18 

4 4 

4 4 

1 cubit. 

22 

“ (nearly) “ 

1 sacred cubit. 

2* feet 

4 4 

1 military pace. 

3 

4 4 

4 4 

1 common pace. 


ESTIMATED WEIGHT OF LUMBER AND OTHER ARTICLE*. 

Note .—From 18000 to 20000 lbs. is considered a car 
load in most places, each car itself also weighing about 
20000 lbs. 

Ain’t for 
Vei&M. CarL ' ad 

Lbs. Feet. 

Light Lumber—Pine, Hemlock laid Poplar, thoroughly 

seasoned, per thousand feet. 3,000 6,500 

“ “ Black AA 7 alnut, Ash, Maple and Cherry 

per thousand feet. 4,000 5,000 

Medium Lumber—Pine, Hemlock and Poplar, green,per 

thousand feet. 4,000 5,000 

“ “ Black Walnut, Maple, Ashand Cher¬ 
ry, green, per thousand feet. 4,500 4,000 

“ “ Oak, Hickory and Elm, dry,per thou¬ 
sand feet. 4,000 5,000 

Heavy Lumber—Oak, Hickory and Elm, green,per thou¬ 
sand feet. 5,000 4,000 

“ “ Oak, Hickory and Elm, part seasoned, 

per thousand feet. 4,500 4.500 

Hoop Poles, seasoned, (‘28 feet car). 4 ft. high. 

“ green “ “ . 3 “ 

Staves and Heading, seasoned, (28 feet car). 4 «« 

“ “ green, “ “ . 3 «« 

Oak Bark, green, per cord. 3,500 5 cords. 

“ dry “ 2,500 7 “ 

Shingles, green, per thousand. 375 55 M 

“ dry “ . 275 70 M. 

Lath, per thousand. 500 40 M. 

Brick, common, per car load.41bs.each. 5,000 

Fire Brick, “ ... 0 “ 3,000 

Lime and Coal, “ ... 250 bu. 

Coke, “ . 500 

Sand, per cubic yard. 3,000 (i’A cu.yd. 

Gravel, “ 3,200 6 

Stone, undressed, per cubic yard. 4,000 5 “ 

“ per car load. 20,0001b. 

Stage Coaches. 4,000 

Two-liorse Carriages. 3,000 

One-horse Wagons. i’soo 

Single Sleighs.... 1,000 

Cattle. 2,000 












































































o 



IIOW TO CALCULATE 


FOREIGN AND UNITED STATES GOLD COINS. 

Their weight, fineness and value as assayed at the 
United States mint. The weight is given in Troy 
ounces and decimals of the same; the fineness shows 


FOREIGN AND UNITED STATES SILVER COINS. 

As assayed at the United States mint, the basis of 
valuation being $1.22| per ounce of standard fineness. 
Weight in Troy ounces; fineness in thousandths. 


how many parts in 1000 arc fine gold; the value is the 
intrinsic relative value, as compared with the amount 
of fine gold in United States coin. 


Countries. 

Denominations. 

Weight. 

Fineness. 

Value. 

Australia. 

Pound of 1852. 

0.281 

916.5 

$5,324 

44 

Sovereign, 1855 and 1860. 

0.2565 

916 

4.857 

Austria. 

Ducat. ~..’. 

0.112 

986 

2.283 

44 

Sovereign. 

0 363 

900 

6.754 

14 

New Union Coin. 

0 357 

900 

6.642 

Belgium. 

25 Francs . 

0.254 

899 

4-72 

Bolivia. 

Doubloon. 

0.867 

870 

15 593 

Brazil. 

Twenty Milreis. 

0.575 

917.5 

10.906 

Central America. 

Two Escudos. 

0.209 

853.5 

3.688 

44 44 

Four Reals. 

0.027 

875 

0.488 

Chili. 

Old Doubloon. 

0.867 

870 

15 593 

«« 

Ten Pesos. 

0.492 

900 

9.154 

Denmark . 

Ten Thalers. 

0 427 

895 

7 90 

Ecuador. 

Four Escudos. 

0.433 

844 

7.555 

England. 

Pound or Sovereign, new ... 

0.2567 

916.5 

4.863 

44 

“ “ average. 

0.2562 

916 

4.851 

France. 

Twenty Francs, new. 


899 

3.858 

(C 

“ ” “ average ... 

0.207 

899 

3.847 

Germany, North. 

Ten Thalers. 

0.427 

895 

7.90 

44 44 

“ “ Prussian. 

0.427 

903 

7.971 

44 44 

Krone (crown). 

0.357 

900 

6.642 

“ South. 

Ducat. 

0.112 

986 

2.282 

Greece . 

Twenty Drachms. 

0 185 

900 

3.442 

Hindostan. 

Mohur. 

0-374 

916 

7.082 

Italy. 

Twenty Dire. 

0.207 

898 

3.843 

Japan. 

Old Cobang. 

0.362 

568 

4.44 

4 4 


0.289 

572 

3.576 

44 

Yen (new, assumed). 

0.535 

900 

9.956 

Mexico. 

Doubloon, average. 


866 

15.53 

44 

“ New. 

0.8675 

870-5 

15-611 

it 

Twenty Pesos (Max.). 

1.086 

875 

19.643 

41 

“ “ (Repub.)_ 

1.090 

875 

19 72 

Naples. 

Six Ducacti. 

1.245 

996 

5.044 


Ten Guilders. 

0.215 

899 

3.997 

New Grenada.... 

Old Doubloon (Bogota)— . 

0.868 

870 

15.611 

44 44 

“ “ (Popayan)... 

0.867 

858 

15.378 

4 4 44 

Ten Pesos. 

0.525 

891-5 

9.675 


Old Doubloon. 

0.867 

868 

15.557 

44 

Twenty Sols. 

1.055 

898 

19.213 


Gold (irown. 

0.308 

912 

5.807 


New Crown (assumed). 

0.357 

900 

6.642 

Rome. 

2 Yi Scudi (new). 

0.140 

900 

2.605 


Five Rubles. 

0.210 

916 

3.976 


100 Reals. 

0.268 

896 

4.964 

44 

80 “ . 

0.215 

869.5 

3-864 


Ducat. 

0.111 

875 - 

2.237 

44 

Carolin, 10 frs. 

0.104 

900 

1.935 


25 Piastres. 

0.161 

900 

2.995 


100 “ . 

0.231 

915 

4.369 


Seguin. 

0.112 

999 

2.313 

United States.... 

Dollar. 

0.05375 

900 

1.00 

44 4 4 

Quarter Eagle. 

0.13437 

900 

2.50 

it *i 

Three Dollar. 

0.16125 

900 

3.00 

ii <4 

Half Eagle. 

0.26875 

900 

5.00 

4 4 44 

Eagle. 

0.5375 

900 

10.00 

44 44 

Double Eagle. 

1.075 

900 

20.00 


Countries. 

Denominations. 

Weight. 

Fineness. 

Value. 

Austria. 

Old Rix Dollar. 

0.902 

833 

$1,023 

ii 

Old Scudo. 

0.836 

902 

1.026 

ii 

Florin before 1858. 

0.451 

833 

.511 

ii 

New Florin. 

0.397 

- 900 

.486 

(( 

New Union Dollar. 

0.596 

900 

.731 

<4 

Maria Theresa Dollar, 1780.. 

0.895 

838 

1.021 

Belgium. 

Five Francs. 

0.803 

897 

.98 

Bolivia. 

New Dollar. 

0.801 

900 

.981 

Brazil. 

Double Milreis... 

0 8‘20 

918.5 

1.025 

Canada . 

Twenty Cents. 

0.150 

925 

.189 

(( 

Twenty-live Cents. 

0.1875 

925 

.236 

Central America. 

Dollar “.. 

0.866 

850 

1.002 

Chili. 

Old Dollar. 

0 864 

908 

1.068 

(4 

New Dollar. 

0 801 

900.5 

.982 

China. 

Dollar (English) assumed... 

0.866 

901 

1.062 

44 

Ten Cents. 

0 087 

901 

.106 

Denmark. 

Two Rigsdaler . 

0.927 

877 

1.107 

England. 

Shilling, new. 

0 1825 

924.5 

.23 


“ average. 

0.178 

925 

.224 

France. 

Five Francs, average. 

0 800 

900 

.98 

44 

Two Francs. 

0.320 

835 

.364 

Germany, North. 

Thaler before 1857. 

0.712 

750 

.727 

4 4 44 

New Thaler. 

0.595 

900 

.729 

“ South. 

Florin before 1857. 

0.340 

900 

.417 

44 44 

New Florin, assumed. 

0.340 

900 

.417 

Greece. 

Five Drachms. 

0 719 

900 

.8SI 

Hindostan. 

Rupee. 

0 374 

916 


Japan... 

Itzabu. 

0.279 

991 

.376 

44 

New Itzabu. 

0 279 

890 

.338 

14 

10 Sen (new coinage). 

0 804 

800 

.985 

Mexico. 

Dollar, new. 

0 8675 

903 

1.066 

44 

“ average. 

0 860 

901 

1.062 

44 

Peso of Maximilian. 

0.861 

902.5 

1.055 

Naples .. 

Scudo. 

0 844 

830 

.953 

Netherlands.. . . 

2% Guilders. 

0.804 

944 

1.033 

Norway. 

Specie Daler. 

0.927 

877 

1.107 

New Grenada . . 

Dollar of 1857. 

0.803 

896 

.98 

Peru.. 

Old Dollar. 

0.866 

901 

1.062 

44 

Dollar of 1858. 

0.766 

909 

.948 

44 

Half Dollar, 1835 and 1838- 

0.433 

650 

.383 

44 

Sol. 

0.802 

900 

.982 

Prussia. 

Thaler before 1857. . 

0.712 

750 

.727 

44 

New Thaler. 

0 595 

900 

.729 

Rome. 

Scudo. 

0 864 

900 

1.058 

Russia .. 

Ruble. 

0.667 

875 

.794 

Sardinia . 

Five Lire. 

0.800 

900 

.98 

Spain. 

New Pistareen. 

0.166 

899 

.203 

Sweden . 

Rix Dollar . 

0.092 

750 

1.115 

Switzerland. 

Two Francs. 

0.323 

899 

.395 

Tunis .. 

Five Piasters. 

0.511 

898.5 

.625 

Turkey . 

Twenty Piasters. 

0.770 

830 

.87 

Tuscany. 

Florin. 

0.220 

925 

.276 

United “States_ 

Dollar. 

0.859% 

900 


4 4 44 

Half Dollar. . 

0.400 

900 


4 4 44 

Quarter Dollar. 

0.200 

900 


44 <4 

Dime. 

0.080 

900 


4 4 4 4 

Half Dime. 

0.040 

900 


4 4 4 4 

Three Cent. 

0.024 

900 



TABLE OF POUNDS IN A BUSHEL. 

The following table shows the weight of a bushel, 
as prescribed by statute, in the several states named: 


i 




RAILROAD FREIGHT. TABLE OF GROSS WEIGHTS. 

The articles named are billed at actual weights, if 
possible, but usually at the weights in the table below 
when it is not convenient to weigh them. 

Ale gnd Beer.320 lbs. bbl. 

" X 
K 
bu. 


.170 

<< “ . 100 

Apples, dried.24 

“ green.56 

<• “ 150 “ bbl. 

Barley. 48 “ bu. 

Beans, white.60 “ “ 

“ castor. 46 “ “ 

Beef.320 “ bbl. 

Bran. 20 “ bu. 

Brooms. 40 “ doz. 

Buckwheat. 52 “ bu. 

Cider.350 “ bbl. 

Charcoal. 22 “ bu. 

Clover Seed. 60 1 

Corn. 56 “ ‘ 

“ in ear. 70 “ “ 



“ Meal.. . 

44 44 

. 48 

.220 

(4 

44 

44 

44 

bbl. 

14 


.300 

44 

44 

Flax Seed. 

. 56 

44 

bu. 

Flour. 

.200 

44 

bbl. 

Hemp Seed. 

. 44 

44 

bu. 


Higliwines.350 lbs. $ bbl. 

Hungarian Grass Seed. 45 “ bu. 

Lime.200 “ bbl. 

Malt.38 “ bu. 

Millet. 45 “ “ 

Nails.108 “ keg. 

Oats. 32 “ bu. 

Oil.400 “ bbl. 

Onions.57 “ bu. 

Teaches, dried.33 “ “ 

Pork .320 “ bbl. 

Potatoes, common_150 “ “ 

“ “ .... 60 “ bu. 

“ sweet.55 “ “ 

Rye. 56 “ “ 

Salt, line. 56 “ “ 

“ “ .300 “ bbl. 

“ coarse.350 “ “ 

“ in sacks. 200 “ sack. 

Timothy Seed.45 “ bu. 

Turnips.56 “ “ 

Vinegar.350 “ bbl. 

Wheat. 60 “ bu. 

Whisky. 350 “ bbl. 

One ton weight is.2000 ft>s. 


ARTICLES. 


Barley. 

Beans. 

Bituminous Coal. 
Blue Grass Seed .. 

Buckwheat___ 

Castor Beans. 

CloverSeed. 

Dried Apples .... 
Dried Peaches.... 

Flax Seed . 

Hemp seed. 

Indian Corn. 

Indian Corn inear 
Indian Corn Meal. 

Oats. 

Onions. 

Potatoes. 

Rye. 

Rye Meal. 

Salt. 

Timothy Seed.. 

Wheat. 

Wheat Bran 


40 


52 


32 


54 


60 


45 


56 


56 


o 

3 

a 


48 

60 

80 

14 

52 

60 


56 


44; 44 


56 


50 

33% 

57 

60 

56 


50 

45 

60 

20 


| Louisiana. 

Maine. 

: ft | Massachusetts. 

; ft 1 Michigan. 

ft | Minnesota. 

5 

o 

r 

X 

48 

60 

SO 

: | N. Carolina. 

X 

r- 

S 

s 

48 

: ft | New Jersey. 

: gg | New York. 

6 

o 

48 

& 1 Oregon. 

*3 | Pennsylvania. 

: | Rhode Island. 

4-3 

5 

q; 

> 

46 

ft | Wisconsin. 

: . ft | Wash. Territory. | 

32 












70 









11 













16 

12 

42 

52 


50 

50 

48 


12 

48 


16 

12 

42 





















60 

60 

60 



01 

00 

60 

(iO 




oo 

60 




28 

28 

24 






28 




28 

28 




28 

28 

33 










28 

28 










55 

56 





50 







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56 


56 

56 

56 

52 

•• 

54 

56 

58 

56 

56 

56 


56 

56 

56 


50 

50 











50 




32 

30 

30 

32 

32 

35 

30 


30 

32 

32 

31 

32 


32 

32 

36 



52 



57 






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00 


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60 

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60 

32 


56 

56 

56 

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50 

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60 


60 

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60 

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GO 

60 

00 

60,00 


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00 






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192 


BRIDGES. 




Its Extent as Compared With the Other Great Bridges Throughout the World. 


the present century the science of 
ineering has developed in a remarkable 
L*ee, and its accomplishments are 
more utilitarian sort, 
i the region of civil engineering that 
includes the planning and construction of public works 
of a special kind, as that relating to bridges, the results 
of combined and well-directed action are particularly 
valuable. 

The extreme supports of a bridge, whether consist¬ 
ing of one or of many arches, are called abutments or 
butments. The parts upright between these, if any 
are called piers or pillars. The foundations upon 
which these rest, if widened out so as to throw off the 
force of the stream, are called cutwaters, and the 
fences on the sides of the roadway are called parapets. 

A greater extent of span can be obtained in suspen¬ 
sion and tubular bridges, and those constructed with 
cast-iron girders, than in bridges of masonry or brick. 

Long span bridges are trussed, arched, tubular, 
and suspension. The celebrated new London bridge 
that crosses the Thames is arched, while the East 
river span, by means of which the inhabitants of 
Brooklyn and New York are more closely connected, 
is a suspension bridge of unequaled length and pro¬ 
portions. 

The extent of the New York and Brooklyn bridge 
exceeds the London bridge in that its length of river span 
is 1,595^ feet, while the total length is 5,989 feet. To 
those who have never seen it, the following data will 
convey something of an idea of the magnitude of the 
work: 

Construction commenced January 2, 1870; cost about $15,000,000. 
Thrown open to the public, 24th May, 1883. Size of New York caisson, 
172x102 feet; size of Brooklyn caisson, 168x102 feet; timber and iron in 
caissons, 5,253 cubic yards; concrete in well holes, chambers, etc., 2,069 
cubic feet. Weight of New York caisson, about 7,000 ton; weight of con¬ 


crete filling, 8,000 tons. New York tower contains 46,945 cubic yards of 
masonry. Brooklyn tower contains 38,214 cubic yards masonry. Length 
of each river span, 1,595 feet six inches; length of each land span, 930 feet, 
1,860 feet; length of Brooklyn approach, 971 feet; length of New York 
approach, 1,562% feet. Total length of termini, 5,989 feet; width of bridge, 
85 feet. Number of cables, 4; diameter of each cable, 15% inches. First 
wire was run out May 29,1871. Cable making really commenced June 11, 
1877. Length of each single wire in cables, 3,578 feet 6 inches. L T ltimate 
strength of each cable, 12,200 tons. Weight of wire, 12 feet per pound, 
Each cable contains 5,296 parallel (not twisted) galvanized steel, oil-coated 
wires, closely wrapped, to a solid cylinder 15% inches in diameter. Depth 
of tower foundation below high water, Brooklyn, 45 feet. Depth of tower 
foundation below high water, New York, 78 feet. Size of towers at high 
water line, 140x50 feet; size of towers at roof course, 135x53 feet. Total 
hight of towers above high water, 278 feet. Clear higlit of bridge in 
center of river span above high water at 90° F., 135 feet. Hight of floors 
at tower above high water, 119 feet 3 inches. Grade of roadway, 3% ft. in 
100 feet. Hight of towers above roadway, 159 feet. Size of anchorages at 
base, 129x119 feet; size of anchorages at top, 117x104 feet. Hight of anchor¬ 
ages, 89 feet front, 85 feet rear. Weight of each anchor plate, 23 tons. Ten 
streets in New York and six in Brooklyn will be crossed with iron girders 
at high elevations, to clear obstructions. Engineer: W. A. Roebling. 

LONDON BRIDGE. 

The new London bridge is set down in British prints 
as by far the most superb work of its class in the 
world, yet it is eclipsed in extent by such American 
works as those at Niagara Falls, at St. Louis, and par¬ 
ticularly the span across East river. 

Briefly, the new London bridge, a work of granite, 
is 928 feet long between the abutments, and consists 
of five semi-elliptical arches, the center 152 feet, while 
the next pair and the abutment arches are 140 and 130 
feet respectively. The passage is fifty-three feet, or 
footways nine each, and thirty-five for carriages. It 
was commenced in 1824 and completed in seven years. 

FORM OF BRIDGES. 

With regard to the form of the arch to be employed 
in bridges, an elliptical or segmental arch is most ele¬ 
gant in appearance, particularly the latter. In seg¬ 
mental arches the lateral thrust on the abutments is 
greater than in any other form; but as the voussoirs 
or w T edge-like stones forming an arch on this construe- 















































































































BRIDGES. 



tion can all be cut from the same mold, as well as those 
of the semicircular arch, they can be erected at less 
expense than an elliptical arch. 

The following bridges in various parts of Great 
Britain and Ireland afford good examples of such con¬ 
structions, with elliptical, semicircular, and segmental 
arches. Elliptical: London bridge, Blackfrair’s bridge, 
Waterloo bridge, and Limerick bridge. Semicircular: 
Stockport bridge, the Royal Border bridge, Berwick, 
and the Dee, Lockwood and Tyne viaducts. Seg¬ 
mental : Chester,Coldstream,Glasgow, Tewksbury, and 
Vauxhall bridges, with old Rochester bridge, and the 
Yale Royal viaduct. 

ARCHED. 

Of arched bridges, Neuilly (over Seine) is more than 
640 feet long, five spans, the longest of which is 128 
feet; St. Louis, 1,509 feet long, three spans, the centre 
one being 515 feet, and the other two each 502 feet in 
length; its cost being$9,000,000. Southwark bridge, 
London, next to new London, in size, is 718 feet 
between the abutments, and consists of three cast- 
iron arches, each forming a segment of a very large 
circle; the span of the center one being 250 feet, and 
the others 210 feet each; they are supported by granite 
piers. 

TUBULAR. 

Victoria railway bridge over the St. Lawrence at 
Montreal, is constructed after the plan of the Britannia 
tubular bridge across the Menai straits. The former is 
10,284 feet in length, having twenty-five spans, the 
longest one 330 feet; it contains 10,500 tons of iron, 
and 3,000,000 cubic feet of masonry. The spans are 
great tubes of wrought iron. It was built at a cost of 
$5,000,000. The Menai bridge is 1,600 feet long, 
thirty feet wide, and 100 feet above the water. The 
weight suspended is 343 tons, and the power 2,016 
tons. 

SUSPENSION, 

The new Niagara Suspension bridge, for carriages, one- 
eighth of a mile below the American cataract, was 
opened to the public 4th January, 1869, and was, 
until the construction of the East river bridge, the 
longest suspension bridge in the world, its roadway 
being 1,300 feet in length. Its cables are 1,800 feet in 
length. It is 1,190 feet from cliff to cliff, 1,268 from tower 
to tower, which latter are 100 feet high, and it spans 
the mighty chasm through which rolls its floods 
toward Lake Ontario, 190 feet above the water. Cost 
of the structure, $175,000. 



The railway suspension bridge, over Niagara river, 
is two miles below the falls. It forms a single span 
of 821 feet in length between the towers, and consists 
of two floors; the upper or railway floor, being 
eighteen feet above the lower or carriage way. These 
floors are connected at the sides by open truss work, so 
as to form, as it were, an immense car, 800 feet long, 24 
feet wide, and eighteen feet high—all suspended by wire 
ropes from four cables of about ten inches in diameter 
each. The elevation of the railroad track above the 
water is 245 feet; there are 14,500 wires employed in 
the cables, and their ultimate strength is 12,000 tons. 
The total weight of the suspension bridge is 800 tons. 

There are two suspension bridges in Friberg, 
Switzerland, one remarkable for its great length, the 
other for its extreme beauty. The latter connects the 
tops of two mountains, swinging over a frightful 
gulf that makes one dizzy to look down into. It 
stretches across nearly 300 feet in the heavens, from 
summit to summit. It looks like a spider’s web flung 
across a chasm; its delicate tracery showing clear 
against the sky. The former is 905 feet long, 174 


high. 


OTHER BRIDGES. 


A wonderful bridge, that of Lagang, over an arm 
of the sea in China, is built in a similar way as the 
bridges of Babylon, but entirely of stone. Its length 
is said to be 26,000 Paris feet, and comprises 3,000 
arches, or rather openings of pillars. These are not 
overspread with arches, but there are placed above 
them large slabs of stone, which form the roadway, 70 
feet broad. The distance of the pillars is nearly 74J 
feet, the latter being 70 feet high, and 5 feet broad, 
and strengthened with stone facings of the form of 
triangular prisms, which extend over the whole hight 
of the pillars up to the transversed slabs. The latter 
(of course more than 70 feet long), extend in breadth 
to 15 feet, and have nine feet in thickness. The para¬ 
pet is a balustrade and every pillar supports a pedes¬ 
tal on which is placed a lion 21 feet long, and made of 
one block of marble. 

The Verrugas viaduct on the Lima and Oroya rail¬ 
road, in the Andes of Peru, is the highest bridge in 
the world, being 12,000 feet above the level of the 
sea. It consists of four deck-spans, or trusses, resting 
on three piers built of wrought-iron columns. Total 
length 575 feet. 

At Ivieff, in Russia, is a beautiful chain bridge over 
the river Dneiper. It has seven spans, and a total 
length of 2,562 feet. 







































198 


VOCABULARY OF MECHANICAL AND SCIENTIFIC TERMS. 





Mechanical and Scientific Terms. 




NAMES AND DEFINITIONS IN ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING, CARPENTRY AND JOINERY, 
METALLURGY, NAUTICAL AFFAIRS, AND PROCESSES OF ART AND INDUSTRY. 



A—A 

r + - 

» 

— 


'3 



' * 

S> T 



BOUT-SEEDGE. A hammer of the I 
largest size used by smiths. 
Accelerate. To quicken. Acceler¬ 
ated motion is that which continu- 
ally increases in velocity, and 
accelerating force is that which 
produces accelerated motion. 

Addendum Circle. The space between the pitch 
line of a gear and the circle touching the ends 
of the teeth. 

Adz. A carpenter’s tool for chipping. 

Aerostat. A machine or balloon holding weights 
in the air. 

Air-brake. An appliance for stopping the motion 
of a car wheel by the use of compressed air. 

Air-chamber. A hollow space containing air to 
serve as a spring for equalizing the flow of 
liquid in hydraulic machines. 

Air-drain. An opening between the outward 
walls of a building as a guard against damp, 
ness. 

Air-engine. See Engine. 

Air-escape. A device for letting out air from 
water pipes. 

Air-fountain. A device for producing a jet of 
water by compressed air. 

Air-gun. a contrivance like a musket, where¬ 
with to discharge bullets by means of com¬ 
pressed air. 

Air-jacket. A jacket with air-tight cells, used to 
keep the body of a person from sinking. 

Air-machine. A device for ventilating mines. 

Air-pipe. A pipe to draw foul air from close 
places. 

Air-pump. A pump for extracting the air from 
a closed vessel. 

Air-shaft. Holes made from the surface to the 
adits or horizontal passages, to furnish fresh air 
to mines. 

Air-trap. A device for the escape of foul air from 
sewers, etc. 

Alarm-gauge. A part of a steam -engine for indi. 
eating when the pressure of steam is too high, or 
the water in the boiler too low. 

Alloy. A natural or artificial mixture of two or 
more metals. The alloys of copper and tin are 
of extreme importance in the arts on account of 
their great toughness, their hardness, and their 
fusibility. The alloys of silver and tin are very 
hard, as a small quantity of tin overcomes the 
ductility of the silver. When mercury is one 


I of the metals, the compound is known ns 
amalgam. 

Amalgam. See Alloy. 

Anchor. An iron weight for holding a vessel at 
rest in water. 

Andiron. A support for wood in a fireplace. 

Android. A mechanical contrivance in the form 
of a man; an automaton. 

Anemometer. A machine for measuring the 
wind. “ Anemoscope,” a wind-vane or weather¬ 
cock. 

Angle-iron. An iron bar made into the form of 
an angle for strengthening the corners of safes, 
boilers, etc. Called, also, angle-bar. 

Anvil. A thick iron block, frequently with a 
steel face, upon which metals are hammered and 
shaped. 

Aquarium. A vessel containing water, either 
salt or fresh, in which living specimens of 
aquatic animals and plants are maintained in a 
healthy state. 

Aqueduct. A channel with a gentle inclination, 
for the transmission of water from one place to 
another. 

Archimedean Screw, or Spiral Pump. So-called 
for Archimedes, its inventor. It consists of a 
pipe twisted spirally round a cylinder, which, 
when at work, is supported in an inclined posi¬ 
tion. The lower end of the pipe is immersed in 
water, and when the cylinder is made to revolve 
on its own axis, the water is raised from bend 
to bend in the spiral pipe until it flows out at 
the top. 

Architecture. The science of building or con¬ 
struction, and is of various kinds; as, civil, 
military, naval, and ecclesiastical. The walls of 
antiquity are called Cyclopean, and date back 
about 1,000 years before Christ. The Greeks 
improved upon the architecture of the Assyrians 
and Egyptians. Greek architecture is divided 
into the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. Roman 
architecture was borrowed from the Greek. 
The Byzantine, Saracenic, Gothic, and Renais¬ 
sance architecture followed. Of the first-named 
is the church of St. Sophia at Constantinople; 
the second or Saracenic style is used in Moham¬ 
medan mosques; Gothic was characteristic of 
western Europe during the middle ages, and 
gave way to a mixed style called Elizabethan; 
Renaissance denotes a revival of of the classical 
style of architecture, which had its origin in | 


Italy, where the Gothic style never had a strong 
footing. Every country had its peculiar Renais¬ 
sance, although each was derived from that of 
Italy. The Renaissance in general was founded 
upon the Roman antique; not upon the style of 
the temples, but upon that of their triumphal 
arches, baths, and other edifices. The Renais¬ 
sance is considered by French writers to have 
risen to its highest point of excellence under 
Philibert Delorme, in the sixteenth century. In 
the present century there has been a reaction 
in favor of the Gothic style of architecture, 
which, although admirably suited for ecclesias¬ 
tical purposes, is not well adapted for the con¬ 
struction of public offices or private dwelling- 
houses, as the com fort of the interior is too often 
disregarded for the sake of the symmetry of the 
exterior. The architecture of this day, how¬ 
ever, is quite varied and picturesque, and par¬ 
takes of a sort of new order, characteristic of 
the age of railways, and other important im¬ 
provements of these times. See Composite, and 
Etruscan Architecture; also, Ionic order, and 
Keystone. 

Arcograpli. A device for drawing a circular 
arc or circle without a central point, as in 
the case of an instrument with a point and 
pencil. 

Ajrmature. A piece of soft iron affixed to the 
extremities or poles of a magnet, in order that 
its magnetic power may be preserved. In archi¬ 
tecture, iron bars or framing for consolidation 
and support of structures. 

Armstrong Gun. A light weapon of great power 
and precision, made of pieces of the very best 
wrought iron. This rifled gun was constructed 
by Sir William George Armstrong, and was 
adopted by the English government and first 
used in the war with China, in 1860. 

Arquebuse. An old species of fire-arm. 

Artificer (or Artisan). One who makes accord¬ 
ing to art; a skilful worker and contriver; one 
trained in the use of tools in some mechanic art 
or trade. “ Artist,” an artisan. 

Ash-furnace (or Oven). Used in making glass. 

Ashlar (or Ashler). A term applied to stones, 
whether rough or dressed. 

Asphalt (or Asphaltum). A bituminous sub¬ 
stance, found in the tertiary strata in different 
parts of the earth, evidently produced from coal 
by the action of heat. It is much used as a 


















































































VOCABULARY OF MECHANICAL AND SCIENTIFIC TERMS. 


199 


pavement when mixed with certain proportions 
of lime, gravel, or pounded stone. Coal-tar is 
artificial asphalt. 

Assaying. A term generally applied to the deter, 
mination of gold or silver in alloys of these 
metals. “ Button,” a round mass of metal 
remaining in the crucible after melting. 

Astragal. See Base. 

Atlantes. See Caryatides. 

Auger. An instrument for boring holes by car¬ 
penters, wheelwrights, shipwrights, and others, 
“ Auger-bit,” a bit with a cutting edge like that 
of an auger. 

Automaton. A machine so constructed as to 
move in imitation of the actions of living 
animals. 

Awl. A pointed inetrumentused by shoemakers, 
saddlers, and cabinet-makers—called, also, brad¬ 
awl, saddler’s awl, shoemaker’s awl. 

Ax (or Axe). An iron instrument, generally used 
with both hands in hewing timber and chopping 
wood. The hatchet is a smaller form of the ax, 
and is used with one hand. The broad-ax is a 
carpenter’s tool made heavier than the chop¬ 
ping-ax, with broader and thinner blade and 
shorter handle. The mattock is a kind of 
pick-ax. See Pick, and Pole-ax, under the head 
of Pole. 

Axis. A term common to all the sciences. In 
physics, the word is used in many different 
senses. The axis of rotation is the line around 
which a body turns when revolving. The term 
is applied to any line about which objects are 
symmetrical, around which they turn, or to 
which they have some common relation. 

Axle-box. A box in which the short, cylindrical 
portion of a shaft bears and moves, particu¬ 
larly a railway axle; a journal box. ‘‘Axle- 
guard,” the part of a railway truck which rests 
on the top of the journal-box, and holds it in 
place. 

Axle-tree. A piece of timber, or bar of iron, 
fitted for insertion in the hubs or naves of 
wheels, on which the wheels turn. 

Babbitt-metal. A soft alloy of copper, zinc and 
tin, used for bearings or journals, to lessen 
friction, so-called after its inventor. 

Bagpipe. A wind instrument of high antiquity, 
in use with the Hebrews and Greeks. Generally 
used in Scotland. 

Balance. An instrument for determining the 
relative weights of bodies. There are several 
varieties. In horology, a small wheel in a watch 
or time-piece which governs the movement. 

Balance-knife. A table-knife which rests on the 
handle, leaving the blade free and not touching 
the cloth. 

Balcony. A projection in front of the windows 
of a house, supported on brackets of wood or 
stone; the box of a theater. “Baldachin,” a 
tent-like covering or canopy, of wood, stone, or 
metal, either supported on columns or suspended 
from above, and placed over doorways, statues, 
altars, thrones, etc. “ Balustrade,” a row of 
balusters surmounted by a cornice or handrail, 
used to give a finished appearance to the tops of 
buildings, or for the inclosure of stairs, balco¬ 
nies, etc. “ Colonnade,” a range of pillars ex¬ 
tending round a building. 

Ball-cock. An appliance which admits of water 
running into a cistern, but shuts it off by means 
of a floating ball, when the cistern is full. 

Balloon. A large globe or pear-shaped bag, made 
of paper or varnished silk, and filled with rare¬ 
fied air or hydrogen gas, so as to rise and float in 
the atmosphere. 

Ball-valve. A ball, fitted into a circular cup 
which has a hole at the bottom. 

Balustrade. See Balcony. 

Band. A broad flat molding projecting a little 
beyond the surface of the building or column to 
which it is applied. The band of a column 
is sometimes molded in various forms, and is 
then called » shaft ring. In mechanics, a belt 
passing over two pulleys, and communicating 
motion. 


Banding-plane. An instrument or tool used for 
cutting out grooves and inlaying strings and 
bands in straight and circular work. 

Bandore. A musical instrument of threestrings, 
similar to a guitar. “ Banjo,” an instrument of 
five strings, having a head and neck like the 
guitar, and its body like a tamborine. “ Tarnbo- 
rine,” a small, shallow drum, with only one skin, 
played on with the hands, and having bells at 
the sides. 

Barbacan. A watchtower placed before or over 
the outer gate of a castle yard, forming an 
advanced work to protect the castle, etc. 

Barge. See Vessel. 

Bar-iron. Iron in long pieces. 

Barium. A white, slightly malleable metal, the 
metallic base of the alkaline earth baryta. 

Bark. See Vessel. 

Barker’s Mill. See Turbine. 

Barometer. An instrument for measuring the 
weight or pressure of the atmosphere. 

Barrow. See Carriage. 

Bar-shoe. A horse-shoe having a bar across the 
usual opening at the heel, for the protection of 
a tender frog. 

Bar-shot. A double-headed shot consisting of a 
bar with a ball at each end. 

Bartizan. A small round turret, with an arrow- 
slit or very narrow window, generally project¬ 
ing from the angle of a square tower, on the 
corner of a gable of a building, and supported 
on a corbel or bracket. 

Base. That part of a column on which the shaft 
is placed, consisting generally, in the five orders 
of architecture, of a square plinth and mold¬ 
ings, formed of tori, fillets, cavettos, and astra¬ 
gals, in various combinations, between the 
plinth and the bottom of the shaft. “ Astra¬ 
gal,” a molding in the capital of the Ionic col¬ 
umn. “ Cavetto,” a hollowed molding. “ Fil¬ 
let,” a little square piece or ornament, used 
generally over a greater molding. “ Baston," a 
round molding used in the base of a column, 
called also a tore or torus. “ Entablature,” that 
part of a column which is over the capital, com¬ 
prehending the architrave, frieze, and cornice. 

Base-line. A line taken as a base of operations, 
as in surveying, in military operations, etc. 
“ Base-plate,” the bed-plate of heavy machinery. 
“ Base-ring,” a projecting ring or band around 
the base of anything; as, the base-ring of a 
great gun. 

Bass Viol. A large instrument, violin-like in 
form, used for playing the bass or gravest part. 
It has four strings. 

Battery. A term usually applied to a combina¬ 
tion of several electrical jars, which may be 
charged and discharged as one great jar. “ Re¬ 
lay,” a magnet that receives the circuit current, 
and develops the power of a local battery, called 
also relay battery. 

Bay-window. A window forming a bay or recess 
in a room. It may project outward from the 
wall either in a rectangular, polygonal, or semi¬ 
circular form. 

Beam. Either a large piece of timber or metal, 
used for sustaining heavy weight in buildings. 
“ Beam-engine,” a steam-engine which com¬ 
municates motion by the top of the piston-rod, 
being connected with a beam or lever moving 
on a central pivot, the other end of the beam 
being in similar connection with the crank of 
the driving-wheel. In the direct-action engine 
no beam is used, the piston working the crank. 

Bed-piece. The main piece or framing of a bed. 
“ Bed-plate,” the foundation plate of an engine 
or other machinery. 

Beetle. A heavy mallet or hammer, made of 
wood, used in driving wedges, beating pave- 
ments, etc. 

Beetling Machine. A machine or improvement 
for giving to woven fabrics a glossy finish simi¬ 
lar to that which is now produced by the ordi¬ 
nary stamps in the machines called beetles. 

Bell. A metallic instrument which gives out a 
musical sound caused directly by its own vibra¬ 


tions. “ Bell-crank,” a triangular crank used to 
ring a bell. “Bell-metal,” an alloy of eighty 
parts of copper and twenty parts of tin. 

Bellows. A machine for propelling air forcibly 
through a tube. 

Belly-brace. A cross brace, fixed to the boiler, 
between the frames of a locomotive engine. 

Belt. A band of leather, prepared India rubber, 
or other flexible substance, passing around two 
wheels, for the purpose of communicating 
motion to machinery. 

Bessemer’s Process. (For refining iron.) A pro¬ 
cess for converting pig-iron (iron in the rough, 
as it comes from the furnace) more rapidly into 
malleable iron and steel. 

Bevel. A term used by builders to express a sur- 
face sloping from another, at an angle greater or 
less than a right angle. In machinery, cog¬ 
wheels, with beveled edges, or beveled gear, as 
they are termed, are used to transfer the motive 
power from one direction to another. 

Bevel-gear. Cog-wheels whose teeth are bev¬ 
elled, so that two wheels work together at right 
angles. 

Bicycle. See Carriage. 

Bilge. The bottom floor of a ship, or the breadth 
of the part she rests on when aground. Also, 
the protuberant part of a cask. 

Bill-hoards. Pieces of thick plank, plated with 
iron, and attached to the fore parts of a ship, 
for the bill of the anchor to pass over. 

Bismuth. A metal of a greyish-white color, with 
a strong characteristic tinge of red. It is hard, 
brittle, and but slightly malleable. The peculiar 
property it possesses of expanding as it cools, 
renders its alloys of great use to the typefounder 
and die-sinker. 

Bit. A small tool, of various sizes, for boring, 
and turned by means of a brace. 

Bitumen. Mineral pitch, closely allied in its 
properties to coal-tar, which is produced by the 
destructive distillation of coal. See Asphalt. 

Black Lead. The common commercial name 
for graphite, or plumbago, given to that sub- 
stance from its metallic leaden-gray luster. It 
is, however, nearly pure carbon, and contains 
no lead. 

Blacksmith. A smith who works in iron, and 
makes and repairs iron utensils. 

Blanchard Lathe. A lathe for turning forms, 
such as shoe-lasts or gun-stocks. So named 
after the inventor. 

Blast-furnace. A furnace used in metallurgical 
operations, in which the combustion of the fuel 
is increased to an enormous extent by a blast 
blown from a bellows, or by means of fans. A 
smith’s forge is a blast-furnace on a small scale. 

Blast-hole. A hole in the bottom of a pump, 
through which water enters. “Blast-pipe,” the 
exhaust pipe of a steam-engine, or any pipe so 
constructed as to cause a quick discharge of 
steam or air into the outer atmosphere. 

Block. An adaptation of the principle of the 
pulley, by means of blocks, used in the rigging 
of ships. 

Block-tin. Tin, as it comes from the foundry. 
See Tin. 

Bloom. A mass of iron that has undergone the 
first hammering, called the blomary. After this 
process it requires many more hammerings or 
rollings to make it suitable for the use of the 
smith. 

Blower. A contrivance, of which there are vari¬ 
ous kinds, for producing and maintaining a 
strong current of air for increasing combustion 
in metallurgical and other processes, requiring 
intense heat. “ Blowpipe,” an instrument used 
by workers in metal for soldering on a small 
scale. It is called a mouth blow-pipe when used 
with the mouth. 

Board. Pasteboard, or paper made thick and 
stiff like a board for book-covers. Books are 
said to be boarded when bound in cloth, half¬ 
bound when the back and corners are in leather, 
and whole-bound when nothing but leather is 
used. See Book-binding. 





































200 


VOCABULARY OF MECHANICAL AND SCIENTIFIC TERMS 


Bobbin. A small wooden pin, with a head, to 
wind thread on, used in making lace, etc. 

Bodkin. A small pointed tool, used by printers 
and other artists for various purposes. Also, a 
large kind of needle, used by the women of 
antiquity for the same purposes as they now 
are, and also in fastening the hair. 

Boiler. A strong vessel, usually made of wrought 
iron plates, riveted together, in which steam is 
generated for driving engines, etc. 

Bolt. A strong pin, of iron or other material, for 
holding parts together. A bolt with an eye at 
its head and ring attached is called a ring-bolt. 

Bond. A term applied to a certain method of 
laying bricks, and to timbers built into or 
attached to the walls of a house for various pur¬ 
poses. In bricklaying, care must be taken that 
the bricks are well bonded, that is, that the suc¬ 
cessive layers of bricks may be so placed that 
no joint in any layer shall come immediately 
over another j oint in the layer below it. “Bond- 
stones,” so-called when they are introduced 
longitudinally into a wall built of small rough 
stones or rubble-work. “ Bond-heart,” a term 
applied when one stone is placed in the center 
of a thick wall, over the joint formed by two 
others, the outer faces of which appear opposite 
to each other on either side of the wall. 

Bookbinding. The number of operations is 
three: Preparing, binding, and finishing. The 
sheets as printed are first gathered—placed in 
their order of pagination—folded into four, 
eight, or twelve leaves, as the case may be; 
they are then stitched and sewn to strings or 
bands placed at the back of the volume. A saw- 
cut is, in some instances, made to receive the 
string, otherwise the string is left to form a rib, 
which is used as an element of ornament in fin¬ 
ishing the book. The sheets being all sewn 
together, the back edges are glued together by 
brushing them lightly with thin glue. The 
strings are cut oft within half an inch of the 
volume, and the back is rounded, either by 
hand or by means of machinery. A groove is 
formed by pressure against the back edge to 
receive the board of the cover. The top, bot¬ 
tom, and front edges are then cut level, and the 
boards are fixed to the volume by the ends of 
the strings being passed through small holes 
and glued firmly to the inside. The book is then 
ornamented with gilding, inlaying of different- 
colored leather, or blind tooling, i. e., plain 
stamping by heated stamps or dies, and the 
edges are left plain, or gilt, or sprinkled. See 
Board. 

Boots, shoes, and other coverings for the feet, 
have been made of different substances, and in 
different forms, from very remote times. A 
boot is usually made of leather, and the top 
extends nearly to the knee, whilst a shoe 
extends only above the ankle. A sandal con¬ 
sists of a sole strapped to the foot, with an 
enclosure at the heel and sometimes at the toe. 
“ Boot-crimp,” a frame or last, used by boot¬ 
makers for outlining and shaping the body of a 
boot. “ Boot-last,” an instrument to stretch 
and widen the leg of a boot. “ Last,” a mold or 
piece of wood resembling in form the human 
foot, on which shoes are formed. 

Bore. The cylindrical cavity of any weapon 
used for projecting shot, shells, bullets, or any 
missiles of a similar nature. The operation of 
boring cannon and gun-barrels is one requiring 
great care and nicety, and is effected by the 
rapid revolution of a steel tool called a cutter, 
attached to a shaft which is turned by machin¬ 
ery. “ Boring-machine, ” a machine with a very 
hard and sharp steel tool, which works at the 
end of a long bar, somewhat after the manner of 
a centerbit. 

Bow. One of the oldest of weapons. In maritime 
affairs, that portion of a ship’s side which forms 
an arch toward the stem. In architecture, any 
portion of a building that projects from a 
straight wall. “ Bow-compasses, ” a small pair of 
compasses made with a bow-pen for describing 


circles with ink. “ Bow-pen,” a metallic ruling- 
pen. “ Bow-saw,” a saw with a narrow blade, 
used for cutting curved forms from wood. 

Bracket. A term applied to any projection, plain 
or ornamental, suspended against, or fastened 
to a wall, for the support of a clock, statue, or 
other things. 

Brad. A kind of nail, with a slight projection at 
the top on one side, in lieu of a head. 

Brake. A block of wood applied by lever or 
screw pressure to the circumference of a wheel, 
to slacken or arrest the moving power of the 
machine, by the production of a large amount 
of friction. 

Bramah Lock. A lock named after its inventor, 
and for a long time was considered incapable of 
being picked. “ Bramah press,” a hydi-ostatic 
machine of great power, invented by the Messrs. 
Bramah. 

Brass. A compound metal or alloy containing 
zinc and copper in varying proportions, accord¬ 
ing to the purposes for which it is to be used; 
the general composition is, however, two-thirds 
copper and one-third zinc. “ Brass-foil,” brass 
made into thin sheets by pounding. 

Braze. To solder or join two pieces of iron 
together by means of thin plates of brass melted 
between the pieces that are to be united. 

Breakwater. A barrier or artificial bank of 
stone, so placed as to break the force of the 
sea, before the entrance into a roadstead or 
harbor. 

Breast. A bush connected with a small shaft, 
small axle or axis. “ Breast-beam,” the front 
cross-beam of a locomotive frame. “Breast¬ 
ing,” the curved space in which a breast-wheel 
turns. It forms a quarter of a circle, and 
adapted to prevent the waste of water. “Breast- 
rail,” the upper rail of a balcony, etc. “ Breast- 
wheel,” a variety of water-wheel, which may be 
divided into two classes, termed high and low. 
In the former case, the wheel is moved by the 
weight of the water, which it receives a little 
above the height of its axis. In the latter case, 
the wheel is moved by the impulse of the water, 
which it receives a little below the level of its 
axis. 

Breech. In naval architecture, the outer angle 
of knee-timber. “ Breech-loading,” a term ap- 
plied to the method of making heavy pieces 
of ordnance and field-pieces, as well as rifles 
and fowling-pieces, with a movable breech, to 
admit of the charge being inserted at the breech 
end of the gun instead of the muzzle. “ Breech- 
pin ” or screw, a strong plug screwed in at the 
breech of a fire-arm. “ Bi-eecli-sight,” an instru¬ 
ment used for pointing a cannon or other fire¬ 
arm. 

Bressummer. Any large beam used to support 
a superincumbent mass of masonry, such as the 
beam placed over a shop-window to receive the 
weight of the front of the building that rises 
over it. Called, also, brest-summer. 

Brett. A long four-wheeled pleasure vehicle. 

Brevier. A small body or reading type, in size 
between bourgeois and minion, the last being 
the smallest of the three kinds here men¬ 
tioned. 

Brewing, The art of extracting a saccharine 
solution from grain, and afterward pai-tially 
converting the sugar formed into alcohol. Any 
of the cereals, wheat, beans, peas, etc., may be 
used in brewing, but bai-ley is the best for the 
manufacture of beer. Malt signifies any grain 
which has become sweet to the taste on account 
of the commencement of germination; as, bar¬ 
ley, from which ale, beer, and porter are brewed, 
all of which are called malt liquors. Barley 
steeped in water for three or four days becomes 
malt, when it is taken out and allowed to sprout 
or gexminate. It is then dried in a kiln and 
treated with boiling water, in order to form 
wort. Nearly all seeds contain a large quantity 
of starch, and when they begin to geiminate, a 
peculiar nitrogenous substance called diastase 
is foimed. This product, acting as a ferment, 


converts the starch into sugar. This process is 
called malting, and the subsequent partial con¬ 
version of the sugar into alcohol is called brew¬ 
ing. The two processes are intimately con¬ 
nected. In brewing, the malt undergoes six 
processes: The grinding; the mashing, or infus¬ 
ing with hot water; the boiling of the worts 
with hops; the cooling; the fermenting, and the 
clearing, storing, etc. 

Bricks. The material used in making bricks is 
clay, which is worked into a plastic state by 
kneading, and then molded into a rectangular 
form, nine inches long, four and one-half inches 
wide, and very nearly three inches thick. These 
pieces are afterwai’d dried, and then hardened 
by baking in a kiln or in stacks. “Brick- 
trowel,” a mason’s tool for spreading mortar. 
“Brickwork,” the thickness of walls of lxoxxses 
built of brick is regulated by the length of the 
brick, which is nine inches. Walls are made 
half a brick, a brick, a brick and a half, etc., in 
thickness. In houses, usually the outer walls 
are from one brick to two in thickness, and the 
pai’tition walls only a half a brick thick. In 
public buildings, and walls in which great 
strength is required, they are sometimes more 
than four brick thick; but it is considered good 
substantial work when they are made of the 
thickness of three bricks well bonded together. 
(See Bond.) A layer of bricks is called a course; 
when laid side facing outward, and lengthwise 
in the course, they are termed stretchers; and 
hence, stretching - course; endwise, they are 
headers, or heading-course. See Plinth. 

Bridge. A structure of wood, stone, or iron, 
thrown across a river, or any water-channel. 
Bridges may be classed as fixed or movable; 
among the former are the ordinary bridge, the 
suspension bridge, the tubular bx-idge, the frame 
bridge, the lattice bridge, and the skew bridge; 
among the latter, are the floating bridge, fly¬ 
ing bridge, draw - bi’idge, and swing - bridge. 
“ Bi-idge-head,” a fortification intended for the 
defense of a bridge. Military bridges include 
the pontoon bridge, a bridge of boats, rope- 
bridge, boat-and-rope bridge, trestle bridge, 
raft bridge, and pile-and-spar bridge. 

Brig. See Vessel. 

Brilliant. A diamond of the finest cut: also, the 
finest body type, used in the ai’t of printing. 

Broad-ax. See Ax. 

Bronze. An alloy of copper and tin, to which are 
sometimes added small portions of zinc and 
lead. 

Brush-wheel. One of the wheels which in light 
machinery turn each other without teeth, but 
with or without bristles or brushes fixed to 
their circumference. 

Buckboard. See Cai-riage. 

Bucking. The process of soaking cloth in lye for 
bleaching. In mining, a term applied to crush¬ 
ing ore by hand on a plate called a bucking- 
plate, by means of a flat-headed hammer. 
“Bucking-kier,” a large round boiler, or kier, 
used in bleaching. A washing-block is called a 
bucking-stool. 

Buffer. A rod ■with an enlarged end attached to 
a spiral spring of great strength, fixed to the 
sti-iking parts of locomotives and railway car¬ 
riages, in order to diminish or prevent shocks 
arising from any sudden movement or stoppage. 

Burin. An engraver’s tool for cutting lines on 
steel, copper, or zinc plate in making an en¬ 
graving. 

Bxxrnisher. A tool made of agate, steel, or some 
vei-y hard highly-polished material, and used by 
silversmiths, bookbinders, and others, to give 
smoothness and luster to l’ough surfaces. 

Bush. A perforated piece of metal fixed in cer¬ 
tain parts of machinery, to receive the wear of 
pivots, bearings, and the like, as in the hub of a 
wheel, etc. In larger machines, a similar piece 
is called a box. “ Bush-harrow,” an instrument 
of husbandry for liaiTOwing grass lands, and 
covering grass or clover seeds; bushes are inwo¬ 
ven in it, hence the name. 






























VOCABULARY OF MECHANICAL AND SCIENTIFIC TERMS 


201 


Butcher. A slaughterer of cattle for the table; 
also a vendor or retailer of the same. The 
methods of killing cattle vary in different 
countries, as do the means by which the meat is 
disposed of to the consumer. 

Butt. The square end of a connecting-rod, to 
which the bush-bearing is fixed by a metal clasp 
or strap fastened to the butt by means of a cot¬ 
ter and gib. At the end of a connecting-rod, a 
strap-head is a journal-box. Cotter is a wedged- 
shaped piece of wood, iron, or other material, 
used for securing parts of machinery. Gib is a 
piece, notched or not, to hold other parts 
together. 

Button. See Assaying. 

Buttress. A kind of hutment, constructed arch¬ 
wise, serving to support a building or wall. 

Cabinet-maker. See Carpentry. 

Cable. A sea term for a strong rope, or chain, 
which serves to keep a ship at anchor. The 
Atlantic telegraph cable consists of wire that is 
enfolded by strands of twisted wire, layers of 
gutta-percha, hemp and pitch, etc. “Cable’s 
length,” the measure of 120 fathoms, or 720 feet. 
“Cable-molding,” round molding, cut so as to 
resemble a rope. 

Cable Street Cars. A track, with endless cable 
underneath surface of the ground, the latter 
being propelled by steam. Midway between the 
rails composing each track are two strips of 
iron which run parallel with the rails. A driver 
on a car that carries the grip, by means of a 
lever throws on or off the grip, which runs down 
from the floor of the car through between the 
strips of iron to the tunnel, where the cable is 
in motion at the rate of six or eight miles an 
hour; the grip clasps the cable tightly or other¬ 
wise, as the driver wishes to go fast or slow. 

Caen Stone. An oolitic limestone, extensively 
quarried near Caen, in France. It forms an 
admirable building stone. 

Calculating-machines. Are those by which all 
the common arithmetical operations and others 
of a more complex nature may be readily 
effected, thereby saving a considerable amount 
of time to those who are engaged in calculating 
long series of figures, and insuring results which 
cannot fail to be correct. 

Caliber Compasses. An instrument, with curved 
legs, used for measuring the diameter of shot 
and shells and cylindrical bodies. 

Calking-iron. A chisel, used in driving oakum 
into the seams between the planks of a ship’s 
decks or sides. A reeming-iron or chisel is used 
for opening the seams of planks. 

Cam. A plate with curved sides, fixed on a 
revolving shaft for converting a rotary motion 
into a rectilinear. 

Camera Lucida. An optical instrument intended 
to facilitate the perspective delineation of ob- 
jects. It has been most successfully employed 
in delineating the forms of wonder and beauty 
revealed by the microscope. “Camera Obscura,” 
an optical apparatus, representing an artificial 
eye, by which the images of external objects, 
received through a double convex glass, are 
shown distinctly, and in their native colors. 

Cam-wheel. A wheel of irregular outline, used 
to produce a variable or alternating motion in 
machinery; a cam, which see. 

Cannon. A hollow cylinder through which a 
revolving shaft passes. In military affairs, a 
great gun. “ Carronade,” a kind of short can¬ 
non, first made in Scotland. “Columbiad,” a 
heavy piece of ordnance having combined cer¬ 
tain qualities of the gun, howitzer, and mortar. 
“ Dahlgren gun,” a gun of heavy caliber, some¬ 
what similar to the Armstrong gun, which see, 
and named after its inventor, an officer of the 
United States navy, the breech is extremely 
strong, and it fires shells as well as solid shot. 
“Field-gun,” a small kind of cannon; a field- 
piece. “ Gatling-gun,” a machine gun, having 
six barrels, and capable of firing two hundred 
shots a minute, named after the American 
inventor, It. J. Gatling. “ Howitzer,” a short 


cannon for throwing large projectiles. “ Krupp 
gun,” a gun made at Krupp’s works, at Essen, in 
Prussia; the largest, an enormous piece, was 
exhibited at the Paris Exhibition, made of solid 
steel, and constructed to fire a shot weighing 
1,212 pounds; its caliber is fourteen inches, and 
its length seventeen feet. “ Mortar,” a variety 
of short cannon of a large bore, with chambers, 
employed to throw shells or carcasses at consid¬ 
erable distances. “Swivel-gun,” a gun which 
may be turned on a pivot in any direction. 

Cantilever. A projecting piece or bracket for 
supporting a comice, balcony, etc. 

Caoutchouc (or Gum-elastic). See India rubber. 

Capital. The uppermost part of a column, serv¬ 
ing as the head. 

Capstan. A large piece of timber resembling a 
windlass, placed behind the mainmast. It is a 
cylinder with levers, used to weigh anchors, to 
hoist up or strike down topmasts, etc. 

Cardiac Wheel. A wheel made in the shape of a 
heart; a cam. 

Carding-machine. A machine in which the 
fibres of cotton, or wool, are combed or carded, 
to disentangle them from each other, and bring 
them into a proper condition for spinning into 
yams and thread. The machine consists of 
wooden cylinders or drums to which straps of 
leather are fastened, which are perforated with 
numerous wires regularly arranged. The exte¬ 
rior of a cylinder resembles a circular brush. 
The cotton or other material is put into the 
machine at one end, and is rapidly whirled 
round from cylinder to cylinder until it comes 
out at the other end in the form of a filmy fleece; 
this is received on another cylinder called the 
doffer, from which it is removed by the doffing- 
knife, and gathered into a narrow mass by pass¬ 
ing through a funnel-shaped aperture, when it is 
ready to be spun into yarns and thread. 

Carpentry. The expression is more particularly 
applicable to the system of framing pieces of 
timber together to form partitions, roofs, and 
floors of buildings, the trusses and frames of 
wooden bridges, and the centring or supports 
on which large arches and the arches of bridges 
are built, as well as the keel, ribs, timbers, and 
planks forming the hull of a vessel. The interior 
fittings of a house, such as the stairs, skirting- 
boards, flooring, doors, windows, etc., are the 
work of the joiner; and pieces of household 
furniture, particularly those made of the more 
valuable kinds of wood, come from the hands of 
the cabinet-maker. 

Carriage. In general, a vehicle for carrying 
goods and persons; in gunnery, the machine 
upon which the gun is mounted; in carpentry, 
the frame of timber-work which supports the 
steps of wooden stairs. ‘ ‘ Barrow, ’ ’ a light, small 
carriage, moved by hand. “ Buck-board,” a rude 
vehicle of four wheels, with a seat for two per¬ 
sons, the board-part springing with its own 
elasticity when the wheels come in contact 
with an obstacle. “ Bicycle,” a carriage for one, 
having one very large wheel and one very small, 
disposed one behind the other, with a seat above 
the large wheel for the rider. It is propelled by 
movement of the feet upon cranks fixed to the 
axle of the large wheel. “ Cab,” a small light 
can-iage for one horse. “ Cabriolet,” a one-horse 
pleasure-carriage. “ Calash,” a light, covered 
carriage, with seats for four inside, and a sep- 
arate seat for the driver; in Canada, a two¬ 
wheeled vehicle, having one seat, with a place 
in front for the driver. “ Carry-all,” a light, 
one-horse vehicle for carrying a number of per¬ 
sons. “ Cart,” a carriage with two wheels. 
“Chaise,” a two-wheeled vehicle for two per¬ 
sons. “ Chariot,” a war vehicle; a four-wheeled 
pleasure-carriage. “ Clarence,” a close four- 
wheeled vehicle, with one seat inside, and a seat 
for the driver. “ Coach,” a large, close, four- 
wheeled vehicle. “Coupe,” a four-wheeled, 
close carriage for two persons, and a separate 
seat for the driver. “Dog-cart,” a one-horse 
cart, with two wheels or four wheels, used by 


sportsmen to carry dogs for hunting. “ Gig,” a 
very light kind of two-wheeled chaise. “ Glad¬ 
stone,” a roomy four-wheeled pleasure vehicle, 
with seats for six, including driver and footman. 
“ Jump-seat,” a carriage with a movable seat. 
“Kibitka,” a wagon without springs, used by 
Tartars as akind of movable habitation. “ Lan¬ 
dau,” a convenient carriage, made at Landau, in 
Germany; it is hung and fitted like a coach, but 
constructed so that the upper part can be thrown 
open occasionally in fine weather. “Boeka- 
way,” a pleasure - carriage, with fixed top. 
“ Stanhope,” a light two-wheeled carriage, so- 
named after Lord Stanhope, for whom it was 
made. “ Sulky,” a two-wheeled vehicle, for one 
person. “ Tartan,” a long, covered carriage. 
“Velocipede,” a carriage for one, with wheels of 
unequal diameter, similar in form to the bicy¬ 
cle, which is capable of being driven with great 
speed. “ Wagon,” a four-wheeled vehicle for 
carrying freight. 

Carrier. A piece fastened to a face-plate in a 
lathe. 

Carving. A term applied more particularly to 
the production of figures, fruit, flowers, and 
ornamental work, from pieces of wood or ivory, 
by cutting the same into the desired shape by 
means of chisels, gouges, saws, and files of the 
necessary forms. The art of carving is called 
sculpture when stone is the material used, and 
chasing when the work is executed in metal. 

Caryatides. The term given to female figures 
that are used instead of columns, to support an 
entablature. Atlantes is the name given by the 
Greeks to male figures used instead of columns 
or pilasters for a similar purpose. 

Case. A receptacle divided into numerous com¬ 
partments, for holding types. The lower-case 
contains fifty-four boxes, for each small letter of 
the alphabet, each figure (from 1 to 0), punctua¬ 
tion points, spaces for placing between the 
words, quadrates of four sizes for justifying 
lines and making paragraphs. The uppercase is 
divided into ninety-eight boxes, and contains 
the capital letters, small-caps, sign marks, 
dashes, braces, bracket, parenthesis, etc. The 
compositor sets the types, according to the copy, 
which he has placed conveniently before him, 
using an iron instrument called a composing, 
stick, in which he arranges each type—one after 
another—in the process of forming words and 
lines. When the stick has received all the lines 
it will hold, the compositor, by a peculiar grip 
on the type with his two hands, lifts it out and 
deposits it on a frame or galley. The galley, on 
being filled with matter (as type is called after 
its removal from the stick), is secured and an 
impression of its contents is taken on a slip of 
paper, which is called a proof-slip or sheet. 
The proof-slip, together with the original copy 
of the matter, is then sent to the proof-reader, 
who, with an assistant, reads and verifies it with 
the original copy, marking mistakes, as they 
are found, on the margin of the slip; the assist¬ 
ant is called the copy-holder, and reads aloud 
from the copy or manuscript to the proof¬ 
reader, who traces the printed lines on the 
proof-slip, pencil in hand. After being cor¬ 
rected by the compositor who set the type, it is 
made up into pages or columns as required, and 
sent from the composing-room to the press-room 
as a form. The form is then placed upon the 
smooth bed of a machine or press and any 
required number of impressions are made on a 
specified or uniform size of paper. From the 
press-room the printed sheets of the form go to 
the book-binder, if printed in book-form; if in 
the form of a newspaper, the sheets are folded 
on the spot, and delivered direct to the pub¬ 
lisher or author of the matter. (See Bookbind¬ 
ing.) “ Case-rack,” a wooden frame for receiving 
printers’ cases when not in use. See Quad¬ 
rat, em. 

Casting. A term applied to the proceasof pouring 
a metal or some other substance, in a fluid or 
semi-fluid state, into a mold. The process is 






























202 


VOCABULARY OF MECHANICAL AND SCIENTIFIC TERMS. 


applied to the manufacture of articles in iron, 
bronze, bell-metal, lead, steel, copper, porce¬ 
lain, plaster, and cement of various kinds. 

Catamaran. See Vessel. 

Catlxarine-wheel. A circular window, frequently 
found in cathedrals and churches built in the 
Gothic style. 

Celluloid. A species of solidified collodion pro¬ 
duced by dissolving gun-cotton in camphor with 
the aid of heat and pressure ; used as a substi¬ 
tute for ivory, and may be molded so that the 
most delicate and elaborate articles can be made 
with it. 

Cavetto. See Base. 

Cement. A compound of pitch, brickdust, plas¬ 
ter of Paris, etc., used by chasers and other artif¬ 
icers for making their work firm. 

Center-bit. See Bit. 

Center of Gravity. That point about which all 
the parts of a body in any situation balance 
each other. 

Center of Gyration. That point in a rotating 
body, or system of bodies, at which, if the whole 
mass were collected, a given force applied would 
produce the same angular velocity that it would 
have communicated to the system in its first 
condition. 

Centrifugal. Force exerted from the center out- 
ward. “ Centripetal,” tending toward the center. 

Chain. A measure of length, made of a certain 
number of links of iron wire, serving to measure 
a certain quantity of ground. Gunter’s chain 
consists of a hundred such links, each measur¬ 
ing 7.93 inches, and therefore equal to sixty-six 
feet or four poles. 1 square chain = 10,000 links 
= 16 poles. 10 square chains = 100,000 links — 160 
poles = 1 acre. 

Chain-pump. A device in the form of an endless 
chain,'equipped with plates or buckets at regu¬ 
lar intervals, passing upward through a wooden 
tube and moving on two wheels, one above and 
one below. “ Chain-wheel,” an inversion of the 
chain-pump, whereby it becomes a recipient of 
power. 

Chair. See under the head of Rail. 

Chaise. See Carriage. 

Chaldron. A dry measure, consisting of thirty- 
six bushels. 

Champ. A small sloping surface in architecture. 

Chamfer. To cut a groove in; to flute. 

Change-wheel. One of a set of wheels of differ¬ 
ent sizes and number of teeth, which may be 
changed for other wheels in machinery. 

Chapiter. See Ionic order. 

Chariot. See Carriage. 

Chase. A square iron frame, used by printers to 
lock up forms of type, when made up in col¬ 
umns or pages. 

Chasing. See Carving. 

Cheeks. A general name among mechanics for 
pieces of timber in any machine, which are two 
of a kind. 

Cheese-press. A press in which the curds are 
pressed for making cheese. 

Chevron. A zigzag architectural ornament. 

Chill. To harden by sudden cooling; as, a chilled 
wheel, made of cast iron, and so hardened. 

Choke-damp. A name given by miners to car- 
bonic acid, as distinguished from fire-damp, 
which is carburetted hydrogen. 

Chorograpliy. Art of drawing maps of particu¬ 
lar provinces or districts. It is, therefore, less 
extensive than geography, which includes a 
description of the whole earth, and more exten¬ 
sive than topography, which confines itself to a 
single place or town. 

Chrome-yellow. A valuable pigment, made by 
precipitating a salt of lead with bichromate of 
potash. Much used by painters on account of 
its brilliant yellow color. 

Chuck. An appliance fixed to the shank of a 
turner’s lathe for holding the material to be 
worked on. 

Cinquefoil. An ornament of five leaves united; 
common in the tracery of windows, in parapets, 
etc., of Gothic buildings. 


Circle. A plain figure bounded by one line only, 
called the circumference, to which all the lines 
drawn to it from a point in the middle, called 
the center, are equal to each other. The line 
which divides it into two equal parts is called 
the diameter. Every circle is supposed to be 
divided into 360 parts or degrees, -wherefore 
angles are measured by the arc of a circle. See 
Quadrant. 

Circumferentor. An instrument used by sur¬ 
veyors for taking angles. 

Clack-valve. A simple valve with a flap, which, 
when lifted, falls with a clacking sound. 

Clamp. An instrument with a screw by which 
the work of a joiner is held together. 

Clarence. See Carriage. 

Clarion. A kind of trumpet whose tube is nar¬ 
rower, and tone more acute, than the common 
trumpet. “ Clarionet,” an agreeable and sweet- 
toned wind instrument of the reed kind. 

Cleat. A small strip of wood nailed to some 
work in the hands of the carpenter to hold it 
together; a piece of wood, having various forms 
according to its use, employed in vessels to 
fasten ropes to; a piece of iron fastened to a 
shoe. 

Clevis. A piece of iron bent to the shape of an 
ox-bow, with the two ends pierced to receive a 
pin, used on the end of the tongue of a wagon, 
or plow, to draw it by. 

Clipper. See Vessel. 

Clod-cruslier. An agricultural instrument for 
crushing and pressing the soil. It consists of a 
cylindrical roller divided into many pieces or 
wheels, all strung upon one axle. 

Clout-nail. A nail used for fastening patches of 
iron. 

Clutch. A projecting tooth or other form of 
machinery, for connecting shafts, etc. 

Cock. The wrouglit-piece that covers the bal¬ 
ance in a clock or watch; the spout which is put 
into beer or water barrels, etc. See Water-gage, 
Cocks, etc. 

Cofl'er-dam. A case of piling fixed in the bed of 
a river, for the purpose of building a pier dry. 

Cog. The tooth of a wheel. “ Cog-wheel,” a 
wheel with cogs or teeth. 

Collar. A circular or ring-like part of a machine, 
used to prevent irregularity of motion. 

Colonnade. See Balcony. 

Column. A pillar, used to support a superin¬ 
cumbent weight in various ways,—it consists of 
three parts, namely, base, shaft, and capital. 
(See Base, and Capital.) A column that appears 
to be composed of a cluster of columns, is called 
a clustered column. 

Compass-plane. A plane convex on the under 
side for smoothing curved timber. 

Composite. One of the five orders of architect¬ 
ure, so-called because it is composed of the Ionic 
and Corinthian orders. 

Condenser. A term used to denote any appara¬ 
tus used for cooling heated vapors and reducing 
them to a liquid form. The pneumatic conden¬ 
ser is a syringe worked on the same principle as 
the force-pump, by which a large quantity of air 
can be forced into a given space. See Exhaust. 

Conduit. A pipe for the conveyance of water to 
any particular part. 

Console. Same as Bracket. 

Cooler. A vessel used by brewers, for cooling the 
beer after it is drawn off. 

Coping. The stone covering on the top of a wall. 

Copper. A hard, sonorous, ductile, and malleable 
metal, of a characteristic reddish-brown color. 
It is next to iron in specific gravity, but lighter 
than gold, silver, or lead. 

Corbel. The name given to blocks of stone pro¬ 
jecting from the surface of a wall to support the 
openings of towers, or the ends of the beams of 
the floors in old castles. 

Corinthian Order. The most profuse and orna- 
mental of the five orders of architecture, the 
third in order, and so-called because columns 
were first made of that character at Corinth. 
See Architecture. 


Corliss-engine. An engine having a variable and 
self acting cut-off. (See Cut-off.) It has two inlet 
and two exhaust valves, each of which vibrate 
on its own rod or spindle, within a bored space. 
The valves act independently by means of rods 
from a vibrating disk and an eccentric and rod. 
At each stroke of the engine, the valve-opening 
mechanism is thrown out of gear, when the 
valve is instantly closed by a spring. The 
instant at which the cut-off takes place is 
dependent upon the position of the balls of the 
governor at the moment. 

Cornet-a-Piston. A new kind of wind instru¬ 
ment, very popular among modern composers. 
It is virtually a post-horn with the addition of 
three pistons. 

Cornice. Any molded projection that crowns or 
finishes the part to which it is affixed, as the 
cornice of a room, a door, etc. 

Cotter. See Butt. 

Coulter. The fore part of a plow, with a sharp 
edge to cut the earth. 

Counter-balance. Addition of weight to the 
side of a wheel opposite to that whereon a 
crank-pin is attached; as, the mass of iron cast 
in the locomotive engine wheel opposite to the 
crank-pin, to counterbalance the weight of the 
latter. 

Coupling. The name given to various arrange¬ 
ments by which the parts of a machine may be 
connected or disconnected at pleasure, or by 
which a machine may be disengaged from, or 
re-engaged with, a revolving wheel or shaft, 
through which it receives motion from a steam- 
engine, water-wheel or other prime-mover. 
(See Clutch, Gland, Engaged, and Friction 
clutch, etc., under Friction.) “ Coupling-box,” 
the box into which the ends of two shafts are 
fastened and connected. 

Crab. A kind of crane for moving heavy weights. 

Cradle. A frame of timber raised on each side of 
a ship, for t he more convenient launching of her. 

Cramp-irons. Irons which are used to fasten 
stones in buildings. 

Crane. A machine, with ropes, pulleys, and 
hoops, for drawing up heavy weights. 

Crank. A shaft or axis bent like an elbow, and 
used for converting rectilineal into circular 
motion, or vice versa. “ Crank-pin,” a pin join¬ 
ing the ends of the crank-arms. 

Crocket. An ornamental projection on the edges 
of the sides of pinnacles, canopies, spires, etc., 
consisting chiefly of leaves and knots of foliage. 

Cross-head. In a steam-engine, that part which 
forms a cross-bar at the end of a piston-rod 
where the latter is joined to the connecting-rod. 
“Guide-bars,” the bars in which the cross-head 
slides, called also guide-blocks, slide-rods, and 
slides. 

Cross-tail. An iron bar connecting the side-lever 
of a marine engine with the piston-rod. 

Crown. The uppermost member of a cornice. 
“ Crown-post,” the post which sustains the tie- 
beam and rafters of a roof, called also king-post. 
“Crown-saw,” a circular saw made by cutting 
the teeth on the edge of a hollow cylinder. 
“ Crown-wheel,” a cog-wheel with teeth at right 
angles to its plane. 

Cupola. A term applied to any covering placed 
over a building and taking the form of a hemi¬ 
sphere or spherical vault, whether round or 
polygonal, at the base. The term dome, to be 
strict, is applied to the exterior, or convexity of 
the covering, and the word cupola is applied to 
its interior surface, or concavity. 

Cup-valve. A valve made in the form of a cup, 
or a hemisphere. 

Cutter. See V essel. 

Cutting-engine. See Engine. 

Cut-off. An appliance of the steam-engine for 
cutting off the passage of steam from the steam- 
chest or supply to the cylinder, at the time the 
piston has made part of a stroke, in order to 
allow the remainder of the stroke to be made 
by the expansive force of the steam already in 
the cylinder. See Expansion. 


























VOCABULARY OF MECHANICAL AND SCIENTIFIC TERMS. 


203 


Daguerreotype Process. Iodide of silver is a 
compound very sensitive to the influence of 
light. In daguerreotype experiments a polished 
plate of silver is exposed to the vapor iodine, or 
bromide vapor, until it becomes covered with a 
pale yellow fllm of iodide of silver. If the 
iodized plate be put into a camera obscura, and 
an object be allowed to fall upon it through a 
compound lens, the iodine will be separated 
from the silver on those parts of the plate upon 
which the light-rays from the object fall. The 
plate is afterward exposed to the vapors of mer¬ 
cury—a certain white metal, like silver—which 
amalgamate with those parts of the surface that 
are freed from iodine by the interposition of the 
particular object, whose outline and features 
have been reflected or cast upon it, and thus the 
picture is developed. Then the plate is im¬ 
mersed in a saline solution, which removes the 
excess of iodide of silver, and thus prevents 
any further action of the light upon the plate. 

Damp. See Choke-damp. 

Danaide. A kind of horizontal wheel, moved by 
a fall of water. 

Dash-pot. A cylinder containing fluid, and hav¬ 
ing a loosely.fitting piston, to ease the blow of 
any descending weight. 

Davit. A piece of timber projecting over a ship’s 
bow, used as a crane to hoist the anchor out of 
the water in such a manner as to prevent its rub¬ 
bing against her side; pieces of iron placed in 
pairs in certain parts of a vessel’s sides and 
stern, employed for hoisting and lowering boats. 

Derrick. A temporary crane consisting of a spar 
supported by stays and guys, carrying a pur¬ 
chase for loading or unloading goods on ship¬ 
board, invented by Mr. Bishop, an American. 
Derricks are used in this country as lifting 
powers, and are very useful and economical. 

Dibble. A jjointed garden-tool for making holes 
to plant in. 

Differential Gear. A combination of wheel- 
movement by which a motion is produced equal 
to the difference between two other movements. 

Discharger. An instrument made of glass or 
baked wool, by the help of which an electric jar 
is discharged; a discharging rod. 

Distribution. The throwing of type into cases 
by a compositor. 

Diving-bell. A hollow vessel, by which persons 
may descend below the water, and remain for 
some time without inconvenience. It is used 
for the recovery of lost property, etc. 

Doffer. See Carding-macliine. 

Dog. A grappling iron for fastening into wood or 
other heavy articles for the purpose of moving 
them. 

Dome. See Cupola. 

Doric. The most ancient of the Grecian orders 
of architecture, made, as is said, in imitation of 
the hovels erected by the original inhabitants 
of Greece. See Architecture. 

Dormer-window. A window made in the roof 
of a building. 

Dove-tailing. A method of joining one board 
into another, by pins in the one fitted to holes 
in another. 

Dowel. A piece of wood fastened to a wall, so 
that other pieces may be nailed to it. 

Drag. A mechanical arrangement, by which the 
speed of a vehicle can be decreased by stopping 
or slackening the rotation of one or more of the 
wheels. In railway affairs, it is called a brake. 

Drain (or Land Draining). The process of carry¬ 
ing water off from the land, sometimes by means 
of open drains, but more commonly by drains 
made to a certain depth under the ground, 
which are filled with bushes so as to admit the 
water. 

Draught (or Draft). The figure of an intended 
building, described on paper; the quantity of 
water which a ship draws when she is afloat; 
also, that which pertains to drawing, as draught 
horses. “Draught-compasses,” an instrument 
furnished with several movable points for mak¬ 
ing fine lines in architectural drawings. 


Draw-head. In railway machinery, a cushion or 
buffer to which a coupling is attached. See 
Buffer. 

Drawing-knife. A long blade with a handle at 
each end, used by hand to shave off wood- 
surfaces. 

Draw-spring. The spring to which a draw-head 
is fastened. 

Dredging-machine. A machine employed for 
the purpose of clearing out or deepening the 
channels of rivers, harbors, etc. 

Dress. To cut to proper dimensions, smooth or 
finish, etc. In husbandry, any stuff, such as 
loam, sand, etc., which is put on land to improve 
the soil. 

Drift. A conical tool of steel for enlarging holes 
in metal, by being driven into it. 

Drill. A tool used for boring holes in -wood, 
metal, stone, bone, etc. Drills for boring iron 
have pointed heads, with sharp edges projecting 
from them, that cut in different directions. 
Those for boring wood are like an auger or large 
gimlet, or they are broad and flat, with a pi'O- 
jecting spike in the center and cutting edges on 
either side,—drills of this form are called center, 
bits. 

Driver. Any part which communicates motion 
to another part; as the driving-wheel of a loco¬ 
motive. 

Drum. A short revolving cylinder or barrel, 
furnished with means to communicate motion 
to other machinery. When very short in the 
direction of the axis, it is called pulley, and 
rigger. 

Dry-point. A sharp, fine-pointed etching needle, 
used to cut fine lines in a copper or steel plate 
without biting them in witli acid. 

Ductility. See Gold, and Malleability. 

Dyke. An embankment of earth, sometimes 
revetted with masonry, or secured with a slop¬ 
ing front of stonework to prevent the water of 
the ocean or any river from overflowing the low 
lands that have been drained and brought into 
cultivation. 

Dynamics. See Statics. 

Dynamometer. The name given to all instru¬ 
ments that are constructed for the purpose of 
measuring the power that can be exerted by the 
human frame, animals, or machinery, whether 
by a single effort of strength or by a continuous 
series of efforts exercised during any given 
time. A dynamometer usually consists of a 
spring, to be acted upon by the applied force, 
and an index and scale. 

Easel. A frame on which a painter sets the cloth, 
etc., to be painted. 

Ebonite. India rubber made hard by vulcaniza¬ 
tion. 

Eccentric. A sort of wheel or revolving disk, in 
which the axis, or center of motion, does not 
coincide with the geometrical center. There 
are a great variety of eccentrics, and they are 
very useful in converting one kind of motion 
into another. 

Elasticity. See Stress. 

Electric Light. A brilliant light that is pro¬ 
duced by an electric current generated with the 
aid of appropriate machinery. Edison’s electric 
lamp consists of a pair-shaped glass globe about 
4J4 inches in height, exhausted of air, into which 
is sealed a filament of carbonized bamboo, 
slightly thicker than a horsehair, which is 
raised to incandescence by a current of elec, 
tricity. Electric lights are also produced by 
means of the current and contiguous carbon 
points, the latter being shaded with globes open 
at the top. 

Electro Calico-printing. The art of producing 
patterns on cloth by the chemical action of the 
voltaic current. 

Electro-magnet. See Moving powers. 

Electrometer. An instrument for measuring 
the quantity or intensity of electricity, or 
for indicating the presence of electricity; an 
instrument for discharging electricity from 
a jar. 


Electro-plate. A precipitation of silver or gold 
on a surface of copper, or German silver 
metal. 

Electro-tint. The art or process by which an 
etching is produced through the means of gal¬ 
vanism. 

Electrotype. The term commonly applied to the 
art of depositing copper and other metals in or 
upon suitable molds, through the agency of vol¬ 
taic electricity, so as to produce faithful copies 
of coins, medals, statues, engraved blocks, 
wood-cuts, forms of metal type, and other 
works. 

Elizabethan Order. See Architecture. 

Emboss. To carve a figure, so that it will project 
from the plane in which it is cut; to ornament 
in relief. 

Engaged Columns. A term applied to columns 
sunk partly into the wall to which they are 
attached. “ Engaged wheels ” are those wheels 
in gear with each other, the driver being the 
engaging wheel, and the follower is the wheel 
engaged. 

Engine. A term applied to any compound ma¬ 
chine or instrument composed of various parts, 
and intended to produce some effect by median- 
ical force; such as a pump, a windlass, etc. A 
fire-engine consists of two forcing pumps so 
combined that their jointaction produces a con¬ 
stant and powerful stream of water, which, by 
means of a flexible pipe, or hose, may be directed 
at pleasure to any point. The steam-engine, 
first constructed by James Watt, a native of 
Greenock, was for raising water by means of the 
expansive force of steam; it has since under¬ 
gone many improvements, and made applicable 
to every sort of work which requires an extra¬ 
ordinary moving power. The steam-engine 
was first successfully adapted to navigation by 
Robert Fulton, of the United States. A cutting- 
engine, or machine for dividing and cutting the 
teeth of cog-wheels, is the invention of an 
American mechanist. An air-engine is an 
engine put in motion by hot air. For Rotary 
Engine, Rotary Pump, etc., see Rotar}\ 

English. The name of a variety of printing type, 
larger than pica. 

Engraving. The art of representing figures in 
metal, wood, or stone, by means of lines cut 
thereon. 

Entablature. See Base. 

Epicycloidal Wheel. Astationary wheel or ring 
toothed on the inside, and geared with another 
toothed wheel of half the diameter of the first. 
The inner wheel revolves about the center of 
the outer wheel, the whole being a contrivance 
for securing parallel motion. 

Escapement. In horology, escapements are of 
various kinds, as the crown escapement of an 
ordinary watch, anchor escapement of a com¬ 
mon clock, horizontal escapement of a -watch, 
duplex escapement, detached escapement, etc. 
In clock-work the common escapements consist 
of the swing wheel and pallets only. By means 
of the escapement, the impulse of the wheels is 
communicated to the pendulum. 

Escutcheon. A thin metal plate, placed at the 
key-hole of a door as a guard or ornament. 

Etching. A method of engraving on metal, glass, 
or the like, in which the lines and strokes are 
eaten in with aquafortis. 

Etruscan Architecture. There are but few exist¬ 
ing remains of the constructive works of the 
ancient Etruscans. It is certain that all works 
of a public nature were eminently character¬ 
ized by solidity of construction, and were prob¬ 
ably plain and devoid of elaborate sculptured 
decorations. The Tuscan order of architecture, 
the plainest and most massive in style of the 
five classic orders, is named after this people. 

Eudiometer. An instrument for ascertaining the 
purity of the air, or the quantity of oxygen and 
nitrogen in atmospherical air. 

Exhaust. The steam let out of a cylinder after it 
has been used. “ Exhaust-pipe,” the pipe that 
conveys steam to the outer air or to the con- 































VOCABULARY OF MECHANICAL AND SCIENTIFIC TERMS. 


denser. “ Condenser,” that part attached to the 
cylinder where the steam is condensed. 

Expansion. The pressure and operation of steam 
in a cylinder after its communication with the 
boiler has been cut off. “ Expansion-gear,” a 
gear or cut-off, variable or adjustable, that may 
be made to operate at different points of the 
stroke of the piston for cutting off steam while 
the engine is in motion. (See Cut-off.) “ Expan¬ 
sion-joint,” a joint for connecting steam-pipes, 
so as to admit of one pipe sliding within the 
enlarged end of the other when the length 
increases by expansion. “Expansion-valve,” a 
part of a cut-off, which see. 

Face. The principal flat surface of a part. 
“ Face-plate,” the disk fastened to the revolving 
spindle of a lathe. 

Fan. Any leaf-like contrivance used for produc¬ 
ing currents of air, in winnowing corn, other 
kinds of grain, blowing a fire, ventilation, etc. 
“Fan-wheel,” a fan-blower. 

Fast. Applied to pulleys, called fast and loose, 
denotes two pulleys situate side by side on a 
shaft that is driven from another shaft by means 
of a band. In stopping the shaft, the band is 
shifted from the fixed pulley to the loose one, 
and vice versa. 

Feather. An elevation on an axis or cylinder 
which coincides with a groove in the eye of a 
wheel, to cause both to turn at the same time. 
“ Feathering-wheel,” a paddle-wheel of which 
the floats, acted upon by the water, turn so as 
to dip nearly perpendicularly to the surface, 
instead of standing erect. 

Feed. Those parts of machinery that move the 
work to the cutting tool, or vice versa, in dress¬ 
ing wood or metal. “Feed-head,” a cistern so 
made as to supply water by its own weight to 
the boiler of an engine. “ Fecd-lieater,” a ves¬ 
sel in which feed water is heated by waste steam 
before it is forced into the boiler. “ Feed-pipe,” 
a pipe which supplies the boiler of a steam, 
engine with water. “Feed-pump,” a force- 
pump which supplies the boiler with warmed 
water through a feed-pipe. 

Felloes. The pieces of wood which form the cir¬ 
cumference or circular part of the wheel. 

Ferrule. A ring of iron or other metal put 
around anything to hold it Arm or prevent it 
from splitting. In steam-boilers, a bushing for 
widening the end of a flue. 

Festoon. An ornament of carved work in the 
form of flowers, etc., depending in an arch. 

Figure-head. An ornamental figure or bust, 
emblematical of war, navigation, or commerce, 
etc., fixed on the top of the projecting portion 
of a ship’s stem or cutwater. 

File. An implement used in many trades to pro¬ 
duce a smooth surface on hard substances, as 
metals, ivory, wood, etc. 

Fillet. See Base. 

Finial. The upper extremities of pinnacles in 
Gothic architecture, in the forms of knots or 
bunches of foliage. 

Fire-engine. See Engine. 

Fish-beam. A beam, one of whose sides swells 
out like a fish. 

Fish-joint. A splice bolted on railway iron to 
hold ends of rails together. 

Flange. The metal rim bent over in gas-pipes, 
water-pipes, etc., in order to join on other 
lengths of the same. The term is also applied to 
tlie projecting outside circumference of a rail, 
way-carriage wheel, by which the wheel is pre¬ 
vented from running off the rails. 

Flat. A car without a roof. 

Float-hoard. A board fixed to the circumfer¬ 
ence of a wheel, upon which the water acts to 
set the wheel in motion. 

Flue. A narrow passage in the wall of a house, 
made of fire-proof material, for carrying off 
smoke. When a number of flues are built close 
together in a party-wall between two houses, or 
in the gable-ends of a single house, the wall 
itself U called a stack, or chimney-stack; and 
part of it which rises above the roof is 



called the chimney-shaft. The walls which sep¬ 
arate flues built side by side in a stack, are 
called withs, the walls which form their front 
and back being named the breast and back 
respectively. See Party-wall. 

Fly. That part of a jack which puts the rest of 
the machine in motion. “Fly-wheel,” awheel 
with a heavy rim, placed on the shaft of any 
machinery put in motion by any irregular or 
intermitting force, for the purpose of rendering 
the motion equal and regular by means of its 
momentum. 

Flying-machine. A machine invented by Prof. 
Ritcliell, consisting of a black silk cylinder 
some twelve feet in diameter and twenty-four 
in length, with a capacity for nearly 3,000 feet of 
gas, from which cylinder is suspended by means 
of cords and rods a car composed of slender 
brass rods, which extend the whole length of 
the cylinder, tapering to a point at either end. 
The platform upon which the operator sits is 
attached to the center of the car. Two cranks 
attached to a wheel, front the seat. The wheel 
connects with an upright shaft, and to this at 
the lower end is attached a fan closely resem¬ 
bling the screw of a propeller. The fan, which 
is constructed of thin brass plates, is level with 
the bottom of the platform. Another brass fan 
is afE xed to the front end of the car, and this is so 
constructed that it can be turned in any direc- 
tion by the occupant simply moving his feet, 
while at the same time he can comfortably work 
the center fan with his hands. The machine has 
been patented. A flying machine, designed by 
Prof. Baranowski, a small model of which has 
been repeatedly tided with much success in St. 
Petersburg, Russia. It consists of a great cylin¬ 
der intended to have the form of a bird; the 
interior is provided with steam machinery, 
having power proportioned to the size of the 
apparatus; it has two lateral propellers, and one 
rear propeller; the smoke, gases, and steam 
issue from the end, which, when the structure 
passes through space, will give the appearance 
of the tail of a brilliant comet. 

Foil. A rounded, leaf-like ornament in windows, 
etc. “Foliation,” the act of ornamenting with 
foils, or the ornaments themselves; feathering. 

Follower. The part of a machine that receives 
impulse from another part. 

Foot-valve. The valve that opens between the 
condenser and air-pump of a steam-engine. 

Force. In mechanics, an action between a 
pair of bodies, which changes, or tends to 
change, their relative condition as to rest or 
motion. 

Forcing-pump. A pump, with solid piston, used 
for forcing water by direct action of the piston. 
It has also a side tube through which the water 
is forced. 

Forge. A furnace, in which smiths heat their 
metals red-hot, or in which the ore taken out of 
the mine is melted down. 

Form. See Case. 

Foundry. The art of casting metals in various 
forms; also the place where this business is 
done. Small works are cast in sand, which, 
being duly prepared, is put into a wooden 
frame; then wooden or metal models of what is 
intended to be cast are put into the sand so as 
to leave their impression. When the molds are 
fully prepared, the fused metal is poured out of 
the crucible into an opening which leads to the 
several patterns. After the whole has been set 
to cool, the cast work is taken out of the sand. 
The mold for very large articles is made of wet 
tempered loam, built up by degrees in a pit, into 
which the melted metal is made to run along a 
channel on the ground tc +ke mold. 

Four-way. Allowing passage in four different 
ways, as a four-way cock. 

Frame. A stand to support printers’ cases. See 
Case. 

Fret. Small fillets intersecting each other at 
right angles, and used by the ancients on flat 
members. See Base. 



Friction. The resistance which a moving body 
meets with from the surface of the body on 
which it moves. “Friction-clutch,” a kind of 
coupling by which machinery is put in and out 
of gear. Friction-balls or friction-rollers are 
used to relieve friction in revolving and mov¬ 
ing bodies. “Friction-cones,” a kind of slip 
coupling by which motion is communicated by 
means of the friction of two cones. “ Friction- 
w T heels,” two wheels overlapping each other 
and sustaining at the point where their circum¬ 
ferences meet the bearing of a revolving shaft, 
for the purpose of relieving it of friction. 

Frieze. That portion of the entablature which is 
between the architrave and the cornice. (See 
Entablature, under Base.) It was generally 
adorned with triglyphs in the Doric order, the 
intervening spaces, called metopes, being filled 
with sculptured figures in alto relievo, or with 
the skulls of oxen and wreaths alternately; 
while in the Corinthian and Composite orders it 
was ornamented with figures or scroll-work in 
low relief. In modern domestic architecture a 
frieze is frequently introduced immediately 
below the cornice of an apartment. “ Tri¬ 
glyph,” a member of the Doric frieze,—a slightly 
projecting tablet channeled with two grooves or 
glyphs. 

Frog. A triangular crossing plate, at the point 
where one track branches from another on a 
railway line. Cross-frogs are the pieces of iron 
at those points where one track crosses another 
at right angles. 

Fulcrum. The prop or support by which a lever 
is sustained, or the fixed point about which a 
lever moves. 

Furnace. A flre-place for melting, distilling, and 
other chemical processes, so built as to cause the 
fire to burn vehemently. 

Futtock. See Rib. 

Gable. The triangular end of a house, from the 
cornice or eaves to the top. “ Gablet,” a small 
ornamental gable, or canopy. A gable roof is a 
sloping roof which forms a gable. 

Gad. In mining, a small instrument of iron with 
a long wooden handle, used to break up the ore. 

Gallery. Among miners, a long narrow passage 
under ground; a passage leading to several 
apartments. 

Galley. See Case, and Vessels. 

Gallows-frame. That part which supports the 
beam of a beam-engine. 

Galvanic Battery. An apparatus which is em¬ 
ployed in generating galvanism. “ Galvanic 
pile,” the apparatus first made by Volta, which 
consisted of a certain number of pairs of zinc 
and silver plates, separated from each other by 
pieces of wet cloth, in the order of zinc, silver, 
and wet cloth in regular succession. The mate¬ 
rials usually employed now are copper and zinc 
in alternate disks. “Galvanism,” a branch of 
the science of electricity, first discovered acci¬ 
dentally by Galvani, a professor, of Bologna, 
from whom it derives its name. By experi¬ 
ments on frogs, he discovered that all animals 
are endued with a peculiar kind of electricity. 
Volta followed Galvani in his researches, and 
discovered further wonders in this branch of 
science. Galvanized iron is iron coated with 
zinc by a peculiar process to preserve it from 
the action of moisture. 

Gas. The term is popularly applied to the impor¬ 
tant material which is produced by the destruc¬ 
tive distillation of coal, those species being 
chosen which contain the largest amount of 
hydrogen. Gasoline is a volatile fluid distilled 
from petroleum. “ 'Water-gas,” a gas formed by 
passing superheated steam over a bed of incan¬ 
descent coal. 

Gasket. Platted hemp, used for packing the pis¬ 
ton and pumps of a steam-engine. 

Gauge. Any instrument or apparatus used for 
measuring the state of a phenomenon. Thus 
the gauge of an air-pump is a barometer, con¬ 
nected with the interior of the receiver, which 
shows the degree to which the air is rarefied. 

































VOCABULARY OF MECHANICAL AND SCIENTIFIC TERMS. 


205 


Many gauges are used in particular trades ; such 
as the rod-iron gauge, the nail-rod gauge, the 
button-maker’s gauge, etc.; others are used in 
watch-work; gun-makers also use a gauge for 
the bores of guns and rifles. “ Gauge-cock,” a 
kind of water-gauge; a stop-cock to show the 
height of water in a steam-boiler. “Siphon- 
gauge,” a glass instrument containing mercury, 
used to measure the extent of rarefaction pro¬ 
duced in the receiver of an air-pump. 

Gear. A wheel with teeth or cogs, or a number 
of toothed wheels. Wheels are in gear when 
connected, out of gear when disconnected. 
“ Gearing,” the parts between which motion is 
communicated to machinery; as, belt-gearing, 
frictional gearing (see Friction), etc. “Gearing- 
chain,” an endless chain passing around toothed 
wheels, and communicating motion between 
them. 

Generator. An apparatus for heating water 
and forming steam for a steam-engine. The 
term is applied to a class of instantaneous gen¬ 
erators. 

Gib. See Butt. 

Gill'ard Injector. An instrument for supplying 
steam-boilers with water, so named from the 
inventor. 

Gimbal. A device for securing free motion in 
suspension; as, a ship’s compass, marine barom¬ 
eter, etc. 

Gin. A machine for driving piles. 

Girder. The principal piece of timber in a floor. 

Gland. A piece for engaging and disengaging 
machinery moved by belts. 

Glaze. To crust over earthenware; as, in glaz¬ 
ing, with a vitreous substance; to put glass into 
windows, or make glass lights for windows. 

Gold. The richest and heaviest metal except 
platina, being the most solid and least porous. 
Gold is found pure, and not as the other metals, 
produced by smelting. The ductility and mal¬ 
leability of gold is such, that one grain of it will 
cover upward of fifty square inches, and an 
ounce is capable of being extended in the form 
of wire or thread many hundred miles. 

Gong. A stationary bell whose hammer is moved 
by a cord, or other means, as in the engine-room 
of a steamboat. 

Goose-neck. A pipe in form like the letter S. 

Gothic Order. A style of architecture in which 
pointed arches of greater height than breadth, 
and a profusion of ornaments, in imitation of 
leaves and flowers, are the principal character¬ 
istics. See Architecture. 

Governor. An ingenious mechanical arrange¬ 
ment by which regularity in the motion of a 
steam-engine is secured. When new fire has 
just been put on, more steam is likely to be gen¬ 
erated than the engine, in its ordinary state, can 
use; and if free communication between the 
boiler and cylinder be permitted, more will be 
generated. To prevent this, two balls are set 
upon a cylinder which revolves with the engine, 
and these tend to revolve faster, the faster the 
enginegoes. When it is going very slowly, they 
exert a certain action on a movable part to which 
they are attached, so as to keep open a valve 
between the boiler and cylinder; when it is 
going very quick, the balls fly fast, and, being 
connected with the valve, tend to close it, pro¬ 
portionally as they have diverged from the 

' spindle. The steam has thus less outlet from 
the boiler, and is held in, until the engine’s 
requirements and the supply become equal¬ 
ized. 

Grafting. In horticulture, the process of insert¬ 
ing the branch of one tree into the stock of 
another, so that it may receive nourishment 
from it, while at the same time it produces a 
new tree, like the old one whence the graft was 
taken. 

Granulation. A process resorted to to obtain 
metals in a coarse state of division. The metal 
is melted in a crucible, and poured into water 
from the height of three or four feet. 

Graphite. See Black-lead. 


Grapnel. A sort of small anchor with four or 
five flukes, or arms, used in boats and small ves¬ 
sels and in balloons. 

Graver. See Burin. 

Greek Architecture. The early architecture of 
Greece is exemplified in the massive remains of 
walls at Mycenae, Argos, and others of the old 
Grecian cities, which are composed of huge, 
irregular, undressed blocks of stone roughly 
piled together. It is devoid of ornament, save 
in a few instances. See Architecture. 

Groined. The curve or line made by the inter¬ 
section of two arches which cross each other at 
any angle; as, a groined arch, etc. 

Ground. In painting, the first spread of color 
which is put upon the canvas. In joinery, 
pieces of wood even with the plastering, to 
which finishings are attached. 

Ground-joint. A joint made by rubbing together 
two surfaces with emery and oil. 

Guano. The excrement of sea-fowls, found prin¬ 
cipally in large quantities upon some parts of 
the coasts of Peru, Bolivia, and Africa. Guano 
has been employed as manure by the inhabitants 
of Peru from the most remote periods. By its 
means sandy soils are rendered fertile. 

Gudgeon. In machinery, that piece of iron in 
the end of a horizontal shaft which turns in the 
collar. 

Guide-bars. See Cross-head. 

Guilloche. An architectural ornament formed 
by intertwining bands. 

Guitar. A musical instrument of a somewhat 
oval form, having a neck similar to a violin, and 
provided with six strings. It is played upon 
with the fingers, and most commonly employed 
in Spain where it is supposed to have originated. 

Gun. In military affairs, a general term applied 
to all species of fire-arms. “Gun-metal,” an 
alloy containing 90.5 per cent of copper and 9.5 
of tin, used for casting ordnance and those parts 
of machinery which are subjected to considera¬ 
ble friction. “ Gun-powder,” a mixture of nitre, 
charcoal, and sulphur, in proportions which vary 
slightly in different countries, and according to 
the uses to which it is applied. 

Gunter’s Chain. See Chain. 

Gutta. An ornament consisting of a row of 
inverted cones, attached to the lower part of the 
triglyphs in the Doric order. 

Gutta-percha. The concrete juice of the Isonan- 
dra Gutta, a tree belonging to the family of the 
Sapotacese. Its plastic properties render it ex. 
tremely useful in the arts. It is a powerful 
insulator, and is consequently much used for 
coating the wires for telegraphic purposes; it is 
also of much use to the chemist, as a material 
for making bottles, carboys, baths, etc. 

Gyroscope. A rotating wheel mounted in a ring 
or rings in divers ways for showing the dynam¬ 
ics of rotating bodies, the composition of rota¬ 
tions, etc. 

Hair-spring. A delicate contrivance in the lock 
of a lire-arm, which, being unlocked by a slight 
pressure on the trigger, strikes the tumbler, and 
so discharging the piece. “ Tumbler,” that part 
of a lock which keeps the load or shot-bolt in its 
place until made free in the act of shooting. 

Halyards. In nautical language, the smaller 
ropes or tackle by means of which yards, sails, 
and signals are hoisted and lowered. 

Hammer. A well-known tool used by mechan¬ 
ics, which consists of an iron head fixed cross¬ 
wise upon a handle. The hammers used by 
carpenters, smiths, engineers, and numerous 
artisans, vary in size and form. The largest are 
those used in the manufacture of iron. 

Hammer-beam. A horizontal beam which 
serves as a tie immediately above the foot of a 
rafter, generally supported by a rib springing 
from a corbel, which see. 

Hance (or Hanch). In architecture, the end of an 
elliptical arch, a four-centered arch. 

Hand-hole. An aperture in a steam-boiler, for 
inserting the hand, cleaning, etc. 

Hand-wheel. Any wheel worked by hand. 


Hanging-buttress. A buttress supported upon a 
corbel above the foundation. 

Harrow. A drag with iron teeth, to break the 
clods after plowing. 

Hatchet. See Ax. 

Hawser. A small cable. 

Head-light. A light with a powerful reflector, 
fixed at the head of a locomotive, to throw light 
on the roadway at night. 

Heart-wheel. A wheel shaped like a heart; a 
cam. See Cam-wheel. 

Helm-wheel. See Wheel and Axle. 

Helix. In architecture, the small volutes intro¬ 
duced under the flowers of the Corinthian 
capital. 

Hip-knob. An ornament, as a pinnacle, placed 
upon a roof. “ Hip-roof,” a particular kind of 
roof, which has neither gable heads, shred heads, 
nor jerkin heads. “ Jerkin-hcad,” the end wall 
of a building which is built up higher than the 
side walls. 

Hobnail. See Nail. 

Hood-molding. A projecting molding, as over 
an arch. 

Horse. A frame or trestle on which boards or 
planks are laid to be cut and otherwise worked; 
a stage on which pressmen set their heaps of 
paper for printing; a circular piece of iron fitted 
to the foot of a horse. 

Horse-power. A power capable of raising 33,000 
lbs. through one foot a minute. When an engine 
is said to be of so many horse-power, it is meant 
that it could lift so many times 33,000 lbs. through 
a foot in a minute. 

Hotblast. A current of heated air sent into a 
furnace by means of a blowing machine. The 
mass of air passing through a blast-furnace is 
about six tons an hour. Of late years, much 
time and expense have been saved by using air 
already heated by a separate furnace. 

Hot-well. In low-pressure or condensing steam- 
engines—a well for the hot water drawn from 
the condenser by the air-pump. 

Housing. The framing of a journal-box, or that 
which keeps the latter in place; also, the pieces 
supporting the cross-slide of a planer. In archi¬ 
tecture, a niche for a statue. 

Hull. The frame or body of a ship, exclusive of 
the masts, yards, sails, or rigging. 

Hydraulic (or Hydraulical). Pertaining to hy¬ 
draulics. “ Hydraulic crane,” a crane operated 
by the pressure of water. “ Hydraulic lime,” 
lime which contains a small amount of silica 
and alumina, forming a mortar that hardens 
under water. “ Hydraulic press,” a machine by 
means of which an intense pressure can be 
applied by the agency of water,—the principle 
on which it acts is founded on one of the funda¬ 
mental laws of hydrostatics, that any non¬ 
elastic fluid, such as water, possesses the prop¬ 
erty of transmitting pressure exerted against 
it at any point equally in every direction; 
hydraulic presses are used for reducing such 
substances as hay, wool, and cotton, and all 
goods that will bear compression without injury, 
into bails and packages of convenient size for 
conveyance by rail or vessel. “ Hydraulic ram,” 
a hydro-dynamic machine for raising water 
without the aid of any other force than that 
produced by the momentum or moving force of 
a part of the water that is to be raised. 

Hydraulic Engineering. That branch of engi¬ 
neering which treats of the appliance of water as 
a motive power for mechanical purposes, and 
the methods that must be adopted to offer an 
effective resistance to the pressure which is 
exercised by any great volume of that fluid, 
whether it be in a'state of rest or in motion. 

Hydraulics. That branch of science which treats 
of fluids in motion and the methods by which 
useful results are obtained from them. Among 
the machines which serve for the display of the 
phenomena of hydraulics, are the syphon, the 
pump, and the fire-engine. 

Hydrodynamics. That branch of science, or of 
engineering, which treats of the motion ol 









































206 


VOCABULARY OF MECHANICAL AND SCIENTIFIC TERMS 


fluids, and also of the machines by which water 
is raised, or in which water is used as the lirst 
mover. The subject is divided into two parts, 
hydrostatics and hydraulics. The former in¬ 
cludes the pressure, cohesion, and equilibrium 
of fluids, while the latter comprehends their 
motion, together with the machines with which 
they are connected. 

Hydroelectric Machine. An apparatus, in- 
vented by Sir William Armstrong, whereby 
electricity is evolved by means of the friction 
of steam. 

Hydrometer. An instrument for determining 
the relative densities, or specific gravities, of 
fluids; and thence the strengths of spirituous 
liquors, which are inversely as their specific 
gravities. 

Hydrostatic (or Hydrostatical). Pertaining to 
the equilibrium of fluids. “ Hydrostatic bal- 
ance,” a kind of balance contrived for the find¬ 
ing the specific gravities of bodies, solid as well 
as fluid. “ Hydrostatic bellows,” a machine for 
showing the upward pressure of fluids, and the 
hydrostatic paradox. “ Hydrostatic paradox,” 
a principle in hydrostatics, so-called because it 
has a paradoxical appearance at first view; it is 
this, that any quantity of water or other fluid, 
however small, may be made to balance and 
support any quantity or any weight, however 
great. “ Hydrostatic press,” see under the head 
Hydraulic, etc. 

Hydrostatics. See Hydrodynamics. 

Idle-wlieel. A wheel placed between two others, 
for the purpose of transferring motion from one 
to the other without changing the direction of 
revolution. 

Impact. In mechanical science, the action of one 
body upon another, to put the latter, if at rest, 
in motion, to increase, retard, or alter its direc- 
tion. The point against which the impelling 
body acts is called the point of impact. 

Impost. In architecture, that part of a pillar on 
which the weight of a building rests; or the 
part which receives an arch. 

Inclined Plane. A plane inclined to the horizon, 
or making an angle with it, which is one of the 
mechanical powers. 

India Rubber. The solidified milky juice of cer¬ 
tain tropical plants, the largest supply being 
obtained from the Ficus elastica, a tree belong¬ 
ing to the order of Horace*, found in Assam; 
from other species growing in Java and America; 
from the Siphonia elastica, a native of Guiana 
and Brazil; and from the Urceola elastica, a 
climbing plant found in the islands of the Indian 
archipelago. 

Indicator. A dynamometer applied to the deter¬ 
mination of the work actually done by steam- 
engines. 

Ingot. A wedge or bar of gold; a mold in which 
metal is cast. 

Injection Water. In land steam-engines, the 
water which comes from a tank called the cold 
well, surrounding the condenser, and supplied 
by the cold-water pump. In marine engines, it 
comes directly from the sea. “ Injection-cock,” 
see under Steam-engine. 

Ionic Order. So-called from Ionia, in Lesser 
Asia. The body of the pillar is usually chan¬ 
neled or furrowed with twenty-four gutters, 
and its length, with the capital and base, is 
twenty-nine modules, the chapiter being chiefly 
composed of volutes or scrolls. “ Module,” a 
certain measure by which the proportions of 
columns are regulated. “ Chapiter,” the upper 
part or capital of a pillar. “Volute,” a spiral 
scroll in the Ionic and Composite capitals. 

Iron. This important metal is most extensively 
diffused over nature, occurring not only in the 
inorganic kingdom, but entering into the com¬ 
position of vegetable and animal structures. It 
occurs in nearly every part of the earth, in the 
form of ores, in the metallic state with nickel, 
cobalt, and other metals, in meteoric stones, 
some of which weigh as much as fourteen or 
fifteen tons. Iron is the only metal that is sus¬ 


ceptible of magnetic attraction. Pure iron is 
very rarely to be found; the principal varieties 
of iron are the cast or pig iron, or that which is 
immediately extracted from thoore. “ Wrought 
iron,” that which has gone through the process 
of melting in a furnace. “Steel,” that which 
has been heated in charcoal, and hardened by its 
combination with carbon. 

Italian Architecture. A style of architecture 
founded on the old Roman orders. See Archi¬ 
tecture. 

Jack. An instrument in common use for raising 
very great weights of any kind. “ Jack-lever,” 
a sort of crane, consisting of small pinions 
worked with a common winch; the pinion 
works in the teeth of a large wheel, on whose 
axis there is fixed a small pinion with teeth 
working in a rack; by turning the pinion, the 
rack is raised, and with it any weight attached. 
“ Jack-screw,” a pedestal or support, in which 
works a screw, lever, lack and pinion, etc. 

Japanning. The method of giving a hard and 
highly-polished surface to articles made of wood, 
metal, paper, or leather. 

Jar. See Leyden Jar. 

Jaw. A notch or opening in which something is 
fastened. 

Jerkin-head. See under head Hip-knob. 

Jet. A deep black sort of bitumen, susceptible 
of a good polish, and often wrought into toys, 
mourning jewels, etc. 

Jib. The beam of a crane, from which the pulleys 
and weight are suspended; also, the foremost 
sail of a ship. 

Joiner. See Carpentry. 

Jointer. In masonry, a piece of iron used to 
secure the joints of a wall. 

Joist. A piece of timber framed into a girder of 
a building. See Girder. 

Journal. The part of a shaft that bears and 
moves in a journal-box; a bearing. “Journal- 
box,” same as Axle-box, which see. 

Kaleidoscope. An optical instrument invented 
and perfected by Sir David Brewster. By a 
peculiar arrangement of mirrors, or reflecting 
surfaces, it produces the appearance of a per¬ 
fectly symmetrical pattern, which undergoes an 
endless variety of changes, by turning the tube 
in which the mirrors are fixed. It is chiefly 
used by calico-printers, potters, and carpet- 
manufacturers, who are thus supplied with an 
immense variety of patterns. 

Keel. The lowest and principal piece of timber 
in a ship. The entire fabric of a vessel is sup¬ 
ported by the keel, as the stem and stem posts, 
which are elevated on its ends, are merely con¬ 
tinuations of it, and serve to connect and inclose 
the extremities of the sides by transoms, as the 
keel forms and unites the bottom by timbers. 
Some vessels are provided with what is termed 
a false keel, consisting of a strong thick piece 
of timber bolted to the bottom of the keel. 

Keelson. One of the principal timbers of a ship, 
laid over the keel, of which it forms the interior 
or counterpart, and across all the timbers inside 
the vessel. 

Key. The last board that is laid in a floor. In 
mechanics, a cotter, which see under the head of 
Butt. 

Key-stone. The stone placed at the top or vertex 
of an arch to bind the two sweeps together. In 
the Tuscan and Doric orders it is merely a plain 
stone projecting a little; in the Ionic it is cut 
and waved somewhat like consoles; and in the 
Corinthian and Composite orders, it is a console 
ornamented with sculpture. 

Key-seat (or Key-way). The groove or mortise 
to receive a key. 

Kiln. A structure or machine for drying sub¬ 
stances by the application of heat. 

King-post. A beam rising from the tie-beam to 
the ridge of the roof. “ King-truss,” a truss for 
a roof with king-post attached. 

Knee. A crooked piece of timber having two 
branches or arms, generally used to connect the 
beams of a vessel with her sides or timbers. 


Knuckle-joint. The means of connection in 
machinery, consisting of a pin thrust into the 
forked ends of a connecting-rod. 

Lacunar. An ornamental ceiling consisting of 
depressions or hollow compartments. 

Lantern. In mechanics, a kind of pinion; a lan¬ 
tern-wheel. In architecture, a small dome raised 
over the roof of a building to give light and 
serve as a sort of crowning to the edifice. 

Lap. In mechanics, the amount of lap over a 
steam-port made at a half-stroke of a slide- 
valve. 

Last. See Boots, etc. 

Lathe. A machine used in turning wood, etc., as 
the Blanchard machine, which can turn out a 
duplicate or fac-simile of any pattern whatever. 

Lead. One of the most important metals, both 
itself and its compounds being applied to many 
useful purposes. It occurs in nature in combi¬ 
nation with a large number of substances, but 
its most valuable ore is galena, or sulphide of 
lead, found in large quantities in various parts 
of the world. The carbonate of lead, which is a 
powder, is known as white lead; the red oxide 
of lead is otherwise called red lead. 

Leader. The principal wheel in machinery. In 
mining, a small vein leading to a greater one. 

Level. An instrument used to make a line paral¬ 
lel to the horizon. The plumb-level is that 
which shows the horizontal line by means of 
another line perpendicular to that described by 
a plummet or pendulum. The spirit-level con¬ 
sists of a glass tube, which is slightly curved, 
and nearly filled with alcohol or ether; adjust¬ 
ment to the horizon depends upon the position 
of a bubble, which is seen in the tube when the 
instrument is held horizontally. 

Lever. A solid bar at each end of which a cer. 
tain amount of force is applied in similar direc¬ 
tions, and which is supported on a pivot, or by 
some fastening between the points of applica¬ 
tion. See Fulcrum. 

Lewis. An ingenious contrivance for securing 
heavy blocks of stone to the tackle for hoisting. 

Leyden Jar. A jar or phial used in electrical 
experiments. It is an example of a solid dialec¬ 
tic between two conducting substances. By 
means of this instrument the electric fluid can 
be accumulated and preserved in large quanti¬ 
ties. So named from Professor Muschenbroclt, 
of Leyden. 

Life-boat. See Vessel. 

Lifter. The part of a steam-engine which raises 
the puppet-valve. “ Lifting-rod,” a rod receiv¬ 
ing motion front a vibrating shaft called the 
rock-shaft, and imparting motion to the lifter. 

Link. Any intermediate piece transmitting 
power in a machine. “ Link-motion,” eccentric- 
wheels and their rods, connected by a piece 
called the link, a part of valve-gear for reversing 
the steam when the engine is in operation. 

Loadstone. See Magnet. 

Lock. In smith-work, a kind of fastening, and a 
masterpiece of that class, as a great deal of art 
and delicacy is required in contriving and vary- 
ing the wards, springs, bolts, etc. The principle 
of all modern locks is the application of a lever 
to an interior bolt, by means of a communica¬ 
tion from without; so that, by means of the 
latter, a door or lid may be made secure from 
any push or pall from without. 

Locomotive-engine. The well-known wheel-car- 
riage operated by steam, and employed to draw 
loads in transport overland, especially on rail¬ 
ways. 

Loom. A machine or frame-work of wood or 
metal, for manufacturing cloth by interweaving 
a series of parallel threads, which run length¬ 
wise, called the warp, with another sex-ies of 
threads which run transversely, called the woof 
or weft, by means of the shuttle. 

Low-pressure. A term applied to a steam- 
engine, the motive foi'ce of which is pi-oduced 
by forming a vacuum within the cylinder by 
drawing off the steam into another vessel called 
the condenser, and there condensing it. 







































VOCABULARY OF MECHANICAL AND SCIENTIFIC TERMS. 


207 


Machine. An engine composed of several parts, 
put together by mechanical art and contrivance, 
for the purpose of raising bodies, assisting, 
regulating, or stopping their motions, etc. 

Machinist. See under the head Mechanic. 

Magic Lantern. A species of optical instrument, 
by means of which are represented on an oppo¬ 
site wall in a dark room, figures, magnified to 
any size at pleasure. The contrivance consists 
of a common lantern with a candle in it, to 
which is added a tube, and a lens that throws 
the light on the object, and another lens which 
magnifies the image on the wall. Then by con¬ 
tracting the tube, and bringing the glass nearer 
the object, the image will be enlarged. See 
Safety-lamp. 

Magnet (Natural). A species of iron ore, called 
loadstone, and found in various parts of the 
earth in irregular or crystalline fragments, and 
occasionally in beds of considerable thickness. 
Its property of attracting small pieces of iron 
was recognized at a very early date by the 
Greeks, and its wondrous directive power has 
been known to the inhabitants of China from 
time immemorial. 

Magnetism. The attractive and repulsive power 
of the loadstone; generally, that peculiar prop¬ 
erty possessed by many mineral bodies, and by 
the whole mass of the earth, through which, 
under certain circumstances, they mutually 
attract and repel one another, according to 
determinate laws. 

Mainspring (of a Watch). A thin flexible ribbon 
of steel, usually about sixteen or eighteen inches 
in length, which, when coiled into the barrel 
ready to be placed in the watch, occupies a space 
something less than three-fourths of an inch in 
diameter. 

Malleability. That property of metals which 
permits them to be beaten out under the ham¬ 
mer or extended in any way beneath pressure. 
Gold (which see) is extremely malleable; it can 
be beaten 1,200 times thinner than ordinary 
writing-paper. Iron has been rolled into sheets 
the 2,500th of an inch in thickness, and a square 
inch of the leaf only weighed three-quarters of 
a grain. The property of malleability appears 
to bear some relation, though not that of per¬ 
fect proportionality, to the ductility. Thus, the 
following is the order of several metals at ordi¬ 
nary temperatures for these two qualities: 


Ductility. 

Malleability. 

Gold. 

Gold. 

Silver. 

Silver. 

Platinum. 

Copper. 

Iroxx. 

Tin. 

Nickel. 

Platinum. 

Coppei-. 

Lead. 

Zinc. 

Zinc. 

Tin. 

Iron. 

Lead. 

Nickel. 


Malt. See Brewing. 

Mandrel. A wooden pulley and contiguous parts 
in lathe machinery. 

Man-hole. An opening through which a man 
may creep into a steam-boiler, etc., to clean or 
repair. 

Marble. A term applied by mineralogists to 
limestone, white or colored, capable of receiving 
a polish. 

Masonry. The art of hewing, cutting, or squar¬ 
ing stones, and fitting them for the use of build¬ 
ings ; also of joining them together with mortar. 
A wall built of unhewn stone, whether it be 
built with or without mortar, is called rubble 
wall. For Brick-work, see under the head of 
Bricks. 

Matrix. The cavity in which anything is formed, 
and which gives it shape; the mold or form in 
which printers’ types are cast,—called also, 
matrice. 

Matter. See Case. 

Mattock. See Ax. 

Mechanic. One who works with machines or the 
instruments of a mechanic. An artificer (which 
see) is a superior mechanic. A skilled mechanic 


is an artificer. “ Machinist," one who makes ma¬ 
chines, or who is skilled in their construction. 

Mechanical Efl'ect. A term given to the measure 
of effective power. It is the power to raise a 
certain weight through a foot space in a definite 
time. 

Mechanical Philosophy. The science of me¬ 
chanics applied to physical inquiries; or, on the 
other hand, the application of the laws of gen¬ 
eral science to the improvement and construc¬ 
tion of machinery. 

Mechanical Powers. Six standard machines 
which are capable of applying large forces to 
produce small effects with economy, and small 
forces to produce great effects in time, and 
which are further capable of transferring forces 
from their natural point of action, to another 
point of application. They are the lever, the 
wheel and axle, the pulley, the inclined plane, 
the wedge, and the screw. In reality, there are 
only two mechanical powers, for the pulley and 
wheel are only assemblages of levers, and the 
wedge and screw are inclined planes. 

Mensuration. The art of measuring lines, super¬ 
ficies, and solids, which, in consequence of its 
extensive application to the purposes of life, is 
considered as of the greatest importance. 

Merchant. In Eixgland, one that exports and 
imports merchandise. In the United States, the 
term is applied to large dealers generally. 
“ Merchant -bar,” certain common sizes of 
wrought iron and steel bars. 

Metal. A simple body of pecxiliar luster, insolu- 
ble in water, fusible by heat, and capable, in the 
state of an oxide, of uniting with acids, and 
forming with them metallic salts. Metals are 
distinguished, in different degrees, by mallea¬ 
bility, ductility, fusibility, tenacity, elasticity, 
and ci-ystalline textui-e. The principal metals are 
gold, silver, iron, lead, zinc, copper, tin, nickel, 
and antimony; but thei-e are many others. 

Metallurgy. The art of working metals, particu¬ 
larly the art of extracting them fi'om their oi'es 
and adapting them to various processes of man¬ 
ufacture. 

Mezzotinto. A particular kind of engraving, so- 
called from its resemblance to drawings in India 
ink. The work is performed by punching a 
copper surface with a grounding tool, scraping 
with a scraper, and then burnishing, to produce 
the effect desired. 

Microphone. A very sensitive instrumeixt of the 
telephone species, for making audible the most 
feeble soxmds. 

Microscope. An optical instrument which mag. 
nifies objects, so that the smallest may be dis¬ 
tinctly seen and desex-ibed. 

Mill. Originally a machine used for dividing, 
crushing, or pulverizing any substance; but 
more extensively applied in modem times to 
almost all machinery consisting of wheel-work, 
whether intended to change the form or the 
position of the object to be operated upon. 
Machines of this kind, therefore, take their 
name from the processes for which they are 
used, as saw-mills, stamping-mills, fulling-mills, 
grinding-mills, etc.; from the motive power, as 
wind-mills, water-mills, steam-mills, hand-mills, 
etc.; or from the material operated on, as cotton- 
mills, paper-mills, sugar-mills, flour-mills, oil- 
mills, etc. 

Mine. An opening in the ground from which 
anything is dug. The undei-ground woi-ks con¬ 
stitute the mine, but the term usually compre¬ 
hends all the ground on the surface, together 
with the steam-engines, water-wheels, and other 
machinei’y and appendages for dx-ainage, the 
extraction of ores and their mechanical prepara¬ 
tion, with various buildings and erections. 

Mineral. A body or substance found in the crxxst 
of the earth. Minerals are those bodies which 
are destitute of organization, and which natu¬ 
rally exist within the eai-th or at its sui-face. 
Mineral waters are springs impregnated with 
mineral substances. 

Minion. See Brevier. 


Miter. The joint formed by the ends of two 
pieces of rule, as in printing, or of molding, as 
in architecture; an angle j ust forty-five degrees, 
or half a right angle. 

Model. An original pattern, or the shape or de¬ 
sign of anything in miniature; particularly as 
applied to an ai’tilicial pattern made in hard 
wood or metal—not more than twelve inches in 
any dimension, as required by law in the United 
States—and with all its parts and proportions, 
in oi-der to give a full idea of the woi'k that is to 
be executed. 

Modillion. The bracket-like ornament under the 
cornice of the Corinthian entablature. 

Module. See Ionic ordei-. 

Molar. In mechanics, a mass of matter, as con- 
tradistinguished from molecules. 

Mold. See Casting, and Matrix. 

Moldings. Projectures beyond the naked wall, 
such as cornices, door-cases, etc., which are cut 
so as to be ornamental. 

Momentum. The quantity of motion in a mov¬ 
ing body. 

Monkey-wrench. An article having a movable 
jaw, and which may be set by means of a screw 
to spaxx anything which it is desired to move 
from position by turning or wrenching. 

Mortar. Lime, sand, and hair mixed together, so 
as to make a cement. See Cannon. 

Mortise. A kind of joint consisting of a hole 
of a certain depth cut in a piece of timber 
so as to x-eceive another piece called the tenon, 
which see. 

Mosaic. A kind of ornamental work in which 
small pictui-es are represented by bits of colored 
marble, pebbles, glass, etc., cemented on a 
gi’ound of stucco, and then polished. 

Motion. The laws of motion, as delivered by Sir 
Isaac Newton, are: 1. Evei-y body perseveres 
in its state of rest, or uniform motion in a right 
line, until a change is effected by the agency of 
some external force. 2. Any change effected in 
the quiescency or motion of a body is in the 
direction of the foi'ce impressed, and is propor¬ 
tional to it in quantity. 3. Action and reaction 
are equal and in contrary directions. See Par¬ 
allel Motion. 

Mould, and Moulding. See Mold, etc. 

Moving Powers. The principal moving powers 
ax-e the strength of man and animals, wind, 
water, steam, weights, springs, and magnetism. 
The ordinary strength of a man is estimated at 
the one-fiftli of that of a horse. A horse can 
draw 200 pounds over a pulley eight horns a day, 
two and a half miles an hour; if the weight be 
240 lbs. he can only work six hours a day, and 
slowei - . Wind moving at about 12)4 feet a sec¬ 
ond, will strike a surface of a square foot with a 
force equal to two ounces. Water falling two 
feet, with a velocity- of eleven feet a second, 
will turn a wheel so as to give motion to a four- 
foot six-inch diaxneter millstone at a rate of 120 
revolutions in a minute, the wheel moving with 
a third part of the velocity of the water. A 
cubic inch of water, foi-ming into a cubic foot, 
or 1,728 inches of steam, possesses an elastic 
force of fifteen lbs. on the squai-e inch, at a 
temperature of 212 deg.; at 250 deg., thirty lbs.; 
at 270 deg., forty-five lbs.; and at 290 deg., sixty, 
six lbs. Weights are applied as the motive 
power of clocks and other machines, as also are 
spi-ings, which, like weights, have to be wound 
up after being expended. If a bxxr of soft iron, 
in the form of a hoi-se-slioe, or rather that of a 
commoix door-staple, be wrapped l-ound with 
copper wire, and a cui-rent of electricity- passed 
through the wire, the iron becomes a most 
powerful magnet, called an electro-magnet, and 
may be constrxxcted so as to bear the weight of 
many tons. 

Mule. A machine used in cotton-spinning, sailed 
also mule-jenny. 

Mullion. The pieces or strips that form the 
divisions between the lights of windows. 

Nail. Spikes of iron and bi-ass, having heads, 
and fitted for binding several pieces of wood 


































208 


VOCABULARY OF MECHANICAL AND SCIENTIFIC TERMS. 


together. “ Hob-nail,” a nail with a thick, strong 
head, as used in shoes of horses, etc. 

Nautical. An epithet for what belongs to the 
navy or navigation. 

Nave. The body or middle part of a church, or 
other large building, between the aisles, and 
reaching from the rail or baluster of the choir to 
the chief door. 

Navigation. As a mechanical art, consists of an 
account of the methods of handling a ship by 
means of its sails, etc., so that she pass through 
the waters along a certain definite course. 

Negative Electricity. That state of bodies, in 
which they are deprived of some portion of the 
electricity which they naturally contain. 

Newel. The post or standard around which a 
circular staircase is built. 

Nickel. A metallic substance, mostly found in a 
metallic state, but sometimes in that of an oxide. 
Its ores have a coppery red color. 

Nodule. A rounded regular lump or mass. 

Nonpareil. The smallest size of body type ex¬ 
cept three, namely, agate, pearl, and diamond. 

Nozzle. See Port. 

Nut. A piece of iron, or other material, square 
or hexagonal, having a concave or female screw, 
used for tightening a bolt. 

Object-glass. In the telescope or microscope, 
the lens or system of lenses nearest the object 
contemplated. 

Oils. A name given to three different classes of 
bodies: 1. The fixed oils, such as linseed, sperm, 
and castor oil; 2. the essential oils, as oil of lav¬ 
ender, of rue, of nutmeg, etc.; 3. the mineral 
oils, which ai-e hydrocarbons, more or less im¬ 
pure. See Petroleum. 

Oil-box, etc. A box or cup at the top of an oil- 
hole, for oiling the machinery. “ Oil-cellar,” a 
reservoir for a lubricator in a journal-box. 

Order. The rule of proportion to be observed in 
the construction of any building, which is ap¬ 
plied mostly to the column and the entablature, 
from the diversity in which have sprung the 
five several orders—the Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, 
Tuscan, and Composite. See Architecture. 

Ordnance. A general name for heavy weapons 
of warfare. See Cannon. 

Organ. A wind instrument blown by bellows, 
and containing numerous pipes of various kinds 
and dimensions, which, for its solemnity, grand¬ 
eur, and rich volume of tone, is peculiarly fitted 
for the purpose for which it is commonly used. 
The organ in the cathedral church at Ulm, in 
Germany, is said to be ninety-three feet high 
and twenty-eight broad, its largest pipe being 
thirteen inches in diameter, and it having six¬ 
teen pair of bellows. This organ is exceeded in 
size by the one const ructed for the Royal Albert 
hall, in London, which has 111 complete registers 
and 138 draw-stops. 

Oscillation. In mechanics, the vibration, or re¬ 
ciprocal ascent and descent of a pendulous body. 

Overshot Wheel. A wheel, the circumference of 
which is covered with cavities, and which is 
turned by water flowing on the top of it. 
“ Undershot wheel,” a water-wheel, moved by 
the water passing beneath it. 

Pack. To fill in and around with some material, 
so as to make certain cavities in machinery air- 
tight or water-tight; as, to pack the piston of a 
steam-engine, water-faucet, and the like. 

Packfong. An alloy of nickel, zinc, and copper, 
much used by the Chinese for ornamental pur¬ 
poses. It is similar to German silver in compo¬ 
sition and appearance. 

Padlock. A kind of lock to hang on the outside 
of a door. 

Painter. An artist who represents objects by 
colors, as a portrait-painter; also an artist who 
lays colors on wood or stone, etc., as a house- 
painter. 

Panel. Raised margins, in apartments, as in ceil¬ 
ings, wainsootings, etc. In joinery, a board 
inserted in the frame of a door. In masonry, a 
face of a hewn stone; and in mining, a heap of 
ore ready for market. 


Parallel Motion. A contrivance of Watt’s for 
converting rectilinear into circular motion. 
The piston-rod, whose motion was the source of 
moving power, went straight up and down, and 
it was attached to the beam, which, being fixed 
at its center, described a circular arc. It was 
impossible, therefore, that this circular arc 
should be accurately described if the beam and 
piston-rod had been directly connected. The 
contrivance through which they are connected 
indirectly, so as to convert the rectilinear into 
the circular movement, is called the parallel 
motion. See Motion. 

Parquetry. Inlaid flooring. 

Party-wall. A wall that separates two houses, or 
tenements; as in a block. 

Patera. A round ornament frequently worked 
in relief on friezes, etc. See Frieze. 

Pattern. The model of full size around which a 
mold of sand is made, to receive the fused 
metal. 

Pawl. A catch, or ratchet. 

Pearl. Printing-type, in size smaller than agate, 
and larger than diamond. 

Pedestal. The lowest part of a column. In me¬ 
chanics, same as axle-guard, which see, under 
the head of Axle-box. 

Pediment. A low pinnacle, serving to crown a 
frontispiece, etc. 

Pendulum. One of the principal moving powers, 
consisting of a heavy body so suspended that it 
may vibrate or swing backward and forward. 

Perambulator. An instrument for measuring 
distances, otherwise called a pedometer, or sur¬ 
veying wheel. > 

Perpetual Motion. In mechanics, declared to be 
impossible on account of friction. 

Petroleum. Rock oil, a liquid, bituminous sub¬ 
stance, which distils from rocks. 

Pewter. A compound metal, or an alloy of tin 
with copper, lead, zinc, bismuth, and antimony. 

Phonograph. A machine for registering sounds. 
A sheet of tin-foil is stretched around a cylin¬ 
der, which is indented by a marker that vibrates 
in correspondence with the sounds made before 
a speaking-tube. The cylinder is turned steadily 
while the sounds are being recorded on the thin 
metallic sheet. By this means any song, speech, 
or other characteristic of sound, may be re- 
corded and the record preserved to be repro¬ 
duced through the phonograph at any time 
afterward. 

Photography. See Daguerreotype Process. 

Pica. A variety of type of two sizes—pica and 
small-pica—larger than long primer. 

Pick. A well-known iron tool tapering to a point 
from ahead, in which is fixed a wooden handle. 
It is used for loosening ground, in digging, min¬ 
ing, etc. “ Pick-ax,” a pick with a point on one 
end, and a blade at the other, with a wooden 
handle inserted between. See Ax. 

Pig-iron. See Bessemer’s process, etc. 

Pilaster. A square pillar. 

Pile. A large piece of timber, hewn off at one 
end and driven into the earth, as in a river or 
soft ground, for the support of a bridge or other 
superstructure. “ Pile-driver,” a machine for 
driving piles or stakes in the beds of rivers, etc. 

“ Screw-pile,” see under the head of Screw. 

Pillow-block. Same as Journal-box, which see. 

Pin. Anything in the shape of a pin, short shaft, 
or bolt, which serves to fasten. “ Pin-drill,” a 
drill with a central point or projection, to drill 
in a small hole and make it larger. 

Pinch. A lever, rather foot-shaped at one end, 
the heel of which acts as a fulcrum, and serves 
to move heavy wheels, etc. “ Pinchers,” a sort 
of tool used by artificers in drawing nails. 

Pinion. An arbor, or spindle, in the body of 
which are several notches to catch the teeth of 
a wheel that serves to turn it round; or a pinion 
in a small wheel which plays in the teeth of a 
larger. 

Pipe. A tube used as a conductor of water, gas, 
steam, smoke, etc., made of lead, iron, stone, 

, pottery, wood, India rubber, gutta-percha, etc. 


The large water and gas pipes are made princi¬ 
pally of cast iron, and are called mains; the 
smaller ones of some alloy, of which lead is the 
base, are called services. 

Piston. A solid beam whose lower part performs 
the office of a cork closing the body of a cylin¬ 
drical vessel in which it moves, wherever it is 
applied along the length. To this, in the center, 
a rod is fastened, which rises or falls with it; 
and with this rising or falling, the mot ion of the 
machines which use the piston, is connected 
directly. 

Pitch. In wheel work, the space between the cen¬ 
ters of two adjacent wheels. “ Pitch-line,” a 
line which passes through the centers of all the 
teeth of a wheel. “ Pitch-wheels,” wheels that 
work together. 

Pivot. The extremity of the axle round which a 
body revolves. 

Plane. An edged tool for paring and shaving 
wood smooth. “ Planer,” a wooden block used 
by printers for forcing down type in a form. 
For Inclined Plane, see under that head. 

Plaster. See Mortar. 

Plaster of Paris. A paste made of gypsum. In 
London the term is also applied to gypsum 
itself. 

Plate. A copper-plate for printing on; any flat 
piece of metal in the same form or shape. 
“ Plating,” see Electro-plate. “ Platen,” the flat 
upper part of a printing press which gives the 
impression. 

Platinum. A metal so-called on account of its 
silvery appearance or from the river Plata, in 
South America, near which it was first found. 
It is the heaviest substance in nature; will not 
fuse with the strongest heat of the furnace; and 
fi-om its capacity of resisting oxidation in air 
or water, it constitutes one of the perfect metals. 
It is harder than iron, and malleable and ductile 
like gold. 

Pliers. An instrument by which anything is 
laid hold of, so as to bend it. 

Plinth. A large square member, in the form of a 
brick, and sometimes called the slipper. It is 
employed as the foot or foundation of columns, 
being that flat square table under the moldings 
of the base and pedestal, at the bottom of the 
whole order. The plinth of a wall is a term 
applied to two or three rows of bricks advanc¬ 
ing out from the walls; or, in general, from any 
flat high moulding, serving in a front wall to 
mark the floors, or to sustain the eaves of a wall 
and the larmier of a chimney. See Bricks. 

Plow. A well-known agricultural implement for 
turning up the soil in preparation for receiving 
the seed. It consists of a wooden frame, with a 
handle; a share, or sharpened piece of iron, 
fixed on the bottom of the plow, and a coulter, 
another cutting iron, that stands upright in the 
plow. “ Wheel-plow,” a plow with one or more 
wheels, to render it steady, and also to regulate 
the depth of the cut. “ Plow-share,” the cutting 
iron fixed at the bottom of the wood-work of 
the plough, which forms the furrows. Among 
bookbinders, a plough is a machine for cutting 
the edges of books. 

Plug. A piece of wood or other substance used 
to stop a hole. “ Plug-rod,” in a steam-engine a 
rod for working the valves, as in the Cornish 
engine. 

Plumbago. See Black-lead. 

Plumber-block. A support for the end of a 
shaft. 

Plumb-line. A perpendicular to the horizon, 
formed by means of the plummet. “ Plummet,” 
a leaden weight attached to a string, by which 
depths are sounded perpendicularly, and perpen¬ 
diculars arc taken by carpenters, masons, etc. 

Pneumatics. That branch of physical science 
which treats of the mechanical properties of 
clastic fluids, and principally of atmospheric air. 

Point. Among artists, an iron or steel instru¬ 
ment used for tracing designs on copper, wood, 
stone, etc. In masonry, to fill the joints with 
mortar, and smooth them with a trowel. 































VOCABULARY OF MECHANICAL AND SCIENTIFIC TERMS. 


209 


Pole. A long bar of wood, cut and fitted for vari¬ 
ous purposes, as the pole of a carriage. “ Pole¬ 
ax,” an ax fixed to a pole or handle, frequently 
with a claw or hook projecting from the back 
part, sometimes used in vessels of war for board¬ 
ing purposes. 

Polychrome Printing. The name sometimes 
applied to the reproduction of paintings and 
colored drawings by mechanical means. The 
effects sought by polychrome printing may be 
obtained both by lithography and wood-cut 
printing, although the former process is, up to 
the present time, the one most generally 
adopted. The imitation of drawings and paint¬ 
ings by means of lithography is usually termed 
chromo-lithography. 

Polychromy. A term applied to the art of paint¬ 
ing works of sculpture and architecture with 
different colors, an art well known to the 
ancients under a different name. 

Polygon. In mechanics, when a series of more 
than three forces act in equilibrium in one 
point, they may be represented in direction and 
intensity by a polygonal figure (a plane figure of 
many angles); this figure is termed the polygon 
of those forces. 

Polygraph. An invention for making a number 
of writings or drawings simultaneously,—made 
on the principle of the Pantagraph, an instru¬ 
ment for copying drawings 

Polytechnics. The science of all the mechanical 
arts, aided or unaided by machinery. 

Pontoon. See Bridge. 

Port. In mechanics, an opening through which 
steam, air, etc., may pass to the valves of the 
engine to which it imparts motion. The admis¬ 
sion and discharge of steam in a steam-engine 
take place through ports near the ends of the 
cylinder, connected with passages called noz¬ 
zles, which are opened and closed by induction 
and eduction valves. Sometimes the induction 
and eduction valves are combined in one valve, 
called a slide-valve. 

Post-mill. A kind of wind-mill constructed on a 
vertical axis fastened to the ground. 

Power. A term equivalent to force, or rather to 
the origin of force; a mechanical agent, as 
horse-power, water or steam-power, etc. 

Press. A machine by which things are com¬ 
pressed. It acts by means of the screw, and 
serves for different purposes, as for pressing the 
juice out of grapes and other fruits for making 
wine, the pressing of the curd in making 
cheeses, etc.; also, a machine used by printers 
and publishers for taking impressions of forms 
of type. 

Primer. A kind of type, of which there are two 
species—long-primer and great-primer. 

Priming. The act of carrying over water from 
the boiler into the cylinder of a steam-engine. 

Printer. One who possesses the skill to set up 
jobs, make up forms, etc., in addition to serving 
as compositor, or type-setter on straight or plain 
reading matter. See Case. 

Puddling. A process for the conversion of cast 
iron into wrought iron. 

Pug-mill. A mill for grinding and mixing clay, 
used in brick-making and for other purposes. 

Pulley. One of the simplest of the mechanical 
powers. In its plainest form, it consists of a 
small wheel turning on a pin in a block, with a 
furrow or groove cut in its circumference, over 
which passes the rope that turns it. See Me¬ 
chanical Powers. 

Pump. A machine either for raising water or for 
forcing it through pipes. Its power is drawn 
from the pressure or weight of the atmosphere 
in common cases, and from the elasticity of 
compressed air in those forms of it that are 
termed forcing pumps. The lifting-pump and 
the suction or household pump have each a pis¬ 
ton and two valves, which latter open upward. 
The forcing-pump is unlike the two pumps 
above-named. The piston has no valve, but 
there is a valve opening upward at the bottom 
of its cylinder. 


Punch. A tool, usually of steel, for striking holes 
in any thin material, as leather, iron, etc. 

Puppet-valve. A disk, used in steam-engines to 
cover and uncover an opening. 

Putlog. A cross piece of timber forming a sup¬ 
port to the floor of a scaffold. 

Quadrant. The fourth part of a circle. A quad¬ 
rant is divided into ninety equal parts, called 
degrees; each degree is divided into sixty equal 
parts, called minutes; each minute into sixty 
parts, called seconds. The ancient form of 
astronomical instruments for the determina¬ 
tion of altitudes was the quadrant; but that has 
now been wholly superceded by the Circle, 
which see. 

Quadrat, Em. In type-setting, a square piece of 
metal, shorter than a letter, which is inserted 
by the compositor, in the body of reading mat¬ 
ter, just after a period or end of a sentence. It 
is, in composition, the standard of measure¬ 
ment, and when the compositor has filled a 
space equal to 1,000 ems in juxtaposition, he is 
paid accordingly. 

Queen-post. One of two posts extending from 
the tie-beam to a rafter, used in a trussed 
roof. 

Rabbet. A cut made in a board to form a joint 
with another board. A rabbet-plane is used by 
a joiner in cutting a rabbet on the edge of a 
board. 

Rack. A toothed bar to work with a small cog¬ 
wheel or pinion. 

Rag-bolt. An iron-pin, barbed, so that it may be 
retained in position. “ Rag-wheel,” a wheel 
with projections on the circumference to receive 
the links of a chain which works with it. 

Rail. A long bar of iron rolled in a certain shape, 
for use in railway construction. “ Chair,” a 
piece of iron made to receive and support a rail, 
and which rests on the tie or sleeper of wood to 
which it is fixed. 

Ratchet. A wheel having angular teeth, by 
which it may be turned forward as by a catch or 
ratchet. 

Reaction. Action and reaction are equal and 
opposite. In mechanics, the force as illustrated 
by the firing of a pistol, there is a back effect 
upon the pistol identically equal to that upon 
the bullet. “ Reaction-wheel,” a water-wheel 
having curved spaces or buckets on which the 
water reacts, and thus causing motion. 

Receiver. The vessel from which the air is 
exhausted in an air-pump. 

Reciprocating Motion. An epithet for what acts 
by alternation, backward and forward, or up 
and down, as some parts of machinery. 

Reduction. In metallurgy, the operation of sep¬ 
arating a metal from other substances. “ Reduc¬ 
tion of a design or draught, etc.,” the making a 
copy thereof either larger or smaller than the 
original. 

Reel. A machine turning round on an axis, on 
which lines of different kind are wound. 

Reeming-iron. See Calking-iron. 

Refine. To purify anything, but particularly to 
assay or refine gold and silver, by separating all 
other bodies from them. 

Register. In type-founding, one of the inner 
parts of the mold in which the printing types 
are cast. Its use is to direct the joining the 
mold justly together again, after opening it to 
take out the new cast letter. 

Reglet. A little flat, narrow molding in panels, 
etc. In job-printing, small strips of wood for 
use in spacing between lines of type. 

Regulator. In a watch, a small spring belonging 
to the balance. In a steam-engine, the throttle- 
valve. 

Relay. See Battery. 

Release. The opening of the exhaust-port be¬ 
tween strokes, in a steam-engine, in order to 
diminish the back-pressure. 

Relief. The projection or standing out of a figure 
above the ground or plane whereon it is formed. 
There are three kinds of relief, namely, the 
bass-relief, in which the work is raised but little; 


the demi-relief, in which one-half of the figure 
rises, and the alto-relief, in which the figure pro¬ 
jects as large as life. 

Renaissance Architecture. A term applied to 
that period of the Revival when the classical 
began to be again introduced after the mediae¬ 
val styles. See Architecture. 

Resin. A solid inflammable substance exuding 
from trees, as the common resin, or turpentine, 
from the pine. “ Resins,” an important class of 
vegetable substances, extensively used in man¬ 
ufactures, obtained from various trees. They 
are mostly insoluble in water, but dissolve 
readily in alcohol, forming varnishes. They are, 
as solids, transparent, and brittle. They are 
insulators of electricity, and become electrical 
by friction. 

Resistance. The energy with which materials 
resist the action of external weights or forces 
tending to bend or break them. 

Resolution. In mechanics, the dividing of any 
force or motion into several others in other 
directions, but which, taken together, shall 
have the same effect as the single one. 

Retort. A chemical vessel in which distillation 
is effected by means of heat. Retorts are made 
of glass, earthemvare, or metal, according to the 
purposes for which they are intended. Very 
large earthenware retorts are used in the manu¬ 
facture of coal gas. 

Reverse. In engineering, to cause to revolve in 
the opposite direction, as the crank of a steam- 
engine. 

Rib. In carpentry, any piece of timber that 
strengthens the side. In shipbuilding, the tim¬ 
ber of the futtocks, when the planks are off, 
which resembles the ribs of the body. The 
frame or ribs of a ship is composed of a great 
amount of timber, technically catalogued as 
floors, cross-lines, half-floors, floors short and 
long-armed, fii-st-futtocks, second, third, fourth 
and fifth futtocks, and top timbers. The middle 
timbei's fixed between the floor and upper tim¬ 
bers, are called futtocks. 

Relievo. See Relief. 

Riglet. See Reglet. 

Ring-bolt. (See Ring.) “ Ring-head,” a contriv- 
ance used for stretching woolen cloth. 

Rivet. A metal piece clinched at both ends. 

Rock-shaft. A shaft for varying motion in the 
valve-gear of a steam-engine, called also rocker 
and rocking-shaft, from its rocking or vibrating 
instead of revolving. 

Rolling-mill. A machine for working metals 
into plates or bars. This sort of mill is chiefly 
used for drawing out the iron bars, after they 
have been manufactured into bar iron by the 
forge and hammer. 

Rotary. A term applied to txxrning, as a body on 
its axis. Hero, of Alexandria, probably first 
wrote of mechanism, in which heat is made to 
perform work by means of steam. That author 
describes a rotary engine, driven by the reaction 
of jets of steam issuing from orifices in revolv¬ 
ing arms. Rotary or centrifugal pumps are 
those in which a rectilineal vertical motion is 
given to the water to be raised, by means of 
a wheel rotating with great velocity in a 
close di-urn, and receiving its supply through 
apertures in the side of the drum close to the 
axis. 

Rough-casting. A kind of mortar used as a cov¬ 
ering for external walls, which is thrown on 
roughly, instead of being plastered on. 

Rough-strings. In cai’pentry, pieces of timber 
fixed under a wooden stairway for its support. 

Ruhmkorff’s-coil. A machine for inducing eleo- 
trical cuiTeixtsof great intensity, so-named from 
the inventor. 

Safety-lamp. A lamp invented by Sir Humphrey 
Davy, with the object of lessening danger of 
explosion in mines. It rests on the principle 
that flame, to ignite adequate combustible 
gases, will not pass through fine wire gauze; 
although the light of the flame easily passes 
through it. 






















210 


VOCABULARY OF MECHANICAL AND SCIENTIFIC TERMS 


Safety-valve. An appendage of the boiler of a 
steam-engine, for permitting the escape of 
steam before the pressure becomes dangerous. 
See Valve. 

Sandal. See Boots, etc. 

Saw. A cutting instrument, formed from a plate 
of sheet steel, and toothed by means of a press 
and tools. 

Scale. An incrustation in a vessel in which water 
is heated, as in a steam-boiler, etc. Also, a most 
useful instrument in accurate drawing, made of 
any hard material. The principal divisions are 
half an inch, and the horizontal lines divide it 
into ten parts, or the twentieth of an inch; 
while by sloping the lines in the left-hand 
division, the tenths are divided into tenths of 
tenths, or lOOtlis of the half-inch, by progres¬ 
sively ascending or descending. “ Scaling-liam- 
mer,” a hammer for removing scales. 

Scantling. A term used to express the transverse 
dimensions of a piece of timber; and also, in 
some cases, as a general name for small timbers, 
such as the quartering for a partition, rafters, 
purlins, or pole-plates in a roof, etc. All quar¬ 
tering or squared timber under live inches 
square is designated scantling. 

Scarf. The cut ends of each of two timbers to be 
joined lengthwise. A scarf-joint is the point 
where the ends of scarfed timbers are joined 
and secured. 

Schooner. See vessel. 

Scioptic. A sphere or globe of wood with a 
hole, in which is placed a lens, so constructed 
that it may be turned round every way, and 
used in making experiments in a darkened 
room. 

Scour. To rub and clean by friction. A scouring- 
barrel is a machine for cleaning scrap-iron, etc., 
by means of friction. 

Screen. In husbandry, an implement which con¬ 
sists of a frame and wire work, with which 
wheat is cleared of the dust and the dross grain. 
In architecture, a partition rising, a certain 
height, as in the Gothic or pointed style, form¬ 
ing beautiful internal features of churches, 
halls, etc. 

Screw. One of the six mechanical powers, con¬ 
sisting of a spiral thread or groove cut round a 
cylinder; when the thread is on the outside, it is 
a male or convex screw; but when it Is cut 
along the inner surface of the cylinder, it is a 
female screw, otherwise called a nut, which see. 
As a mechanical power, the screw possesses the 
property of an inclined plane, which see. “End¬ 
less screw,” a screw consistingof two or more 
spiral fillets on a rod capable of rotation round 
its axis; these threads work in teeth on the cir¬ 
cumference of a wheel, so that while the revo¬ 
lution of the rod continues the screw keeps 
moving on its own axis—called also worm-screw. 
“ Ilindley’s screw,” so-named after the person 
who first used it, is cut on a solid and works on 
a toothed wheel. “ Micrometer screw,” a screw 
for measuring small spaces or angles with great 
accuracy and convenience. “Differential screw,” 
one convex screw which works in the interior 
of another convex screw; the latter works in a 
concave screw, which is fixed, and the former is 
capable of moving in a rectilinear direction 
only, being prevented from turning on its axis 
with therotation of the exterior screw. "Right- 
and-left-screw,” a screw, the threads of which 
on the opposite ends run in different directions. 
"Screw-bolt,” a screw with a head on one end, 
for use in some fixed part. “Screw-jack,” see 
Jack-screw, under the head of Jack. "Screw- 
pile,” a long and powerful pile, presumably of 
wood, and made so that it may be screwed down 
firmly in the sand, to serve as a support of a 
light timber edifice or light-house. 

Screw-press. A strong frame having a horizon¬ 
tal bed, and a follower attached to a screw. The 
screw works up and down in the concavity of 
the frame, which, when screwed down, presses 
on the upper surface of the substance operated 
upon. 


Screw-propeller. A steam-vessel propelled by 
a revolving screw; also the wheel bearing floats, 
used in the propulsion of steam-vessels. 

Screw-tap. In screw-manufacture, an external 
screw or cutter, used in forming internal screws. 

Scribing. In carpentry, fitting the edge of a 
board to the side of another. 

Sculpture. An art which comprehends not only 
carving in wood, stone, or marble, but also 
enchasing, engraving in all its kinds, and cast¬ 
ing in bronze, lead, wax, etc. See Carving. 

Sector. A drawing instrument, having the ap¬ 
pearance of a small carpenter’s rule marked 
with scales on every part. The sector is, in 
principle, an aggregate of a large number of 
pairs of compasses packed up into one, each 
piece of the ruler being marked with the same 
scales. 

Separation. In steam-boilers, the act of displac¬ 
ing water from steam. 

Service-pipe. A pipe leading from mains to a 
dwelling, as in water-pipes and the like. 

Sewer. A passage to convey water and filth away 
into the sea. 

Sextant. An instrument for measuring angles 
between objects, the angle by reflection being 
doubled, so that a sextant measures the third of 
a circle, or 120 degrees. 

Shaft. The bar that carries wheels or revolving 
parts, as the shaft of a steam-engine. In min¬ 
ing, a hole like a well, which miners make to 
free the works from the springs that are in them. 
Also, the body of a column. 

Shank. The long and cylindrical part of differ¬ 
ent things. In founding, a large ladle. 

Share. See under Plow. 

Shear. A tool made in the form of scissors, for 
clipping hedges, etc.; also, the bed-piece of a 
machine-tool, on which a slide-rest is fastened; 
as, the shears of a lathe, etc. 

Sheep’s-foot. In printing, an iron Hammer with 
a claw-end. 

Sheet-anchor. The largest anchor of a vessel. 

Shell. In boiler-work, the barrel and plating. 

Shim. A thin piece of metal used in fitting parts. 

Shoe. In machinery, a bottom piece used to sup¬ 
port a body; a piece on which an object is placed 
while moving to prevent wear. 

Shroud. One of the two round plates at the rim 
of a water wheel. 

Side-lever. In a marine steam-engine, a lever at 
the side for moving the crank. “ Side-pipe,” an 
exhaust extending between the steam-chests of 
a cylinder. 

Silver. A well-known precious metal, 10% times 
heavier than water, so ductile that wires have 
been made of it but the 750th part of an inch in 
diameter, and so malleable that a grain may be 
beat out into fifty square inches. It is soluble in 
nitric acid, or aquafortis. See Malleability. 

Siphon. A very simple instrument of great use 
in the arts. In its simplest form, it consists of 
a bent tube with unequal arms. The short arm 
is dipped in a vessel of water until the top or 
curve becomes level with the water, which then 
flows over down the long arm. The tube can 
then be raised until the short arm is just below 
the water, all the rest of the tube being out of it. 
The flow will still continue. 

Sleeve. In machinery, a tubular part in which 
another part works, to steady a machine. 

Slide-rest. A tool-support, in lathe-turning, made 
to slide on fixed bearings. 

Slide-valve. A kind of cup-shaped piece of metal, 
situated in the steam-chest, and made to slide 
over openings through which steam passes to 
the cylinder. 

Sliding-rule. A mathematical instrument, to be 
used without compasses in gauging. 

Slip-link. A connection in which some play of 
the parts is allowed to prevent shock. 

Slot. A slit or mortise in a machine to admit 
another part. 

Sluice. Any kind of a flood-gate or trap to retain 
water for a given time, or in a given direction. 
Smiths' Forge. See Blast-furnace. 


Smoke-Jack. An engine placed in chimneys and 
turned by means of the ascending smoke, which 
answers the purpose of the kitchen-jack. 

Snifting-valve. A valve opening outward to the 
atmosphere. The condenser of a steam-engine 
is provided with blow-through valves, commu¬ 
nicating with the cylinder, usually shut, but 
.capable of being occasionally opened, and with 
a snifting-valveopening outward, the steam can 
be blown off to expel air from the cylinder and 
condenser before the engine is set to work. 

Socket-bolt. A bolt which passes through a 
thimble-shaped appendage in connecting parts. 

Sole-plate. The main or bed-plate of a machine; 
as the sole-plate of an engine. 

Spectroscope. An instrument for forming and 
examining the image (spectrum) of the sun or 
any other luminous body. It consists of two 
telescopes arranged on a stand, with the two 
glasses facing each other. The eye piece of one 
is removed, and in its place is a narrow slit 
formed by two strips of metal, which can be so 
adjusted as to admit a line of light of any 
desired width. The slit being illuminated, the 
observer at the other telescope will see a mag¬ 
nificent image of the slit in the form of a bril¬ 
liant line of light. If a prism be placed between 
the two telescopes the observer will still see the 
line of light, if the illumination be by what is 
called homogeneous light, like that from a 
sodium flame, for instance. But, if the flame be 
colored with some ot her substance, like lithium, 
for example, the observer will see two bright 
lines side by side, one yellow from the sodium, 
and one green from the lithium. The number 
of substances, and the consequent number of 
lines, can be increased almost indefinitely. 
“ Spectrum analysis,”used to determine the con¬ 
stitution of heavenly bodies, and is based upon 
the ascertained fact that the heated vapors of 
certain substances, like iron, manganese, nitro¬ 
gen, calcium, etc., exhibit certain definite and 
easily-recognizable lines and colors in the solar 
spectrum. These having been determined, it is 
not difficult to determine that when one of the 
planetary bodies gives similar results in the 
spectrum it is because of its being composed of 
similar substances. If Mars, for instance, gives 
the same lines in the spectrum that iron and 
nitrogen do when ignited in the electric arc, the 
inference is that Mars contains iron and nitro¬ 
gen. A full explanation of spectrum analysis, 
and the results attained by it, fill the space of 
several volumes. 

Spike. A very large and long nail. 

Spindle. A pin or rod, made to rapidly revolve 
by means of a wheel, on which locks of previ¬ 
ously carded cotton or wool are drawn out into 
threads. 

Splice. See Scarf. 

Spline. A piece fitting the key-seat of a hub and 
a shaft, in order to make them revolve together. 

Spring. In mechanics, an elastic plate or rod, 
which is employed as a moving power, or a 
regulator of the motions of wheel-work; also to 
ascertain the weights of bodies, or to diminish 
the effects of concussion. 

Spur-wheel. A cog-wheel where teeth project 
radially from the center. 

Square. An instrument used by carpenters and 
joiners for squaring their work or reducing it 
to a square. 

Stamp. A kind of hammer, raised by water or 
steam power, for pounding ores, etc. 

Stand-pipe. A pipe between a hydrant and a 
tank, for equalizing the flow of water. 

Statics. That subdivision of mechanics which 
treats of bodies at rest, in opposition to dynam¬ 
ics, which treats of bodies in motion. 

Stay-bolt.. A connecting bolt, used to prevent 
opposite parts from bulging out. 

Steam. Water in the vaporous or gaseous condi¬ 
tion. Water converted into steam occupies 
more than 1,700 times its former space. Under 
the pressure of thirty-five pounds on the square 
inch and at the temperature of 261 deg., steam 
































VOCABULARY OF MECHANICAL AND SCIENTIFIC TERMS. 


211 


exerts a force equal to a ton weight raised 
one foot. Superheated steam is called steam- 
gas. 

Steam-engine. The first steam-engine which 
formed the connecting link between the steam- 
pumps and the modern steam-engines, was 
invented by Newcomen in 1705. The principal 
parts of a steam-engine, with their appendages, 
are: 1. The furnace and boiler. 2. The cylinder 
with its piston. 3. The condenser with its air- 
pump (these are wanting in non-condensing 
engines). In the mechanism of these principal 
parts may be mentioned (1) the furnace, with its 
appendages; the boiler, made of iron or copper, 
and often contains internal flues and tubes, 
among whose appendages are, the feed-pump; 
safety-valve; vacuum-valve; water-gauge cocks 
and water-gauge tube (see Cock, etc.); pressure- 
gauge; man-hole; blow-off cock, etc.; (2) the 
boiler and cylinder are connected by means of 
the steam-pipe, in which is the throttle-valve 
(see Throttle-valve), etc.; in non-condensing 
engines, called high-pressure engines, the waste 
steam discharged from the cylinder escapes into 
the atmosphere through the blast-pipe, (which 
see, under the head of Blast-hole); the cyl¬ 
inder cover has in it a stuffing-box for the 
passage of the piston-rod; the cylinder cover 
also has a grease cock, to supply the piston 
with unguent; in some large engines, a spring 
safety-valve or escape-valve, at each end of the 
cylinder; to prevent loss of heat, the cylinder 
is sometimes inclosed in a casing, called a jacket, 
outside of which is a clothing of felt and wood; 
double-cylinder engines have two cylinders, the 
steam being admitted from the boiler into the 
first cylinder, and then filling the second by 
expansion from the first; (3) the ordinary con¬ 
denser is a steam and air-tight vessel of any 
convenient shape, whose capacity is from one- 
fourth to one-half of that of the cylinder, and 
the steam discharged from the cylinder is lique¬ 
fied in it by a constant shower of cold water 
from the injection cock (see Condenser, and 
Injection-water); in the surface condenser the 
steam is liquefied by being passed through tubes 
or other narrow passages surrounded by cur¬ 
rents of cold water (see Snifting-valve); the 
condenser has also a vacuum gauge, to show how 
much the pressure in it falls below that of the 
atmosphere; the water, the small portion of 
steam which remains uncondensed, and the air 
which may be mixed with it, are sucked from 
the condenser by the air-pump (which see), 
whose capacity is from one-sixth to one-eighth 
of that of the cylinder, and discharged into the 
hot-well (which see), a tank from which the 
feed-pump, formerly mentioned, draws the 
supply of water for the boiler; the surplus 
water of the hot-well in land engines is dis¬ 
charged into a pond, there to cool and form a 
store of water for the cold-well; in marine 
engines, it is ejected into the sea; (4) the prin¬ 
cipal parts of the mechanism are noticed under 
the headings, Parallel Motion, Shaft, Crank, 
Connecting-rod (under Piston), Fly-wheel 
(under Fly), Valve-gear, and Governor. See also 
Engine. 

Steam-gauge. A pressure-gauge, for indicating 
the pressure of the steam in a boiler. “ Steam- 
pipe,” see Steam-engine. "Steam-trap,” a vessel 
so made as to permit the passage of water but 
retains the steam. “Steam-way,” a channel 
connecting a port with a cylinder. "Steam- 
winch,” a combination for raising weights. 

Steam-hammer. A name given to various 
powerful machines worked by steam. The 
steam-hammer, invented by James Nasmyth, 
has a fixed cylinder, and the hammer is attached 
to the piston-rod by means of bars and a 
cross-key. 

Steel. See under the head of Iron. 

Stereotype. One entire solid piece of type cast 
from an impression in gypsum, of a page com¬ 
posed with movable types. 

Stick. See Case. 


Still. A large vessel employed in the process of 
distillation. The common still consists of a 
large copper boiler, set in masonry, over a 
furnace, having a head or capital of a globular 
form which connects it with the condenser or 
worm-pipe. 

Stop-cock. A short tube of brass, intersected by 
a nearly cylindrical plug so perforated or cut 
that while in one position it completely pre¬ 
vents the passage of fluid through the pipe, it 
may be turned so as to permit the fluid to pass 
through it. 

Strap, and Strap-head. See Butt. 

Stress. Applied force or pressure in any direc¬ 
tion or in any manner. A stress may be applied 
to a solid body in order to determine its ulti¬ 
mate strength, which latter depends upon the 
stress required to produce fracture in some 
specified way. The elastic strength is the stress 
required to produce the greatest strain of a 
specific kind, consistent with perfect elasticity. 
A body is said to be perfectly elastic which, if 
strained at a constant temperature by the appli¬ 
cation of a stress, recovers its original volume, 
or volume and figure, when such stress is with¬ 
drawn, and gives out, during such recovery, 
a quantity of mechanical work exactly equal 
to that originally exerted in producing the 
strain. 

Stroke. The movement of the piston of a steam- 
engine from end to end of the cylinder. 

Stucco. A composition of white marble pulver¬ 
ized and mixed with plaster of lime. It is used 
on walls, or in making ornamental figures. 

Stud-bolt. A bolt with threads on each end, to 
be screwed into a part and capped with a nut. 

Stuffing-box. See Steam-engine. 

Sucker. The piston of a pump. 

Suction-pump. See Pump. 

Sugar-mill. A machine for pressing out the juice 
of the sugar-cane. It consists of several rollers, 
between which the cane is passed. 

Sump. In metallurgy, the pit for receiving the 
metal on its first fusion. 

Swivel. A link that turns round on a pin or neck 
in any direction. 

Table. In machinery, that part on which work 
is placed to be operated upon. 

Tachometer. An instrument for measuring the 
speed with which vessels pass through water. 

Tambourine. See under Bandore. 

Tangent. A line touching a circle or other curve 
without cutting it. 

Tap-bolt See Screw-bolt, under head of Screw. 

Telectroscope. An apparatus intended to repro¬ 
duce telegraphically at a distance the images 
obtained in the camera obscura. This apparatus 
will be based on the property possessed by 
selenium of offering a variable and very sensi¬ 
tive electrical resistance, according to the dif¬ 
ferent gradations of light. Plan submitted by 
M. Senlecq, of Andres. 

Telegraph. A word signifying writing to or for 
a distant point, and applied to the various 
inventions for communicating news between 
points by flags or other means. “ Electro-mag¬ 
netic telegraph,” an instrument or apparatus 
for communicating words or language to a dis¬ 
tance by means of electricity. 

Telephone. An instrument for conveying infor¬ 
mation by sound, now extensively used in cities 
and towns. “ Musical telephone,” a machine for 
reproducing musical sounds. The music of the 
Edison machine is brought out by the action of 
a current of electricity upon a solution of sul¬ 
phate of sodium in which strips of white paper 
are soaked. 

Telescope. An optical instrument, consisting of 
a tube which contains a system of lenses, de¬ 
signed to aid the eye in viewing distant objects. 
" Monocular telescope,” one having a single eye¬ 
piece, and so serving only for one eye at once. 

Temper. Proper mixture of ingredients. Tem¬ 
pering, in iron works, is making iron and 
steel of a suitable degree of hardness or soft¬ 
ness. 


Tenacity. A property of material bodies by 
which their parts resist efforts to tear them 
asunder. The tenacity of wood is much greater 
(apparently about ten times) along the grain 
than transversely. Mixed metals have, in gen- 
eral, greater tenacity than simple metals. 

Tenon. A projecting end of a piece of timber, 
formed by cutting away a portion on one or 
more sides, for insertion into a mortise. The 
tenon is of various forms, as square, dove¬ 
tailed, etc. 

Tension. The name given to the force by 
which a bar or string is pulled when forming 
part of any system, in equilibrium or in 
motion. 

Thermometer. An instrument for measuring 
heat, founded on the principle that solid, liquid, 
and gaseous bodies always expand in exact pro¬ 
portion to the temperature to which they are 
subjected. 

Thimble. Any short tubular piece, through 
which some other part of machinery passes. 
Iron rings used in the rigging of ships are in 
some instances called thimbles. 

Threshing-machine. A machine for threshing 
wheat, instead of the old practice of threshing 
with a flail. 

Throttle-valve (or Regulator). A valve in the 
steam-pipe which connects the boiler and cylin¬ 
der of a steam-engine, for adjusting the opening 
for the admission of steam to the cylinder, and 
sometimes also the cut-off valve or expansion 
valve, for cutting off the admission of the steam 
to the cylinder at any required period of each 
stroke of the piston, leaving the remainder of 
the stroke to be performed by the expansion of 
the steam already admitted. 

Tie. See under the head of Rail. 

Tile. A thin piece of clay in flat form, dried and 
baked so as to fit it for covering the roofs of 
houses. 

Tiller. A piece of wood fastened in the head of 
the rudder, by which it is moved. In small 
ships and boats it is called the helm. 

Tilt-hammer. A large hammer worked by ma¬ 
chinery. It is tilted by projections on the axis 
of a wheel. 

Tin. A metal of a silver-white color, very soft, 
and so malleable that it may be reduced into 
leaves l-1000th of an inch thick, called tin-foil. 
Tin is inelastic, but very flexible, when heated 
to whiteness it takes fire, and burns with a 
white flame, and is converted into peroxide of 
tin. The peroxide is found in combination with 
other metals, in tin-stone, and in loose rounded 
masses called stream-tin. The former, when 
reduced to the metallic state, yields block-tin 
(which see), while the latter yields grain-tin, 
which is the purer of the two. 

Torsion. The force with which a string or thread 
returns or tends to return to a state of rest, after 
it has been twisted. 

Traction. In mechanics, the act of drawing a 
body along a plane, usually by the power of 
men, animals, or steam; as when a vehicle is 
drawn on a roadway by means of a traction 
engine. The power exerted in order to produce 
the effect is called the force of traction. 

Trammel. An instrument used by carpenters 
for drawing ovals on a board. 

Translation. As distinguished from rotation, 
consists in the movement of a point from one 
position to another. 

Triglyph. See under Frieze. 

Trowel. See under the head of Bricks. 

Truck. The frame and wheels, etc., of one end of 
a railway locomotive or car; also, a freight-car. 

Trundle. A kind of wheel whose teeth are formed 
of spindles. 

Trunk. A tubular piston-rod. 

Truss. A frame of timbers so disposed that if 
suspended at two given points, and charged 
with one or more weights in certain others, no 
timber would press transversely upon another 
except by timber exerting equal and opposite 
forces. 























212 


VOCABULARY OF MECHANICAL AND SCIENTIFIC TERMS 


Tube. In steam-boilers, a pipe containing water 
and exposed to the heat of the furnace. 

Tumbler. See Hair-spring. 

Turbine. A water-wheel attached to a vertical 
revolving axis. It consists of a drum, upon 
which are a number of vanes curved in such a 
way as to allow the water leaving them to go off 
with the minimum of velocity or power. 

Tuscan Order. See Etruscan Architecture. 

Tympanum. A drum-shaped wheel, used for 
raising water. 

Type-writer. An apparatus about the size of a 
sewing-machine for writing by means of type, 
the operator working keys which correspond to 
the different letters of the alphabet, etc., in 
order to make impressions of the type on paper. 

Undershot-wheel. See Overshot-wheel. 

Universal Joint. A contrivance for joining two 
shafts endwise. 

Valve. An arrangement by which air or any 
fluid ma; r be alternately admitted into and 
expelled from a vessel. “ Screw-valve,” a stop¬ 
cock provided with a puppet-valve moved by a 
screw. “Vacuum-valve,” a valve opening in¬ 
ward, to admit air and prevent the boiler of a 
steam-engine from collapsing if the steam in it 
should be condensed. See Safety-valve, Slide- 
valve, etc. 

Valve-gear. The series of parts by which a 
valve is worked. “Valvelet,” a small valve. 
“Valve-seat,” the part on which a valve moves. 
“ Valve-stem,” a rod by which a valve is moved. 
“Valve-yoke,” an appendage of a valve-stem, 
consisting of a strap, with slide to move it. 

Velocity. That affection of motion whereby a 
movable body is disposed to run over a certain 
space in a certain time. 

Veneer. A thin, long, narrow piece of wood or 
ivory attached to a piece of other material, for 
ornamental purposes. 

Ventilator. A contrivance for supplying fresh 
and removing vitiated air from houses, mines, 
and other places. 

Vessel. In maritime affairs, every kind of ship, 
large or small, that serves to carry men or goods 
on water. “ Barge,” a boat of state or pleasure, 
with elegant apartments; also, the name of a 
flat-bottomed vessel of burden, used on rivers. 
“ Bark,” a three-masted vessel; any small vessel. 
“ Brig,” a square-rigged merchantman with two 
masts. “Catamaran,” a raft made of three 
pieces of wood lashed together, a flat-bottomed 
boat constructed by Bonaparte, and used in war. 
“ Clipper,” a sailing vessel built expressly for 
speed, longer and narrower than other vessels. 
“ Cock-boat,” a small boat used on rivers or near 
the shore. “ Cutter,” a small boat attached to 
ships of war; rigged nearly like a sloop, with 
one mast. “ Fly-boat,” along, narrow boat, used 
on canals. “ Frigate,” a light built ship of war, 
from twenty-eight to forty-four guns, fitted for 
fast sailing. “ Galley,” a low, flat-built vessel, 
much used in the Mediterranean sea before the 


introduction of steamboats. “ Gondola,” a sort 
of Venetian pleasure barge. “ Gunboat,” a boat 
fitted to carry one or more guns. “ Jolly-boat,” 
a yawl-boat. “ Junk,”aflat-bottomed vessel,of 
about 100 or 150 tons burden, employed by the 
Chinese. “Keel-boat,” a large, covered boat, 
with a keel, used on rivers for transportation of 
freight. “ Ketch,” a strongly-built ship with a 
main and mizzen mast. “ Life-boat,” a small 
boat constructed with great strength to resist 
shocks, for preserving lives in cases of ship¬ 
wreck or other destruction of a ship or steamer. 
“ Long-boat,” the longest and strongest boat 
belonging to a vessel of war. “ Lugger,” a small 
vessel carrying two or three masts and a running 
bowsprit, upon which lug sails, and two or three 
jibs, are set. “ Merchantman,” a trading vessel, 
employed in the transport of goods; so-called 
to distinguish it from a man-of-war, or vessel 
used for warlike purposes. “Pinnace,” a small 
vessel having sails and oars, and carrying three 
masts; also one of the boats belonging to a man- 
of-war. “ Punt,” a small flat-bottomed boat, 
used in repairing ships, etc. “ Schooner,” a 
small, fast-sailing vessel with two masts, whose 
main and fore-sails are suspended by gaffs, 
reaching from the mast to the stern. “Skiff,” 
and “Skippet,” small, light boats. “Skow,” a 
large flat boat. “ Sloop,” a small vessel with one 
mast; in the navy, sloops are tenders carrying 
ten or twelve guns and about thirty men. 
“Steam-ship,” a large vessel, with paddle- 
wheels and sails. A vessel with a screw is called 
a screw-propeller. “Tartan,” a small coaster, 
having one mast add a bowsprit. “ Xebec,” a 
small three-masted vessel navigated in the Med¬ 
iterranean. “Yacht,” a small pleasure-boat, 
with sails. “ Yawl,” a small row-boat. 

Viaduct, A bridge, or series of arches, erected 
for the purpose of conducting a road or railway 
over a valley or a thickly-inhabited district. 

Violoncello. See Bass Viol. 

Vise. In smitliery, an instrument used for hold¬ 
ing fast any piece of iron which the artificer is 
working upon. 

Vis Inertia. The power in bodies that are in a 
state of rest, to resist any change that is endeav¬ 
ored to be made upon them to change their 
state. This, according to Newton, is implanted 
in all matter. 

Voltaic Pile. See under the head of Galvanic 
battery. 

Vulcanite. A black, hard, elastic substance, re¬ 
sembling horn in its texture and appearance, 
and capable of taking a very high polish; is of 
great use in the arts, for making combs, dental- 
plates, and hundreds of articles hitherto made 
in ivory or bone. 

Vulcanized India Rubber. A modification of 
India rubber, discovered by Mr. Charles Good¬ 
year, in this country, by which sulphur is so 
combined with the rubber as to render it insen¬ 
sible to atmospheric changes. See Vulcanite. 



Volute. See under the head Ionic Order. 

Warp, and Woof. See Loom. 

Warping mill. A machine for laying out the 
threads of a warp and separating them into 
two sets. 

Washers. Small pieces of metal, placed under a 
nut to reduce friction. 

Waste-pipe. A pipe for the discharge of super¬ 
fluous water, or water that Jias served its pur¬ 
pose. 

Water-closet. An accommodation with water 
supply for emptying the basin and discharging 
the contents. 

Water-gauge Cocks and Water-gauge Tube. 

In a steam-engine, appliances showing the level 
of the water, so that the engineman may ascer¬ 
tain whether it stands sufficiently high to cover 
all parts of the boiler exposed to the fire. 
“ Pressure-gauge,” an appliance for indicating 
the pressure of the steam. “ Blow-off cock,” an 
instrument for emptying the boiler of water 
when it is to be cleansed. “ Injection-cock,” see 
under Steam-engine. 

Water-mill. See Wheel and Axle. 

Water-wheel. See Overshot - wheel. “ Breast 
wheel ” (under head of Breast), and Turbine. 

Weave. See Loom. 

Wedge. See Mechanical Powers. 

Weight. Anything that is to be sustained, raised, 
or moved by a machine. 

Wheel. See Fly-wheel (under the head of Fly), 
Mechanical Powers, Moving Powers, and Water, 
wheel. 

Wheel and Axle. A machine consisting usually 
of a cylinder to wind) a wheel is firmly united, 
so that the axes of both are coincident. The 
capstan, the windlass, and the helm-wheel of a 
ship are only so many different forms of the 
same class of machines. Frequently also the 
axle is made to carry a wheel with teeth on its 
circumference, in order that, by revolving, 
motion may be communicated to machinery: 
such are the wind-mills and water-mills which 
are employed for grinding corn. 

White Lead. See Lead. 

Winch. A small windlass, having a cylinder of 
wood capable of turning on its axis between 
two upright posts of the same material. A lever 
at one or at each extremity of the cylinder is 
attached to an iron axle which passes through 
the cylinder by which it is turned. It is used 
for raising water from a well, earth from the 
shaft of a mine, etc. 

Windlass, and Wind-mill. See Wheel and Axle. 

Work. As measured by horse-power. See Horse¬ 
power. 

Wrought Iron. See Iron. 

Zinc. A metal of a bluish-white color, brittle 
when cold, but malleable when heated; much 
used in the manufacture of brass and other 
alloys. It is found in solid masses, sometimes 
in six-sided prisms, having the ends terminated 
in pentagons. 





































HOAV TO ADVERTISE 




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v .or ^>’ f^vjg VrMs“-« ■ ^ - 


mm 


EMBRACING RULES, SUGGESTIONS, AND PRACTICAL HINTS ON THIS IMPORTANT SUBJECT. 


V 


olumes might be writ¬ 


ten on the necessity of, 
and the various meth¬ 
ods employed for, ad¬ 
vertising. Many pros¬ 
perous men OAve their 
success in life to judi¬ 
cious and liberal adver¬ 
tising. In this age of 
strong competition in 
the various avenues of 
trade, he who does not advertise his Avares Avill probably 
be outdone by a more ambitious dealer, Avith perhaps a 
poorer article, who advertises liberally. People go 
where they are invited, and the merchant who advertises 
freely, places his store and Avindows in attractive order, 
and leaves the door open, Avill do far more business than 
he Avho does not cater to the public, is indifferent about 
appearances, gruff, and complaining of hard times. 

Horace Greeley laid it down as a rule that a merchant 
should advertise equal to his rent. This, like all good 
rules, ought to have exceptions. An old and well 
established business would not require so much, while 
a new enterprise would require more than this amount 
expended judiciously in advertising. The merchant 
should decide at the beginning of the year about what 
amount he may expend in advertising during the year, 
and then endeavor to place that amount in the best pos¬ 
sible manner before the public. 

An advertiser should not be discouraged too soon. 
Returns are often slow and inadequate. Time is re¬ 
quired to familiarize the public with a new article or 
new name. Some men have given up in despair, when 


just on the eve of reaping a harvest of success by this 
means. Many of the most prosperous and Avealthy bus¬ 
iness men in this country have at times been driven 
hard to meet their advertising bills, but they knew that 
this Avas their most productive outlay, and by persist¬ 
ently continuing it they Aveathered the storm. 

NEWSPAPER ADVERTISING. 

Select the newspaper Avhich circulates among the class 
of persons desired to reach. Do not advertise a special 
article or business designed for a limited class of cus¬ 
tomers, in a general newspaper. Almost all trades and 
occupations in these latter days have their special 
journals, and these afford the best means of reaching 
that class of persons. The purpose of the advertiser 
then should be to discover, first, the character of a 
paper’s circulation, and second, the extent of its circu¬ 
lation. On these tAvo essentials may then be based an 
estimate of its value as an advertising medium. The 
character of a paper’s circulation is easily determined 
by the quality of the reading matter which the paper 
contains, and the general tone imparted to it by its con¬ 
ductors. The extent of a paper’s circulation bears 
chiefly on the rates of advertising, which, other things 
being equal, should have a direct ratio to it. The 
extent of circulation is a matter of almost constant mis¬ 
representation on the part of publishers or their agents. 

As a rule, the most prominent and costly part of the 
paper is the best. In country Aveeklies the “local 
items,” or next to them, is preferable. In city journals 
containing a large amount of reading matter, a Avell 
displayed advertisement on the outside pages is perhaps 
the best for most classes of business. 






























































214 


HOW TO ADVERTISE. 


Place the advertisement before the public at the 
proper time, just when people are beginning to feel the 
need of such as the article advertised, as furs, when 
winter sets in. An advertisement may, however, prof¬ 
itably be kept before the public constantly, and in¬ 
creased or diminished as occasion requires. 

CIRCULARS. 

There are many well established firms who will not 
advertise in the newspapers at all. They believe that 
the same amount of money spent in circulars, catalogues, 
etc., sent direct to the persons whom they desire to 
reach, pays better than newspaper advertising. This 
is more direct, and affords the advertiser the opportun¬ 
ity of setting forth his claims more fully. Circulars, 
cards, catalogues, etc., also afford a means for the dis¬ 
play of taste in their typographical arrangement and 
appearance, and often times this has as much to do in 
making an impression on the person who receives it, as 
the reading matter contained therein. The printed cir¬ 
cular goes out to the public as the representative of the 
house; it should, therefore, in order to command atten¬ 
tion and respect, have about it an air of appropriateness 
and attraction. Such a circular will perhaps be care¬ 
fully preserved for years, while another which was of 
not enough importance, apparently, to the proprietor 
or firm issuing it, to command their taste and skill, will 
soon be thrown aside as of no importance to the person 
receiving it. 

Several circulars must often be sent in order to com¬ 
mand the attention and secure the custom of a person. 
Where circulars referring to the same article are repeat¬ 
edly sent out, the attention of the person who receives 
them is likely to be arrested at last, and his response 
may be made in the form of an order. 

Perhaps thereafter he becomes a constant customer, 
buying himself, and recommending his friends to do 
likewise. 

CHARTS, CALENDARS, ETC. 

An important idea in advertising is to enlist the ser¬ 
vices of others, by making it to their interest to adver¬ 
tise your business. This is often done by sending out 
charts, calendars, etc., containing useful information, 
together with the advertisement. These, when prop¬ 
erly arranged and prepared in an attractive manner, will 
be placed in a conspicuous place in the store, office, or 
home of the person receiving them. Eailway, insurance, 
and other corporations have vied with each other in the 
elegance and attractiveness of their charts, etc., until 
they have gone into the fine arts, and spared no expense 
to captivate the public. 


LETTERS. 

More effectual than circulars, and nearest a personal 
interview, is a personal letter. As an advertisement 
the letter impresses itself upon the mind of the person 
receiving it, in an unusual way. A prominent firm 
employed clerks, and had written several thousand let¬ 
ters, at many times the cost of printed circulars, which 
they mailed throughout the country, calling especial 
attention to their line of goods. Even the two cent 
postage stamp, and the envelope being sealed, impresses 
the person receiving it with the thought that it is of 
importance, And one of the largest dry goods houses in 
Chicago, when issuing any circular which they regard 
as special, seal the envelope and place a two cent stamp 
thereon. They consider that this gives their circulars 
a preference over ordinary printed matter. Certain it 
is, that the public accept advertisements largely at the 
value and importance attached to them by their owners. 

DRUMMERS AND AGENTS. 

Personal effort exceeds all other means of advertising, 
and competition in many branches of business has be¬ 
come so strong in these times, and the facilities for 
travel so excellent, that larsfe numbers of solicitors and 
agents traverse the country. Giood personal address, a 
thorough understanding of the business, a knowledge 
of human nature, together with social qualities, consti¬ 
tute a good drummer. 

HOW TO WRITE AN ADVERTISEMENT. 

Before writing an advertisement, one should always 
place before his mind what is the most important thing 
to impress upon the public. If he is advertising an 
article of established trade, it is the name and location 
of the house selling it which must be the more promi¬ 
nent, or at least equally so with any other part; but if 
lie be introducing some new article, or seeking to extend 
the sale of something little known or rare, these items 
are of far less importance, and the name of the article 
itself should be more prominent. The advertisement 
should be so constructed as to claim the attention of 
the reader, and retain that attention until he has read 
it through. “ Excite but never satisfy,” is the princi¬ 
ple pursued by many successful advertisers. 

The advertisement should never contain anything 
repugnant to refined taste, and nothing grotesque or 
ridiculous. The most meaning should be condensed 
into the fewest possible words. The wording should 
often be changed, and an attractive typography should 
be used. It is well to choose an attractive heading, 
followed by fairly spaced paragraphs, with appropriate 
sub-heads. 



























ELEMENTS OF SUCCESS IN BUSINESS. 


215 






n order to succeed in business life, it is neces¬ 
sary to cultivate and develop certain qualities 
and traits of character. These are a portion of 
the capital of the successful man, and a more essential 
portion than money or goods. 

HONESTY. 

‘ ‘ Sharp prac¬ 
tice ” may bring 
a temporary gain 
but in the long 
run of life that 
man will be for 
ahead who deals 
squarely and hon¬ 
estly at all times. 

A thoroughly 
honest clerk will 
command a high¬ 
er salary than one 
of equivocal hab¬ 
its, while the 
merchant who 
has a reputation 
for honesty and 
truthfulness in 
regard to the 
quality and value 
of his goods, will 
on this account 
be favored with 
a considerable 
custom. The 
business man 
whose ‘ ‘ word is 


has discounted his future success, by taking an advan¬ 
tage at the cost of ten times its value. 

© 

INDUSTRY. 

No other quality can take the place of this, and no tal¬ 
ents of mind, however excellent, will bring success with¬ 
out labor; persis¬ 
tent, systematic 
labor. The young 
man who expects 
to find somo royal 
road to success 
with little or no 
effort, or who 
imagines that his 


mental abilities 
will compensate 
for a lack of ap¬ 
plication, cheats 
and ruins him¬ 
self. Horace 
Greeley proba¬ 
bly never said a 


grander 


thing 


than this: 

‘ ‘ The saddest 
hour in any man’s 
career is that 
wherein he, for 
the first time fan¬ 
cies there is an 
easier way of 
gaining a dollar 
than by squarely 
earning it,” and 
Horace Greeley 


as good as his bond” can, in any emergency, control 
large amounts of capital, the use of which brings him 
a rich return, while the man who sells his neighbor’s 
good opinion for a temporary gain, will find that he 


COUNSEL AND ADVICE. 

was himself an example of success through industry. 

It is not genius, but the great mass of average peo¬ 
ple, who work, that make the successes in life. Somo 
toil with the brain, and others toil with the hand, but 













































































































































































































ELEMENTS OF SUCCESS IN BUSINESS. 


all must toil. Industry applies to hours in business 
and out of business. It means not only to perform all 
required work promptly, but to occupy spare moments 
usefully, not to idle evenings, and to rise early in the 


morning. 


An employe should not confine himself to his mere 
obligatory duties. He should be ready to work some¬ 
times over hours or in other departments if it is desired 
of him. Willingness to work is one of the finest 
qualities in a character, and will compensate for many 
other deficiencies. 

MEMORY. 

This faculty, always so useful, is pre-eminently so to 
the business man. It must be both retentive and quick. 
By proper training this faculty may be so cultivated 
that names, dates and events to a surprising number 
may be readily recalled. The ability to greet a cus¬ 
tomer by calling him by name is considered very valua¬ 
ble in any class of business. It makes a very agreeable 
impression when a man who has not seen us but once 
or twice, and who is not expecting us, meets' us 
promptly as we enter his store, with, “ Why, Mr. 

-, how do you do? Glad to see you. When did 

you leave Newark?” We feel as if we had occupied 
that man’s thoughts since we saw him before. He 
appreciates us, and we feel like patronizing him. 
Whereas, on the other hand to meet a customer with a 
blank, inquiring expression,and greet him with, “Your 
face is familiar, but I can’t recall your name,” is un¬ 
pleasant and tends to drive away custom. Every hotel 
keeper knows the value of this greeting of customers. 

Facts, figures and dates are very necessary to remem¬ 
ber in business, and these often form the basis of a 
business transaction or venture by which large profits 
are made. Superior ability in remembering prices and 
their fluctuations has been the secret of more than one 
brilliant success. 

Desultory reading injures the memory, 
while close application to a subject, recall¬ 
ing the various points therein, tends greatly 
to improve this faculty. The clerk or em¬ 
ploye in receiving instructions from 
his principal should endeavor to im¬ 
press every point clearly on his mind, 
and retain them there until 
they are carried out in ac¬ 
tion. Carelessness and for¬ 
getfulness of¬ 
ten causes the 
discharge of 
otherwise 




worthy and competent young persons, as employers do 
not like to repeat their orders. 

PROMPTNESS. 

A very essential element in the character of the 
business man is promptness. Filling all engagements 
at exactly the appointed time, answering letters or 
forwarding goods with promptness, the man of busi¬ 
ness finds that much more can be accomplished and 
with far greater accuracy, than by a loose system of 
putting oft’ till tomorrow, or according to convenience. 
Not only so, but competition in business is such that 
the merchant or tradesman who does not deal with 
promptness can hardly expect to hold his custom. 
Young men starting out in the world should form the 
resolution of doing everything on time. Better to be 
ahead in the performance of duties than behind. This 
promptness then acts as a stimulant in itself, and is 
oftentimes the means of winning success in an enter¬ 
prise. 

A thing that is worth the doing, ought to be done 
quickly when the time is ripe for it. A prompt man 
or woman is valued, as he respects his word and has 
due regard for the convenience of others. 

EXECUTIVE ABILITY. 

Wavering, timid and uncertain, the man without 
executive ability never achieves distinction in active 
life. Intelligence to decide on any measure, firmness 
in adhering to the decision, and force of will in carry¬ 
ing it out, constitute executive ability, and are as essen¬ 
tial to the business man as his stock in trade. 

The timid man never makes up his mind until after 
the opportunity is past, or decides, then recalls his de¬ 
cision, and feels incapable of promptly estimating all 
the facts in the case. This weakness is oftentimes nat¬ 
ural, but more frequently it is a bad habit which should 
be broken up. 

Rashness is to decide and act without taking the 
trouble to weigh intelligently the facts in the case. 
This is inexcusable folly, and always brings serious 
trouble sooner or later. 

Through executive ability the labor or services of one 
man may be made to produce largely, or without 
proper direction such services may be almost worthless; 
and in the case of many employes under one executive 
head, the results of this combined labor may be great 
success, or where executive ability is wanting, a great 
failure. 

The successful farmer, merchant, manufacturer, 
banker, and professional man must have this combina¬ 
tion of ability, firmness, and will power. 





































ELEMENTS OF SUCCESS IN BUSINESS. 


217 


PERSEVERANCE. 

Those who put their minds on their work, whatever 
kind that may be, and persist in its thorough execution; 
who get interested in something for their own ad¬ 
vancement, that they may become more capable as 
men and women of sense and tact; such persons have 
a lively appreciation of the fact that success is never 
more certain to be gained by any other course. 

These people have a just pride in 
learning the best methods of giving 
expression to the faculties and powers 
they possess, and which they desire to 
make the most of. It is incumbent 
that they do all in their power for their 
own and other people’s good. Feeling 
this, an ever present incentive keeps 
them employed, and they are never 
idle. 

If one does not succeed from persisting in doing the 
best he knows how, he may conclude that the ministry 
of failure is better for him than any worldly success 
would be. 

CIVILITY. 

Good behavior is an essential element of our civili¬ 
zation. It should be displayed every day through 
courteous acts and becoming manners. 

Politeness is said to be the poetry of conduct; and 
like poetry, it has many qualities. Let not your 
politeness be too florid, but of that gentle kind which 
indicates a refined nature. 

In his relations with others, one should never forget 
his good breeding. It is a general regard for the feel¬ 
ings of others that springs from the absence of all 
selfishness. No one should behave in the presence of 
others as though his own wishes were bound to be 
gratified or his will to control. 

In the more active sphere of business, as in the 
larger localities where there is close competition, the 
small merchant frequently outstrips his 
more powerful rival by one element of 
success, which may be added to any stock 
without cost, but cannot be withheld 
without loss. That element is civility. 

A kind and obliging manner carries with 
it an indescribable charm. It must not 
be a manner that indicates a mean, groveling, time¬ 
serving spirit, but a plain, open, and agreeable de¬ 
meanor that seems to desire to oblige for the pleasure 
of doing so, and not for the sake of squeezing an extra 
penny out of a customer’s purse. 

INTEGRITY. 

The sole reliance of a business man should be in the 







integrity of his transactions, and in the civility of his 
demeanor. He should make it the interest and the 
pleasure of a customer to come to his office or store. 
If he does this, he will form the very best “ connec¬ 
tions,” and so long as he continues this system of 
business, they will never desert him. 

No real business man will take advantage of a 
customer’s ignorance, nor equivocate nor misrepresent. 

If he sells goods, he will have but one 
price and a small profit. He will ere 
long find all the most profitable cus¬ 
tomers—the cash ones—or they will 
find him. 

If such a man is ever deceived in 
business transactions, he will never 
attempt to save himself by putting 
the deception upon others; but sub¬ 
mit to the loss, and be more cautious 
in future. In his business relations, he will stick 
to those whom he finds strictly just in their trans¬ 
actions, and shun all others even at a temporary 
disadvantage. 

The word of a business man should be worth all 
that it expresses and promises, and all engagements 
should be met with punctilious concern. An indiffer¬ 
ent or false policy in business is a serious mistake. It 
is fatal to grasp an advantage at ten times its cost; 
and there is nothing to compensate for the loss of a 
neighbor’s confidence or good will. 

The long-established customs and forms of business, 
which in these times are assumed to be legitimate, 
already have within them enough of the elements 
of peculiarity, commonly termed “tricks of trade,” 
or, in the sense of any particular business, “tricks 
of the trade.” Therefore it does not behoove any 
active man to make gratuitous additions of a peculiar 
nature to the law of business. On the contrarv, all 
should strive to render business transactions less 
peculiar than they are. 

ECONOMY. 

One may rest in the assurance that 
industry and economy will be sure to tell 
in the end. If in early life these habits 
become confirmed, no doubt can exist as 
to the ultimate triumph of the merchant in attaining 
a competency. 

There should be no antagonism between economy 
and a generous business policy. Narrow selfishness is 
to be avoided in the use of money or means. In buy¬ 
ing goods, one should not take advantage of another’s 
necessities to beat him down to a figure which leaves 
him little or no profit, perhaps a loss, because he must 



14 





































ELEMENTS OF SUCCESS IN BUSINESS 


have money. This 
is against man- 
hood and is a ruin 
ous policy,because 
it tends to Pica¬ 
rd yunishness and chicanery. A 
sacred regard for the principles of 
justice forms the basis of every 
transaction, and regulates the con- 
■ duct of the upright man of business. 

If economy is wealth, it is not so be¬ 
cause of a niggardly and parsimonious 
policy. Perhaps the simplest, fewest and 
best rules for economical business are these, 
by observance of which a noted merchant 
amassed a large fortune: 1. Obtain the 
earliest and fullest information possible in regard to 
the matter in hand. 2. Act rapidly and promptly 
upon it. 3. Keep your intentions and means secret. 
4. Secure the best employes you can obtain, find re¬ 
ward them liberally. 

Proprietors of institutions will early discover that 
order, and neatness, are necessary as economical agents 
in prosecuting a successful business. And the youth 
who would grow up to become well-to-do, to gain com¬ 
plete success, to be a valuable member and assume a 
position in society, should take pains to acquire habits 
of cleanliness, of order, and of business. 

To this effect each one may early learn the simple 
rules of health and good order by paying reasonable 
attention to those so-called minor details, which per¬ 
tain to the well-being of the person, and which must 
be faithfully observed in order to avoid failure and win 
success. 

A person, young or old, in or out of business, may 
keep a memorandum-book in his pocket, in which he 
notes every particular relative to appointments, ad¬ 
dresses, and petty cash matters. An accurate account 
of personal expenses should be kept, which should be 
balanced each week. By this means each individual 
will be more careful and economical in his expendi¬ 
tures, and generally live within his income. He must 
be reasonable in spending, or his memorandum or 
record-book, if it be honestly kept, will stand to his 
discredit. 

A well-kept memorandum-book is often very useful, 
as it is very convenient, and sometimes serves to settle 
a troublesome query, arising in other minds, by which 
the possessor is absolved from the prejudice of doubt. 
Young people who expect to labor with their hands 
for what they have of this world’s goods, or rise by 


their own efforts, should by all means acquire habits of 
economy, learn to save, form correct habits, and no 
time will be required overcoming these. So surely as 
they do this, so surely will they be in a situation to ask 
no special favors. Every man wants to learn to look 
out for himself and rely upon himself. Every man 
needs to feel that he is the peer of every other man, 
and he cannot do it if he is penniless. Money is 
power, and those who have it exert a wider influence 
than the destitute. Hence it should be the ambition 
of all young men to acquire it, as well as to store their 
minds with useful knowledge. 

GETTING A SITUATION. 

In seeking a situation, it is always best to appear in 
person if practicable. A business man who requires 
the sendees of a salesman or clerk, a bookkeeper, 
stenographer, or some one to remain in his employ a 
considerable time, usually prefers to see an applicant 
and have a few words with him about the work that is 
to be done. 

If an application has to be made by letter, it should 
be done in the handwriting of the applicant. It may 
be brief, and should include references. 

It is best for a young man to learn a trade. In this 
country the trades offer more stable means of subsis¬ 
tence than do other departments of active life. His 
knowledge of a trade will form no bar to any effort he 
may afterward make to rise to a higher or more con¬ 
genial callino-. 

When a position has been obtained by an applicant, 
he should at once proceed to render himself indispen¬ 
sable to his employer by following up the details of his 
work in a conscientious and agreeable manner. Thus 
he will gain confidence and grow in favor with men 
who are quick to recognize merit, and who respond to 
that which contributes to the success 
of a meritorious man. 

There is always room in every bus¬ 
iness for an honest, hard-worker. It 
will not do to presume otherwise; 
nor should one sit down to grumble 
or concoct mischief. . The most per¬ 
ilous hour of one’s life is when he 
is tempted to despond. He who loses 
his courage loses all. There are men 
in the world who would rather work 
than be idle at the same price. 

Imitate them. Success is not far 
off. An honorable and happy life 
is before you. Lay hold of it. 


j 

i 











































DIFFERENCE OF TIME 


< 9 ® 






SHOWING THE TIME IN VARIOUS PARTS OF THE WORLD WHEN IT IS NOON AT 


WASHINGTON, D. C. 


Louisville.11.26 

Macon, Ga.11.37 

Melbourne, Aus.2.48 

Memphis, Tenn.11.08 

Meridian, Miss.11.14 

Mexico 5 .10.32 

Milwaukee.11.16 

Minneapolis, Minn_10.55 

Mobile, Ala.11.16 

Monoton, N. B.12.48 

Montreal, Can.12.14 

Moscow, Russia.7.3S 

Nashville, Tenn.11.21 

New Orleans.11.08 

New York.12.12 

Omaha, Neb.10.44 

Ottawa, Can.12.05 

Panama, S. A.11.50 

Paris, France.5.17 

Pensacola, Fla.11.19 

Philadelphia.12.07 

P ittsburgh, Pa.11.48 

Port Huron, Mich.11.34 

Portland, Me.12.27 

Portland, Oregon.8.56 

Portsmouth, Ya.12.03 

Providence, R. 1.12.22 

Quebec, Can.12.23 

Quincy, Ill.11.07 

Raleigh, N.C.11.50 

Richmond, Ya.11.58 

Rio Janerio, Brazil_2.15 

Rome, Italy.5.58 

Rome, Ga.11.32 

San Francisco. 8.58 

Salt Lake City. 9.40 

Savannah, Ga.11.44 

Selma, Ala.11.20 

Sioux City, Iowa.10.42 

St.John, N. B.12.44 

St. Johns, N.F.1.37 

St. Joseph, Mo.10.50 

St. Louis.11.07 

St. Paul, Minn.10.56 

Terre Haute, Ind.11.18 

Toronto, Can...11.51 

Vera Cruz.10.43 

Vicksburg, Miss.11.05 

Virginia City, M. T... 9.40 

Wheeling, W. Va.11.45 

Wilmington, N. C.11.58 

Yankton, Dak. Ter... .10.38 


A.M. 


P.M. 

u 


A.M. 

44 

P.M. 

A.M. 

P.M. 

A.M. 

P.M. 

A.M. 

P.M. 

A.M. 

P.M. 

A.M. 

P.M. 


A.M. 


P.M. 

u 

A.M. 

44 

44 

44 


P.M. 

44 

A.M. 

44 


A.M. 


Alaska. 7.23 A.M. 

Albany.12.13 p.m. 

Amsterdam,Holland. 2.58 “ 

Angra, India.3.19 “ 

Atchison, Kas.10.47 a.m. 

Athens, Greece.6.43 p.m. 

Atlanta, Ga.11.40 am. 

Augusta, Me.12.29 p.m. 

Baltimore.12.02 k ‘ 

Bath, Me.12.29 “ 

Berlin, Germany.6.02 “ 

Bombay, India.10.00 “ 

Boston.12.24 “ 

Brussels, Belgium_5.25 “ 

Buffalo, N. Y.11.52 a.m. 

Cape Town, Africa.. 6.22 p.m. 

Cairo, Egypt. 7.13 “ 

Calcutta, India.11.01 “ 

Canton, China.12.41 a.m. 

Cambridge, Mass. .. .12.29 p.m. 

Charleston, S. C.11.43 a.m, 

Chicago..11.17 “ 

Cincinnati.11.30 k * 

Cleveland, 0.11.41 “ 

Columbia, S. C.11.44 “ 

Constantinople.7.04 p.m. 

Danville, Va..11.50 a.m. 

Denver, Colo.10.08 “ 

Des Moines, Iowa... .10.53 “ 

Detroit, Mich.•. .11.36 “ 

Dubuque, Iowa.11.05 “ 

Dublin, Ireland. 4.43 p.m. 

Edinburgh, Scotland. 4.55 “ 


Galveston, Texas_10.49 a.m. 

Halifax, N. S.12.54 p.m. 

Hamilton, Ont.11.49 a.m. 

Hannibal, Mo.11.07 “ 

Hartford, Conn.12.17 p.m. 

Havana, Cuba.11.38 a.m. 

Houston, Tex.10.44 “ 

Indianapolis.11.24 l ' 

Jacksonville, Ill.11.07 “ 

Jefferson City, Mo.. .10.59 u 

Kalama, Wash. Ter... 8.58 “ 

Kansas City, Mo.10.49 “ 

Key West, Fla.11.41 “ 

Knoxville, Tenn.11.32 “ 

Laramie, Wy. Ter... .10.12 “ 

Leavenworth, Kas... .10.49 “ 

v Lisbon, Portugal-4.31 p.m. 

) Lincoln, Neb.10.41 a.m. 

' Little Rock, Ark.10.59 “ 

) London, Eng.5.08 p.m. 






























































































































































































































































For the Business Man. 



--»>oo^=>o^o-O-- 



oyeenment, a subject deeply interwoven with 
the happiness and comforts of the human 
II race, has been that arrangement over which 
^ wisdom has always had the least control. 
Most governments are founded on usurped power, and 
are results of pride and self-interest. For the most 
part, they have arisen from military conquest, or some 
accidental ascendency, during- an insurrectionary move¬ 
ment ; and the rule 
of government has, 
in consequence, been 
the will of a leader 
on one side, and ab¬ 
ject submission of 
the rest of the com¬ 
munity on the other. 

No check on power 
has existed but in 
the forbearance or 
idleness of the ruler, 
or in the scruples of 
his agents; and, if 
checks have been in¬ 
troduced, they have 
been either mere 
concessions of pol¬ 
icy, or have been 
rendered inefficient 
by colorable forms, 
or by various sinis¬ 
ter and counteract¬ 
ing- influences. 

o 

Law, in its general sense, signifies a rule of social 
conduct, which superior authority has dictated, and 
which the separate members of the community are 
bound to obey. The law of nature is a principle of 
self-love, or the individual pursuit of happiness. The 
law, in practice, however, is the primary and chief 


UNITED STATES SUPREME COURT IN SESSION. 


cause of half the miseries of human life, owing to the 
chicanery of it professors. 

STATUTE AND COMMON LAW. 

Business is regulated by forms of law, whether stat¬ 
ute or common. 

Statute is an act of the legislature, whether state or 
national. It is the written law of the land. Statutes 

are either public or 


private—the former 
a universal rule that 
regards the whole 
community, the lat¬ 
ter only affecting 1 
particular persons or 
private concerns. 

Statutes are also 
sometimes described 
as declaratory, or 
penal, or remedial, 
according to the dif¬ 
ferent nature of their 
object or provisions. 
Statutes are to be 
construed, not ac¬ 
cording to their 
mere letter, but the 
intent and object 
with which they 
were made. It is 
also an established 
rule that remedial 
statutes are to be more liberally, and penal more 
strictly construed. 


The common law is grounded on the general customs 
of England, and includes in it the law of nature, the 
law of God, the principles and maxims of the law, and 
the decisions of the superior courts, which are founded 






























































































































































































































LAW AND LEGAL FOIIMS. 


221 


thereon; and is said to be the perfection of reason, 
acquired by long study, observation, and experience, 
and refined by learned men in all ages. It overrides 
the canon and civil law, where they go beyond, or are 
inconsistent with it. 

In the illustration on the preceding page, it will be 
seen that there are nine justices, or one chief justice 


and eight associate justices. At its first session in 
1790, the Supreme Court of the United States con¬ 
sisted of a chief justice and five associates. In 1807 
the number of associate justices was increased to six; 
in 1837 it was increased to eight; and in 1863, to nine; 
in 1865 was decreased to eight, then to seven in 1867, 
and ag-ain increased to eight in 1870. 

C C 




% 


.INFANTS IN LAW. 





JB 


eginning with infancy or youth, all persons 
are infants in law until they are of legal age 
—twenty-one years; or eighteen years, as 


regards women in some states. 


People generally may bind themselves by contracts, 
but some are incapacitated from being under guardian¬ 
ship, or from other causes, such as insanity, alienage in 
time of war, infancy and marriage. 

A person under age—an infant—can neither sell his 
lands, nor do any legal act, nor make a deed, nor, 
indeed, any manner of contract that will bind him; 
but to these rules there are some exceptions. Infants 
have thus various privileges and various disabilities; 
but their very disabilities are privileges, in order to 
secure them from hurting themselves by their own 
improvident acts. 

The learned Judge Story has said that the “ Human 
life is divided into four periods, each of which is a mul¬ 
tiple of seven.” “ Natural infancy ends at seven years; 
puberty begins at fourteen; legal infancy ends at 
twenty-one years; and the natural life of man is three 
score years and ten.” The law does not take any cogni¬ 
zance of the acts of natural infants, either criminal or 
civil. An infant may be punished for crime after its 
seventh year. The contracts made after that age are 
said to be voidable until the end of legal infancy. The 
contracts of infants are said to be divided into three 
classes, those that are void, those that are voidable, and 
those that are binding. It is clear and well settled in 
law that all contracts made by an infant which would 
be prejudicial to his interests would be absolutely void; 
it is also clear that such contracts as might be to his 
benefit would be voidable on his part. But as to the 
contracts made by infants, which are for necessities, 
and are called binding contracts, it is so clearly defined. 
The principle on which the law seeks to throw the 
strong arm of protection around the inftmt is, that from 
his tender years and inexperience he is incapable of 



guarding against the subtlety and artifice of those who 
have had more experience in business and whose minds 
are matured. It is true that an infant has as much 
right to live as an adult. It is, also, true, that if the 
infant is not provided with a protector through whom 
he may be furnished with the necessities of life and is 
not allowed to procure them, it would be impossible 
for him to live, and as business men would not long 
continue to furnish these things without some legal 
means of getting a compensation, the law would, 
justly, compel the infant, after he had arrived at the 
age of maturity, to give an equivalent for the neces¬ 
saries furnished him during infancy. But the law 
would not in any way recognize the contract made by 
the infant, but would carefully investigate all of the 
circumstances, and would then make a contract for the 
infant, or imply that the estate of the infant should be 
held for such price as the necessaries were absolutely 
worth at the time they were furnished to him, and not 
necessarily at the price charged. If an infant should 
purchase clothing, at a price fixed, or should contract 
to pay a certain price per week or month for board, 
though the agreement be reduced to writing, as a 
promissory note, the law would not enforce the con¬ 
tract, but would allow the person who had furnished 
the clothing, or who had boarded the infant, a reason¬ 
able price, not on account of an existing contract, but 
because the infant must live. An adult would be 
bound by a contract made with an infant as though he 
had made it with a person competent to make binding 
contracts. When we say that a contract with an infant 
is absolutely void, we have reference to the infant, and 
not to the party who was competent. The law relat¬ 
ing to infants, is wholly for their benefit and protec¬ 
tion. If A, an adult, should sell to B, an infant, a 
horse, which was to be paid for at a day in the future, /' ' 
and B, the infant, should use the horse in such a way vX, 
as to injure him and render him valueless, A could not 








































LAW AND LEGAL FORMS. 


recover from B anything for the horse. But if A, the 
adult, should sell to B, the infant, a horse for Cash, and 
B should afterward wish to return the horse, he would 
have a right to do so, and A would be compelled to 
return the purchase price to B, notwithstanding the 
horse was useless. 

An infant is responsible for frauds or misrepresenta¬ 
tions. If he should induce others to let him have 
goods through false statements he would be held 
responsible the same as an adult under like circum¬ 
stances. The protection of the infant is the object 
sought by the law, and not to shield him against his 
wrong doings. 




•W- 




v 




TRUSTS. 





rusts are generally either to protect the interests 
of married women and children, by placing in 
the hands of trustees 
for them the legal 
rights which they would 
be incapable of exercis¬ 
ing, or to secure the rights 
of those in remainder, by 
severing from the use of 
property for a life the 
power of disposing of the 
whole. The estate of the 
trustee is at law subject 
to all the incidents which 
attend the ownership of 
land, and is usually 
called the trust estate, in 
contradistinction to the legal estate. 

Frequently trusts involve the sale or purchase of 
lands or other property, the investment of funds, etc., 
in which cases the trustee has to exercise due caution, 
or he may be rendered liable for any loss that may 
arise. 

DEED OF TRUST FOR THE BENEFIT OF A MARRIED WOMAN. 

This Indenture, made this second day of December, in the year 
of our Lortl one thousand eight hundred and eighty-four, between 
William Thorniley, of Marietta, County of Washington, and State 
of Ohio, of the one part; and James C. West, of said Marietta, of 
the other part: Witnesseth, that the said William Thorniley, for 
and in consideration of the sum of one hundred dollars, to him in 
hand paid by the said James C. West, for the uses and upon the 
trusts hereinafter mentioned, at and before the ensealing and deliv¬ 
ery hereof, the receipt whereof he does hereby acknowledge, has 
granted, bargained, sold, aliened, enfeoffed, released and confirmed, 
and by these presents doth grant, bargain, sell, alien, enfeoff, release 
and confirm unto the said James C. West, his heirs and assigns 




THE CAPITOL, AT WASHINGTON 


forever, all that certain piece or parcel of land, situate, etc. (describe 
premises ), together with all and singular the buildings and improve¬ 
ments to the same belonging, or in anywise appertaining, and the 
revisions and remainders, rents, issues, and profits thereof. To 
have and to hold the said piece or parcel of land, with appurte¬ 
nances, hereby granted or intended so to be, unto the said James 
C. West, his heirs and assigns forever: In trust nevertheless, 
and for the uses following, and none other, that is to say, for the sole 
and separate use of Adeline West, the wife of James C. West, of 
Marietta, County and State aforesaid, for and during her natural 
life, and so as she alone, or such person as she shall appoint, shall 
take and receive the rents, issues and profits thereof, and so as her 
said husband shall not in anywise intermeddle therewith; and, from 
and after the decease of the said Adeline West, in trust for the use 
of the heirs of the body of the said Adeline West, by the said 
James C. West begotten, or to be begotten, forever, with power to 
the said James C. West, to sell and convey, in fee simple, the whole 
or any part, of the aforesaid premises and appurtenances to any 
person or persons, and for such sum or sums of money, as the said 
Adeline West, by writing under her hand and seal, and duly 
acknowledged at any time during her natural life, may appoint 
and direct ; and the said William Thorniley, for himself, his heirs, 
executors, and administrators, doth covenant and agree, to and 
with, the said James C. West, his heirs and assigns, by these pres¬ 
ents, that he, the said William Thorniley, and his heirs, the said 
above-mentioned and described piece or parcel of land, with the 

appurtenances, unto the said 
James C. West, his heirs and 
assigns, against him, the said 
William Thorniley, and his 
heirs, and against all and every 
other person and persons whom¬ 
soever, lawfully claiming or to 
claim the same, or any part 
thereof, shall and will warrant 
and forever defend by these 
presents. 


Signed and sealed this second 
day of December, A. D. 1884. 

WILLIAM THORNILEY. [Seal.] 

Witness: 

John Doe. 

Ciias. Roe. 




-< o ’ j) 


Agreement and Assent. !p 


A greement is where a promise is made on one side, 
and assented to on the other; or where tw r o or more 
L persons enter into engagement with each other, by 
a promise on either side. If such contract is by deed, 
it is called either a contract by deed or a contract by 
specialty; if not by deed, a parol or simple contract. 
The latter may be either written or verbal. An agree¬ 
ment is void if there be no consideration for it, or it be 
against public policy or morality, and is voidable if 
obtained by fraud, force, or misrepresentation. 

Every contract or agreement should be written, and 
signed by the parties concerned. It is best to have 
such papers witnessed, and everything agreed upon 


cl 






















































LAW AND LEGAL FORMS. 


223 


should be written out plainly. It is important 
to say just what is meant and all that is meant, 
and no more, since no oral testimony has 
weight in connection with a written agree¬ 
ment, unless fraud can be proved. 





^ CONSIDERATION. 

+ - -- M - »* - * 


✓consideration is the material cause of a contract, 
l without which it cannot bind the party. The 
> consideration is either expressed or implied. The 
latter is when the law itself enforces a consideration; 
as, if a man goes into a hotel or inn, and staying there 
some time, takes meat or lodging either for him¬ 
self or his horse, the law presumes he intends to pay 
for both, notwithstanding there is no actual bargain or 
contract between him and his host. Also, there is a 
consideration of nature and blood, and a valuable con¬ 
sideration ; and hence, if a man be indebted to divers 
others, and, in consideration of natural affection, gives 
his goods or estate to his son, this is a fraudu¬ 
lent gift as against the creditors (unless it be 
upon, or in consideration of, his marriage), be¬ 
cause this act intends a valuable consideration. 


full sum of one thousand dollars, on the first day of Janu¬ 
ary, which will be in the year one thousand eight hundred 
and ninety-two, and interest thereon at the rate of six per 
cent per annum, payable semi-annually on the first days 
of January and July in each year; And it is hereby expressly 
agreed, that should any default be made in the payment of 
the said interest or any part thereof, on any day whereon 
the same is made payable as above expressed, and should 
the same remain unpaid and in arrear for the space of thirty days, 
then and from thenceforth, that is to say, after the lapse of the said 
thirty days, the aforesaid principal sum of one thousand dollars, 
with all arrearage of interest thereon, shall, at the option of the said 
Albert Roe, become and be due and payable immediately there¬ 
after, although the period above limited for the payment thereof 
may not then have expired, anything herein before contained to the 
contrary thereof in anywise notwithstanding, then this obligation to 
be void; otherwise to remain in full force and virtue. 

Sealed and delivered in the presence of JOHN DOE. [seal.] 

John Cunningham, ) 

James Daniel. C 



*«— 



a written promise that is made, with a seal, 
by one person in favor of another—a kind 
/ of contract—is in veryextensive use, being 
adopted in a great variety of cases, where the object is 
to obtain security for the payment of money, or the 
performance of any other act. There is generally a 
condition added to a bond, that if the obligor does 
some particular act, the obligation shall be void, or else 
shall remain in full force. 

FORM OF BOND. 

Know all Men by these Presents, That I, John Doe, of the County 
of Cook, and State of Illinois, am held and firmly bound unto Albert 
Roe, of Philadelphia, Penn., in the sum of one thousand dollars, good 
and lawful money of the United States of America, to be paid to the 
said Albert Roe, or to his certain attorney, executors, administrators, 
or assigns; for which payment, well and truly to be made, I do bind 
myself, and my heirs, executors, and administrators, jointly and 
severally, firmly by these presents. 

Sealed with my seal, and dated this first day of January, in the 
year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and eighty-eight. 

The Condition of this Obligation is such, that if the above bounden 
John Doe, his heirs, executors, and administrators, or any of them, 
shall well and truly pay, or cause to be paid, unto the above named 
Albert Roe, his executors, administrators, or assigns, the just and 



r\ ssignment is the transferring in writing and setting 
over to another of some right, title, or interest. 
\ The one making the assignment is called the 
assignor, and the one to whom the assignment 
is made is called the assignee. Every species 
of property, real or personal, is assignable. 
An assignee is not required to show that he 
gave any valuable consideration for the assign¬ 
ment. 

An assignment by a debtor for the benefit 
of his creditors must be an unconditional sur¬ 
render of all his effects. If he should hold 
back any property, such withholding would be 
fraudulent. An insolvent debtor has the right 
to prefer one creditor to the exclusion of all 
others, if such preference be in good faith. When¬ 
ever an assignment is made for the benefit of creditors, 
it must be accompanied by immediate possession of 
the property assigned. 

ASSIGNMENT OF DEMAND FOR WAGES OR DEBT. 

In Consideration of fifty dollars to me in hand paid by Albert 
Roe, of the city of Cleveland, the receipt whereof is hereby 
acknowledged, I, John Doe, of the same place, have sold, and 
by these presents do sell, assign, transfer and set over, unto the 
said Albert Roe, a certain debt due from James Kline, amounting 
to the sum of seventy-five dollars, for work, labor and services 
by me performed for the said James Kline (or for goods sold and 
delivered to the said James Kline), with full power to sue for, collect, 
and discharge, or sell and assign the same in my name or otherwise, 
but at his own cost and charges; and I do hereby covenant that the 
said sum of seventy-five dollars is justly due as aforesaid, and that I 
have not done, and will not do, any act to hinder or prevent the 
collection of the same by the said Albert Roe. 

Witness my hand, this Jan. 10, 1884. 

JOHN DOE. 



















































224 


LAW AND LEGAL FORMS. 


ASSIGNMENT BOND. 

For value received , I hereby assign, transfer, and set over to 
John Doe, the within obligation, hereby guarantying payment 
thereof. 

Witness: CHAS. ROE. 

John Bkown. 





--0C 


n 


BILL OF SALE^)®s 

?— 'Xq ' ^ * 



"gU - 9 



yr bill of sale is an instrument under seal, which passes 
U the right and property in chattels from one to 
\ another; and, being under seal, and therefore a 
solemn contract, the seller cannot, as he might in 
the case of a mere verbal contract, show that it was 
made without good or valuable consideration, and 
that, therefore, in law, the property did not pass, and 
no action can be maintained to recover it. If the 
original owner retains possession of the property con¬ 
trary to the purport of his assignment, such act enti¬ 
tles the creditors of the original owner to impeach the 
transaction. The sale is made when the agreement is 
made. 



Stoppage in Transitu 





s a right which a vendor has of resuming pos¬ 
session of goods sold on credit to another, 

while the "oods are in the hands of a middle- 
© 

man or carrier. 

This right may be exercised where the vendee or 
consignee has become insolvent after the goods have 
been forwarded, and before they have reached the ven¬ 
dee or consignee. 

O 

The vendor would also have the right, if he should 
learn of the financial embarrassment of the vendee, or 
that he has in a material manner misrepresented his 
circumstances or his ability to pay. There must, in 
order to give the right, be an indebtedness on the 
identical goods about to be stopped; other indebtedness 
will not give the right. 

The right may be exercised at any time after the 
goods have left the hands of the vendor, and before they 
come into the possession of the vendee. 

If a vendee should transfer the goods to another 
person by indorsing the bill of lading, while the goods 
are yet in transit, the vendor’s right would be gone. 

The vendor’s right of stoppage is paramount to the 
middle-man’s right of lien, for such charges as he may 
have on the goods. When exercised in time the ven- 


FORM OF BILE OF SALE. 

Knoiv all Men by these Presents, That we, John Doe and 
Charles Roe, of the city of Chicago, in the County of Cook and 
State of Illinois, parties of the first part, for and in consideration 
of the sum of two thousand dollars, lawful money of the United 
States of America, to us in hand paid, at or before the ensealing 
and delivery of these presents, by John W. Brown, of the same 
place, of the second part, the receipt whereof is hereby acknowl¬ 
edged, have granted, bargained, sold, and delivered, and, by these 
presents, do grant, bargain, sell, and deliver, unto the said parties 
of the second part, all the following goods, chattels, and property, 
to wit: (Here enumerate all the goods to he transferred.) 

To Have and to Mold the said goods, chattels, and property 
unto the said party of the second part, his heirs, executors, admin¬ 
istrators, and assigns, to and for his own proper use and behoof, 
forever. 

And the said parties of the first part do vouch for ourselves to 
be true and lawful owners of the said goods, chattels, and property, 
and have in our full power, good right, and lawful authority, to 
dispose of the said goods, chattels, and property, in manner as 
aforesaid: And we do, for ourselves, heirs, executors, and admin¬ 
istrators, covenant and agree to and with the said party of the 
second part, to warrant and defend the said goods, chattels, 
and property to the said party of the second part, his executors, 
administrators, and assigns, against the lawful claims and demands 
of all and every person and persons whomsoever. 

In ivitness whereof, we have hereunto set our hands and 
seals, the first day of January, in the year one thousand eight hun¬ 
dred and eighty-four. 

Sealed and delivered in presence of JOHN" DOE, [Neak] 

John Russell. CHARLES ROE, [Seak] 


dor’s right has a precedence over all other claims. 

The right may be exercised by merely giving notice 
to the immediate middle-man or carrier, after which 
notice, the vendor’s claim is fully established, notwith¬ 
standing the fact that the goods are afterwards deliv¬ 
ered to the consignee or vendee. 

After the goods have been stopped by the vendor, 
the vendee would have the right to tender to the ven¬ 
dor the amount remaining unpaid on the goods and 
demand them, as the ownership still resides in the 
vendee; but if the vendee should not avail himself of 
the right to pay for and take the goods, the vendor 
may then sell the goods to satisfy his claim, and if they 
should not sell for enough to pay his claim, he would 
still have recourse to the vendee for the balance; but, 
if on the contrary, the goods should bring more than 
his claim, such overplus must be paid to the vendee. 

The right of stoppage does not in any way annul the 
contract, and therefore the vendee or his assigns may 
recover the goods on the payment of the amount due 
the vendor on the goods. When the goods have 
reached the possession of the vendee, the right of stop¬ 
page by the vendor has ceased. 
























































LAW AND LEGAL FORMS 


^ GUARANTY. $*> 

—<r^gg^s— 

guaranty is defined to be an un¬ 
dertaking to answer for the payment 
of some debt, or the performance of 
some duty in case of default of another per¬ 
son. From this definition it will be seen that there are 
three parties to the contract, Principal Debtor, Cred¬ 
itor, and Guarantor. 

The principal debtor is the party for whom the guar¬ 
anty is made, the creditor is the one to whom the 
guaranty is made, the guarantor the one who makes 
the conditional obligation to become responsible in case 
of the failure of the principal debtor. 

The guarantor is only bound by his contract after an 
acceptance and a notice of such acceptance by the 
creditor. The contract of guaranty, like other con¬ 
tracts, must be supported by a proper consideration, 
but it is not necessary that the consideration should 
move directly to the guarantor. It would be held suf¬ 
ficient if the one for whom the guaranty is made 
receives a benefit, or, the one to whom the guaranty is 
given suffers an injury or inconvenience. 

A contract of guaranty must be in writing, and 
signed by the guarantor. If one person should say to 
another, “ If you will let this person have goods to 
the amount of twenty dollars, I will see that he pays 
for them,” the contract would be one of guaranty, and 
would not be binding unless reduced to writing. 

Where a guarantor pays the debt of his principal, he 
has the right to demand from the creditor such securi- 
ties as he may have in his possession belonging to the 
debtor, and frequently the creditor cannot compel the 
guarantor to pay the debt which he has guarantied 
until after recourse has been had to such property as 
the creditor may have had in his possession as security, 
belonging to the debtor. 

FORMS OF GUARANTY. 

GUARANTY TO BE WRITTEN ON A NOTE. 

For value received , I guaranty payment on the within note. 

January 8,1884. JOHN DOE. 

LETTER OF GUARANTY. 

New Orleans, La., Jan. 4, 1884. 

John Doe, Esq., Memphis, Tenn. : 

Sir :—If you will sell to Mr. D. M. Ray, of this 
city, the articles he may wish to purchase, to the amount of one 
thousand dollars, I, for value received, hereby promise and guar¬ 
anty that the price thereof shall be duly paid. 

Respectfully. 

RICHARD ROE. 




—® 



FRAUD 



includes all deceitful practices in defraud¬ 
ing, or endeavoring to defraud, another 
of his known right, by means of some 
artful device, contrary to the plain rule of 
common honesty. It is condemned by the 
common la tv, and punishable according to 
the heinousness of the offense. All frauds 
and deceits for which there is no rem¬ 
edy by the ordinary course of law are 
properly cognizable in equity, and, indeed, 
constituted one of the chief branches of cases to which 
the jurisdiction of chancery was originally confined. 
Whenever fraud or surprise can be imputed to or col¬ 
lected from the circumstances, equity will interpose 
and grant relief against it. It would be impossible to 
lay down any general rules that would be applicable to 
all kinds of fraud, as they are innumerable and ever 
varying, the ingenuity of man ever finding out new 
modes of deceit and new means of avoiding detection. 
A fraudulent conveyance of lands or goods to deceive 
creditors, is, as to creditors, void in law,and a fraudulent 
contract to deceive purchasers is also to such purchasers 
void. Where a person is party to a fraud, all that follows 
by reason of that fraud shall be said to be done by him. 
If a person be fraudulently prevented from doing an act, 
equity will consider the act as done. In treaties, con¬ 
cealment of a material fact by one of the parties, in 
order to keep the other in ignorance, whereby to profit, 
is a gross fraud, and the contract will be set aside in 
equity. There can be no fraud concerning things 
either within one’s own knowledge, or to which one 
has adequate means of knowledge. 


^Payment and Tender.^ 

P ayment is the discharge of a debt 
by a delivery of the amount due; 
and this is, of course, the most 
direct and proper discharge of it, 
and the most complete defense against 
any claim founded upon it. The party 
entitled to receive the money may give 
notice that the payment must be made 
directly to himself, and then no other 
payment discharges the debt; but with¬ 
out such notice the payment may be 
made m the ordinary course of business 
to his general agent or attorney. 

















































2 26 


LAW AND LEGAL FORMS. 


Tender, in a general sense, is an oiler to perform 
some act. In law, it is an offer to pay a debt, or to 
make pecuniary compensation to a party injured. A 
tender, in order to be valid, must be made in money, 
which must be shown to the eye. The offer must be 
absolute, without any conditions; for even the offer 
with the request of a receipt, or of a larger amount 
with the request of change, is not legal; but the offer 
of a larger sum absolutely, without a request of change, 


is good. 


£ 


RELEASE. 


£ 


ir release is a discharge of a right, which may be either 
§\ in lands or tenements, or of actions, or things per¬ 
il sonal. The former is a conveyance of a man’s right 
in lands or tenements to another that has some vested 
estate in the lands. The person who quits or renounces 
the right is the releasor; he in whose favor the right is 
renounced is the releasee; while the operative 
words of the deed are “remit, release, re¬ 
nounce, and forever quit claim.” A release 
always gives up some right, claim or interest 
which the releasor had against the releasee. It 
partakes of the nature of a contract, which 
cannot be governed or changed by evidence 
excepting in case of fraud. 

It being in the nature of a contract, must 
necessarily be supported by a valid consid¬ 
eration and would be inoperative without it. 

A release must be in writing and under seal, 
which implies a consideration, but it is 
always well to mention the consideration, 
as evidence might be admitted to show that 
the release had been obtained without con¬ 
sideration. When a release has been prop¬ 
erly drawn, signed, and delivered it will 
operate as a complete defense to an action 
grounded on any of the claims or debts 
released. 

GENERAL RELEASE OF ALL DEMANDS. 

Know oil Men by these Presents, That I, 

George Soule, of the City of New Orleans, State of 
Louisiana, as well for and in consideration of the sum 
of one hundred dollars to me in hand paid, by T. A. 

Leddin, of the same place, at and before the ensealing 
and delivery hereof, the receipt whereof I do hereby 
acknowledge, as for divers other good causes and val¬ 
uable considerations to me thereto specially moving, 
have remised, released, quit claimed, and forever dis¬ 
charged, and by these presents, for me, my heirs, exec¬ 
utors, administrators, do remise, release, cpiit claim, 
and forever discharge, the said T. A. Leddin, his heirs, 
executors, and administrators, and each and every of 


them, of and from all and all manner of action and actions, suits, cause 
and causes of action and actions, suits, debts, dues, duties, sum and 
sums of money, accounts, reckonings, bonds, bills, specialties, cove- 
enants, contracts, arguments, premises, variances, damages, judg¬ 
ments, extents, executions, claims, and demands whatsoever, in law, 
equity, or otherwise whatsoever which against the said T. A. Led¬ 
din I ever had, now have, or which I, my heirs, executors, and ad¬ 
ministrators hereafter, can, shall, or may have, for, upon, or by 
reason of any matter, cause or thing, whatsoever, from the begin¬ 
ning of the world to the day of the date of these presents. 

In Witness Whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and seal, 
this second day of December, in the year one thousand eight hun¬ 
dred and eighty-four. 

Signed, sealed, and delivered'] GEORGE SOULE. [»S'e«Z.] 

in presence of I 

Wm. Block, 

Amos Green. J 

SHORT FORM OF GENERAL RELEASE. 

Knoiv all Men by these Presents, That I, John Doe, of 
Chicago, County of Cook, and State of Illinois, for and in consid¬ 
eration of the sum of two hundred dollars, to me in hand paid, by 
Chas. Roe, of the same place, have remised, released, and forever 
discharged the said Chas. Roe from all claims of whatsoever kind, 
nature, or character, against him, from the beginning of the world 
to this day. As Witness my hand and seal this second day of 
December, in the year one thousand eight hundred 
7 and eighty-four. 




v 


Signed, sealed, and delivered' 
in presence of 
Wm. Block, 

Amos Green. 


JOHN DOE. [•-S'ertA] 



C'Cl 




.• 

w 



s \ 




AGENCY. 

gency is the relation existing between 
two or more persons, by which one 
party known as the principal em¬ 
ploys another party known as an agent to do 
certain acts in relation to the principal’s 
property. The authority exercised by the 
agent is usually in the name and for the ben¬ 
efit ot the principal. The agent’s power mav 
be constituted either by express appoint¬ 
ment, verbal or in writing, or by implication 
of law, arising from the circumstances in 
which the parties are placed. When the 
authority is given by a written instrument, 
this instrument is called a Power of Attorney. 

An agent is not required to be a person 
able to make a contract on his own account. 
Minors, married women and aliens are com¬ 
petent to act as agents, as the}’ are not called 
upon to act upon their own responsibility, 
but where an infant acts as agent, he would 
only be personally liable for torts committed 
by him, but the principal would be held for 
his acts as though he were an adult. 






































LAW AND LEGAL FORMS. 



The relation of agency supposes that there are 
three parties, who may be directly or indirectly 
interested in business relations that flow 
through the agency; the first of these par¬ 
ties would be the principal, or the one authorizing 
acts to be done; the second would be the one 
authorized to do the acts, or the agent, and the 
third party is the one who through the acts of the 
agent is brought into relation with the principal. 

From the above it would necessarily follow that the 
relation of principal and agent, as between themselves, 
can only be brought about through the principal’s dele¬ 
gating authority to the ageut, which is assented to by 
the agent; this authority from the principal to the 
agent may be expressed either in words spoken or by 
written instructions from the principal and assented to 
by the agent, or the agent’s authority may be implied 
through the contract of the principal and the agent. 
If an agent is authorized to make contracts for his 
principal, which the law requires to be in writing and 
under seal, the agent’s authority must also be given 
under a sealed instrument. 

An agency is termed to be either general or special. 
A general agency is defined to be a power exercised by 
a general agent, and a general agent is one who is 
clothed with discretionary authority in relation to the 
principal’s business about which the agent is appointed. 
A general agent may bind his principal so long as lie 
keeps within the general scope of the business he was 
authorized to transact, notwithstanding that he may 
have grossly disobeyed instructions given by his prin¬ 
cipal, providing the party with whom he was dealing 
did not know that the a^ent was exceeding: or violating- 
his authority. A special agency is defined to be a 
power exercised by a special agent, and a special agent 
is one who is not permitted to exercise discretionary 
authority, but must follow the specific instructions 
given by the principal. A principal would be bound, 
only so long as the special agent keeps 
within the special limits of his authority. 
Persons having dealings with a special 
agent are required, at their own peril, to 
know the extent of such agent’s authority. 

ATI agents are required to obey instruc¬ 
tions as long as the instructions are legal, 
but if illegal, they may be disobeyed with 
impunity. Instructions may also be disre¬ 
garded in case of extreme necessity or 
unforeseen emergencies. In the absence 
«of instructions the agent would be re- 
quired to follow the customary course of 




business. He is to exercise such skill as persons of 
common capacity would when similarly employed, and 
the same degree of diligence that persons of ordinary 
prudence are accustomed to use about their own affairs. 
The agent is required to keep his principal fully in¬ 
formed in relation to all the important affairs connected 
with the agency, and is also required to keep correct 
accounts and be able at all times to render just and 
true statements without concealment or overcharge. 
It is his duty, if removed from the principal, to deposit 
in a bank, in the principal’s name, any money belong¬ 
ing to the principal. 

If an agent should exceed his authority, the party 
with whom he was dealing could make the agent 
responsible on the entire contract, notwithstanding 
that a portion of it was within the limits of his 
authority. Where one without authority acts as agent, 
he would be personally responsible. If a principal has 
intrusted goods to an agent who should sell them with¬ 
out authority, the principal would have the right to 
either ratify the sale and sue the purchaser for the 
price, or disaffirm the contract and repossess the goods 
from the buyer. 

Payment made to an agent of money due to the 
principal would bind the principal, if made in the 
regular course of business, but where payment is made 
to a sub-agent who received his appointment from the 
agent, and unauthorized by the principal, it would 
bind the agent and make him responsible to the prin¬ 
cipal. 

Where a principal receives the benefit of an act done 
by his agent, which act was out of the scope of the 
agent’s instructions or authority, the agent would be 
relieved from any responsibility, or an unnecessary delay 
on the part of the principal in renouncing the act as 
his would relieve the agent and make the principal 
responsible. 

If an agent is employed to sell goods, he cannot 
become the purchaser of such goods, nor could he, if 
employed to purchase goods, become the seller. 

When an agent’s authority has been revoked, the 
revocation takes effect (as far as the agent is con¬ 
cerned) from the time it is made known to him, and 
as to third persons, from the time they have received 
notice. 

In order to avoid having to pay for contracts made 
by an agent, in the name of the principal, after 
the agent’s authority has been revoked, it becomes 
the duty of the principal to cause notices to- 
be sent to all who have had 
dealings with the agent. 








































LAW AND LEGAL FORMS. 



PARTNERSHIP. 


hen two or more persons agree to unite their 


capital, labor, and skill, all or any of them, 
for carrying on some business, it is called a 
Partnership. As commonly used, partner¬ 
ship is only applied to the smaller associa¬ 
tions of individuals, comprising usually a 
few members; where an association, having gain for 
its object, consists of more than twenty members, it 
generally takes the shape of a chartered or joint-stock 
company; otherwise, in general, each partner would 
be liable, singly, for the debts of the whole partner¬ 
ship. 

A partnership is commonly constituted by a written 
instrument, usually by deed, the provisions of which 
are denominated Articles of Partnership. It may be 
for a certain fixed time, or for an indefinite period, and 
may be dissolved either by the natural expiration of 
that period or the mutual agreement of the parties, or, 
in the event of disagreement, by decree of a court of 
equity. The mere consent of the parties is sufficient 
to constitute a partnership, and they may distribute 
their profits and regulate their affairs in any way they 
please among themselves; but they cannot, by so 
doing, limit, defeat, or elude, their responsibility to 
others. 

In ordinary partnership, each member, however 
small his share, is liable for all the debts of the com¬ 
pany. To constitute a person a partner, he must be a 
participator in uncertain or casual profits depending 
upon the accidents of trade. Where the premium or 
profit he is to receive is certain and defined, he is not a 
partner; and if he is only to receive a 
portion of the profits as payment for 
his labor as a servant or agent of the 
company, he is not a partner. A par¬ 
ticipation in the profits without a 
participation in the losses, constitutes 
a partnership as regards third par¬ 
ties. 

Partners are ordinarilv divided 

• 

^ into three classes, i. e., ostensible, 
nominal, and dormant. Those 
whose names ap¬ 
pear before the 
world as part¬ 
ners, are known 




as ostensible partners. If they have no actual inter¬ 
est in the concern, but allow their names to be used, 
then they are known as nominal partners. Those whose 
names and connection with a firm are purposely con¬ 
cealed from the world, are known as dormant or silent 
partners. A dormant partner is, in all cases, liable for 
the contracts of the firm when it becomes known that 
he is a partner, so long as he remains a partner; and a 
nominal partner is, in the same manner, liable during 
the time he holds himself out to the world as a partner. 
The rights, duties, and obligations of the partners, are 
usually laid down in articles of partnership, and each 
partner has a right to hold his copartners to the speci¬ 
fied purposes of their union while the partnership con¬ 
tinues. The powers of partners are very extensive, 
and the contract or other act of any member or mem¬ 
bers of the associated body in matters relating to the 
joint concern, is, in point of law, the contract or act of 
the whole, and consequently binding upon the whole, 
to the extent of rendering each liable for it individu¬ 
ally as well as in respect of the partnership property. 
This power or authority does not extend to matters 
extraneous to the joint concern, nor even to matters 
which, though connected with it, are, by the ordinary 
usage of business, transacted with the express and 
formal intervention of each partner. Partners, though 
they should act in a fraudulent manner as respects their 
copartners, bind the firm in all matters connected with 
its peculiar dealings. Should one of the partners enter 
into a smuggling or other illegal transaction on the 
partnership account, the other partners are liable for 
the duties and penalties. When one of the partners 
has been made liable for the debts of the firm, he has 
his relief against the others for a portion of it. 

Partners cannot be relieved from future liabilities to 
third parties without notice to them, and the world in 
general, that the partnership has ceased. 

A partnership may, in the absence of an agreement 
to the contrary, be dissolved at any time either of the 
partners may so decide, but should this power be wan¬ 
tonly exercised to the injury of the other member or 
members of the firm, the party so exercising the power 
would be held for the damages he has caused. Where 
there is an agreement between the partners that the 
partnership shall continue for a specified time, it will 
be binding. An assignment of a partner’s interest 
would work as a dissolution, and while such assign¬ 
ment would transfer to the assignee the entire interest 
of the partner, or assignor, it would not in any way 
give to the assignee the right of becoming a member of 
the firm. The death of one of the partners would 
























































LAW AND LEGAL FORMS. 



work as a dissolution of the partnership, but 
the heirs of the deceased partner would not 
become members of the firm. If one of the 


partners should, from any cause, become in¬ 
competent or unable to perform his duties, 
the partnership would become dissolved. A 
dissolution may take effect from the implied 
limitation of the partnership, as if the event 
had occurred for which the partners formed 
the partnership, or by the destruction of the 
subject matter of the partnership. Courts 
of equity have the power of dissolving a 
partnership, and will exercise this power 
whenever it can be made to appear that the 
object for which the partnership was formed have be¬ 
come impracticable or merely visionary, or, where it 
can be shown that one of the partners has become 
grossly immoral, or has wantonly abused his authority, 
or where he habitually absents himself from the part¬ 
nership. 

The dissolution of a partnership does not exonerate 
the partners from the liabilities created while the part¬ 
nership was in existence, but in order to avoid future 
liabilities there must be notice given to all who have 
had dealings with the partnership. Such notice may 
be given by either circulars, written letters sent by 
mail, or by verbal notices given to the parties person¬ 
ally. Let the form be what it may, they are entitled 
to actual notice. 

ARTICLES OF COPARTNERSHIP. 

Articles of Agreement, made and concluded this second day 
of January, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred 
and eighty-four, between John Doe, of Chicago, County of Cook 
and State of Illinois, of the one part, and Albert Roe, of the same 
place, of the other part. 

The said parties have agreed, and by these presents do agree, to 
associate themselves as copartners in the art and trade of buying 
and selling all sorts of wares, goods and commodities belonging to 
the trade or business of merchandising; which said copartnership 
shall continue from the date of these presents, for, and during, and 
to the full end and term of four years next ensuing. The name, 
style, and title of such partnership shall be Doe and Roe. 

For the purpose aforesaid, he, the said John Doe hath, upon the 
day of the date hereof, put into said partnership, as capital stock, 
the sum of two thousand dollars; and the said Albert Roe has also 
invested the like sum of two thousand dollars: both of which said 
sums are to be used, laid out and employed in common between 
the parties hereto, for the management of said business to their 
mutual advantage. 

And it is hereby agreed between the said parties, each for him¬ 
self respectively, and for his own special and particular part, in 
manner and form as follows: 

That they shall not and will not at any time hereafter, during the 
period above named, exercise or follow the said trade, or any 
other, to their private emolument or advantage; but shall and will, 
from time to time, and at all times during said period (if they 


shall so long live), use their utmost endeavors, to the best of their 
skill and ability, for their mutual advantage, with the stock as 
aforesaid and its increase. 

And also, that they shall and will, during the period aforesaid, 
discharge equally between them the rent of such premises as they 
may rent or hire, for the management and conduct of the trade or 
business aforesaid. 

And that all profit, gain or increase, that shall or may arise from, 
or by reason of the said joint business, shall be equally and propor¬ 
tionately divided between them, share and share alike; and also all 
losses that shall happen in the said business, by bad debts, bad com¬ 
modities, or howsoever otherwise, shall be paid by, and borne 
equally between them. 

And it is further agreed, that there shall be kept, during the said 
period and joint business, perfect, just, and correct book accounts, 
wherein each of the said copartners shall enter and set down, as 
well all the money by him received and expended in and about the 
business aforesaid, as also all commodities and merchandise by him 
bought and sold, by reason and on account, of the said copartner¬ 
ship, and all other matters and things in anywise belonging or 
appertaining thereto, so that either of them may at any time have 
free access thereto. 

And also that the said copartners, once in twelve months, or 
oftener, if need shall require, upon the request of either of them, 
shall make and render each to the other, or to the executors and 
administrators of each other, a true and full account of all profits 
and increase by them and each of them made, and of all losses by 
them, or each of them, sustained; and. also of all payments, 
receipts and disbursements, and all other 
things whatsoever by them, or either of 
them, made, received and disbursed, acted, 
done and suffered in the said copartner¬ 
ship; and the account so made, shall and 
will clear, adjust, pay and deliver, each 
unto the other, at the time of making 
such account, their equal share of the 
profit so made as aforesaid. 

And that, at the end of the aforesaid 
period of four years, or other sooner de¬ 
termination of these presents (whether 
by the death of one of the parties hereto, 
or otherwise), they, the said copartners, 
each to the other, or, in case of the death 
of either, the surviving party to the exec¬ 
utors or administrators of the party 
deceased, shall and will make a true, full, 
and final account of all things as afore¬ 
said, and in all things well and truly 
adjust the same; and also, that, upon 
making such accounts, all and every the 
stock, as well as the gain and increase 
thereof, which shall appear, or is found, 
to be remaining, shall be equally appor¬ 
tioned and divided between them, the said 
copartners, their executors or adminis¬ 
trators, share and share alike. 

In Witness Whereof the said par¬ 
ties to these presents have hereunto set 
their hands and seals, the day and year 
first above written. 

JOHN DOE. [ Seal .] 

ALBERT ROE. [Seai.] 

Signed, sealed and delivered 
in presence of 
John White. 

Amos Green. 














































LAW AND LEGAL FORMS. 





ffy~± 


..ARBITRATION., 






"gT^ 



he law favors arbitration as a means of settling 
difficulties. Arbitration is where contesting 
parties submit the action, suit, or any or all 
matters in dispute, to the judgment of an indif¬ 
ferent person or persons, called an arbitrator or 
arbitrators, to decide the controversy; and where more 
than one is appointed, it is usual to appoint, or leave 
the arbitrators to appoint, an umpire, to whose sole 
judgment it is then referred. The decision, in any of 
these cases, is called an award, which is final if not set 
aside by a court for informality. 

Any matter which may be a subject of a suit at law, 
may usually be determined by arbitration. Crimes 
would be an exception to this rule, as also might 
boundary lines of real estate. 

The arbitrators proceed on the difference as judges, 
and not as agents of the parties who appointed them. 
It is the duty of the arbitrators to fix the time and 
name the place Avhere the evidence relating to the mat¬ 
ters in controversy are to be heard, and to notify the 
parties of these facts. 

FORM OF GENERAL SUBMISSION TO ARBITRATION. 

Whereas, differences have for a long time existed, and are now 
existing and pending, between John Doe, of Louisiana, County of 
Pike and State of Missouri, and Samuel Roe, of the same place, in rela¬ 
tion to divers and sundry matters of controversy and dispute; Now, 
Therefore, we, the undersigned, John Doe and Samuel Roe 
aforesaid, do hereby mutually covenant, and to and with each 
other, that Joseph Brown, John White, and Wm. Black of said 
Louisiana, or any two of them, shall arbitrate, award, and deter¬ 
mine of and concerning all and all manner of action and actions, 
cause and causes of actions, suits, controversies, claims, and de¬ 
mands whatsoever, now pending, existing, or held, by and between 
us, the parties aforesaid; and we do further mutually covenant and 
agree, to and with each other, that the award to he made by the 
said arbitrators, or any two of them, shall in all things by us and 
each of us, be well and faithfully kept and observed; Provided, 
however, that the award aforesaid be made in writing, under the 
hands of the said Joseph Brown, John White, and Wm. Black, or 
any two of them, and ready to be delivered to the said parties in 
difference, or to such of them as shall desire the same, on the 
second day of December, A. D. 1884. 

Witness our hands and seals, this seventh day of November, 
A. D. 1884. 

Signed, sealed, and deliv- 1 JOHN DOE. [Ne«A] 

ered in presence of I SAMUEL ROE. [NeaA] 

Amos Green. 

John Smith. J 

At the time of submission of causes to 
arbitration, each of the parties in contro¬ 
versy should sign and deliver to the other 


or others, an Arbitration Bond, of which the follow¬ 
ing is the common form: 

ARBITRATION BOND. 

Know all Men by these Presents, That I, John Doe, of 
Louisiana, County of Pike and State of Missouri, am held and 
firmly bound to Samuel Roe, of the same place, in the sum of one 
thousand dollars, good and lawful money of the United States, to 
be paid to the said Samuel Roe, his executors, administrators, or 
assigns, for which payment well and truly to be made, I bind my¬ 
self, my heirs, executors, and administrators, firmly by these 
presents. 

Sealed with my seal and dated the seventh day of November, 
A. D. 1884. 

The Condition of this obligation is such, that if the above 
bounden John Doe, his heirs, executors, and administrators, shall 
and do, in all things, well and truly abide by, perform and fulfill in 
all things the award, decision, and final determination of Joseph 
Brown, John White, and Wm. Black, appointed and named on the 
part and behalf of the said John Doe, as well as the said Samuel 
Roe, to arbitrate, award, order, and determine of and concerning 
all, and all manner of action and actions, cause and causes of 
actions, suits, controversies, claims and demands whatsoever, now 
pending, existing, or held now and between said parties; so that 
the said award be made in writing under the hands of the said 
Joseph Brown, John White, and Wm. Black, or any two of them, 
and ready to be delivered to the parties in difference, or to such of 
them as shall desire the same, on or before the second day of 
December, A. D. 1884; then this obligation to be void, otherwise 
to remain in full force and virtue. 

Signed, sealed , and delivered 1 JOHN DOE. [5'eaA] 


in presence of 
John Wells. 
Richard Jones. 


Y 




FORM OF AWARD BY ARBITRATORS. 

To all to whom these Presents shall Come or may Con¬ 
cern, Send Greeting: Joseph Brown, John White, and Wm. 
Black, to whom were submitted as arbitrators, the matters in con¬ 
troversy existing between John Doe, of Louisiana, County of Pike 
and State of Missouri, and Samuel Roe, of the same place, as by 
their submission in writing, dated the seventh day of November, 
A. D. 1884, more fully appears; Now Therefore, Knoiv ye, 
that we, the arbitrators mentioned in said submission, have first 
been duly sworn, according to law, and having heard the proofs 
and allegations of the parties, and examined the matters in contro¬ 
versy by them submitted, do make this award in writing, that is to 
say: ( Here include the conclusions of the arbitrators as to all mat¬ 
ters submitted for their decision .) And we do further award, adjudge 
and decree, that the said John Doe and Samuel Roe shall, and do, 
within ten days next ensuing the date hereof, seal and execute unto 
each other, mutual and general releases of all the actions, cause and 
causes of actions, suits, controversies, and demands whatsoever, 
for, or by reason of, any matter, cause or thing, from 
the beginning of the world down to the date of the 
said submission. 

In Witness Whereof we have hereto subscribed 
these presents, this first day of December, A.D. 1884. 


Signed, sealed and deliv¬ 
ered in presence of 
John Cain. 

Benj. Racer. 


JOSEPH BROWN. 
JOHN WHITE. 
WM. BLACK. 


’Seal.] 

"Seal.] 

‘Seal] 


























































LAW AND LEGAL FORMS. 


231 


Following the receipt of the above form of award 
from the arbitrators, the parties in controversy should 
execute and give to each other a mutual release, the 
following of which is the general form : 

MUTUAL RELEASE ON AN AWARD. 

Know all Men by these Presents, that I, John Doe, of Louisiana, 
County of Pike and State of Missouri, for and in consideration of the 
sum of one dollar to me in hand paid by Samuel Roe, of the same 
place, and in pursuance of an award made by Joseph Brown, John 
White and Wm. Black, arbitrators between us, the said John Doe and 
Samuel Roe, and bearing date the seventh day of November, A. D. 
1884, do hereby release and forever discharge the said Samuel Roe, 
his heirs, executors and administrators, of and from all actions, cause 
and causes of actions, suits, controversies, claims and demands what¬ 
soever, for, or by reason of any matter, cause or thing, from the 
beginning of the world down to the seventh day of November, A. D. 
1884. 

In Witness Whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and seal, this 
tenth day of December, A. D. 1884. 

Executed in the presence of l JOHN DOE. [Seal.] 

Marvin Gates, > 

Alfred Day. > 


If, after the parties in controversy have submitted 
the matters in dispute to arbitrators, they, or either of 
them should, through any cause, decide to revoke the 
authority given to the arbitrators, it may be done by 
executing and handing to the arbitrators an instrument 
under seal, the following of which would be a proper 
and legal form: 

FORM OF REVOCATION. 

To Joseph Brown, John White and Wm. Black: 

Take Notice, that I do hereby revoke your powers as arbitrators 
under the submission made to you made by John Doe and myself, in 
writing, on the seventh day of November, A. D. 1884. 

Witness my hand and seal this twentieth day of November, A. D. 
1884. 

Witness: ) SAMUEL ROE. [Seal.] 

John Daniel. >■ 

James Tulley. ) 

An award is to be sealed, addressed to all the parties, 
and opened in presence of all, or their attorneys, or with 
the consent of those absent indorsed on the award. 



CARRIERS. 



riers 


mg 


PERSONS carrying goods for hire, as 
masters and owners of ships, hoy- 
men, lightermen, carmen, coachmen, 
railway companies and the like, come 

under the denomination of common car- 

A common carrier for hire by land or 
water is answerable for every loss or 
injury to the goods conveyed, unless oc¬ 
casioned by the act of God or the public 
enemy; and, on the other hand, is 
bound to receive and convey the 

goods of every applicant who 
is ready to pay the price of 
carriage, provided he hag 
room for them, and his 
liability is capable of be- 
varied by a special 
contract (if any 
should happen to 
be made) relative 
to the 
terms 


on which goods are to be carried on any particular 
occasion. 

The common carrier has the right of holding or de¬ 
taining property which he carries until the charge 
against it is paid. If there be occasion, he may recover 
his compensation from the goods in any way in which 
a lien upon personal chattels is made productive. 

A carrier may be excused for injury done to passen¬ 
gers upon proof that he took all possible care of 
them. 

When an entire ship, or any principal portion of it 
has been hired to a person in consideration of the 
freight he is to pay, for the conveyance of goods, on a 
certain trip or voyage, it is known as a contract by 
“Charter Party.” This kind of contract relates to the 
ship, alone. The charter party should contain a full 
description of the ship, the voyage, as well as all 
the conditions entered into by and between the par¬ 
ties. 

When a master or owner of a ship contracts with 
separate persons to convey their goods to the place of 
destination, then the contract is said to be for convey¬ 
ance in general ship. Where goods are shipped by 
general ship the master or owner of the ship causes to 
be made, signs and delivers to the owner or 
owner’s agent of the goods shipped, an instru¬ 
ment known as a Bill of Lading, which is an 
acknowledgment on the part of the master 

















































232 


LAW AND LEGAL FORMS. 


that the goods have been shipped on board his vessel, 
and that he will deliver at the port of destination to 
the person named in the bill, as consignee, or to his 
assigns, on the payment of the proper charges, inevita¬ 
ble accident, public enemies, tire and all other dangers 
and accidents of the seas, rivers, and navigation of what¬ 
soever nature and kind excepted. 

Thus the master becomes personally responsible for 
the fulfillment of his engagement, as, also, the owner 
of the vessel becomes responsible notwithstanding he 
is not named in the bill of lading. The bill of lading 
becomes a proper evidence of the title of goods shipped, 
and is transferable to such person or persons as the 
owner of the goods may contract with, which transfer 
would give to a bona fide holder a property in the goods 
represented in the bill of lading. The bill of lading 
implies that the goods are to be stowed in a safe place 
under deck; and if they should be stowed on deck 
without the shipper’s consent, or in the absence of cus¬ 
tom, they are then at the risk of the ship-owner and 
master, and if the goods should be improperly stowed, 


through the negligence or want of skill of the master, 
and in consequence the seaworthiness of the vessel 
should be affected, and there should be a loss by an act 
of God, or a peril of the sea, the master and owner 
would be held responsible for the loss. Carriers are 
held responsible for any and all losses which might 
have been avoided by a diligent exercise of prudence 
and skill. They are always insurers against their 
own negligence or want of skill, or, in other words, 
they are held for any loss that might have been avoided 
by an honest exercise of such prudence and skill as 
would, under ordinary circumstances, be adequate to 
the execution of their trust and undertaking. 

The common carrier has a right to refuse to receive 
goods, for carriage, unless he is paid for carrying them 
at the time they are offered; and if he should receive 
the goods without demanding pay in advance, he would 
have the right to retain the goods for his charges, or 
in other words, the law gives him the right of lien of 
them. This right of lien would also extend to the 
baggage of passengers until their fare is paid. 


FORM OF A BILL OF LADING. 


CHICAGO, JUL Y 2, /884. 

f in good order and condition, by John Doe, as Agent 
and Forwarder for account and at risk of whom it may concern, on board 
the Morning Star, whereof John Roe is Master, now in the port of 
Chicago, and bound for Ogdensburg, jV. Y., the following articles, 
as here marked and described, to be delivered in like good order and 
condition, as addressed on the margin, or to his or their assigns or 
consignees, upoji paying the freight and charges, as noted below. AU 
the deficiency in cargo to be paid for by the carrier, and deducted 
from the freight, and any excess in the cargo to be paid for to the 
carrier by the consignee. In case grain becomes healed while in 
transit, the carrier shall deliver his entire cargo and pay only for any deficiency caused by heating, exceed¬ 
ing five bushels for each WOO bushels. (The dangers of navigation, fire and collision excepted). 

In Witness Whereof, The said Master of said vessel hath affirmed to two Hills of Lading, of this 
tenor and dale, one of which being accomplished, the other to stand void. 



























































LAW AND LEGAL FORMS. 


233 


FORM OF CHARTER PARTY. 

TJiis Charter Party, Made, concluded, and agreed upon 
this tenth day of June, in the year of our Lord one thousand 
eight hundred and eighty-four, between John Doe, master and 
owner of the vessel known as the “ Golden Eagle,” of the burthen 
of one thousand tons, of the one part, and Samuel Roe, of the City 
of Chicago, County of Cook, and State of Illinois, of the other 
part, Witnesseth: That the said John Doe, for the consideration 
hereinafter mentioned, hath granted and to freight let, and by these 
presents doth grant and to freight let, unto the said Samuel Roe, 
his executors, administrators, and assigns, the whole tonnage of 
the hold, stern, sheets, and half deok of the said vessel, from the 
port of Chicago, to the port of Milwaukee, in Wisconsin, in a voy¬ 
age to he made in the said ship, in the manner following, that is to 
say: the said John Doe is to sail with the first fair wind and 
weather that shall happen next after the second day of July next, 
or before the first day of August next, from the said port of Chi¬ 
cago, with goods and merchandise of the said Samuel Roe, his 
factors and assigns on board, to Milwaukee, aforesaid, there to be 
delivered and discharged of her said oargo within ten days next 
after her arrival at the end of the said voyage; in consideration 
whereof the said Samuel Roe, for himself, his heirs, executors and 
administrators, and each and every of them, doth covenant, promise 
and agree to and with the said John Doe, his executors, adminis¬ 
trators and every of them, by these presents, that the said Samuel 
Roe, his executors, administrators, factors or assigns, shall and will 
well and truly pay, or cause to be paid unto the said John Doe, his 
executors, administrators, and assigns, for the freight of the same 
ship on goods, the sum of two thousand dollars, within ten days 
after the discharge of the said goods at Milwaukee aforesaid, for 


the end of the voyage; and also shall and will pay for demurrage, 
if any shall he by default of him, the said Samuel Roe, his factors 
or assigns, the sum of twenty-five dollars a day, daily and every 
day, as the same shall grow due. And the said John Doe, for him¬ 
self, his heirs, executors, and administrators, doth covenant, 
promise, grant and agree, to and with the said Samuel Roe, his 
executors, administrators, and assigns, and every of them, by these 
presents, that the said vessel shall he ready at the said port of Chi- 

oago, at-wharf, to take in goods by the fifteenth day of June; 

and within ten days after the said vessel shall be ready at - 

wharf as aforesaid, the said Samuel Roe doth grant, promise, and 
agree, to have his goods ready and put on board of said vessel, in 
order that she may proceed on her said voyage. And the said John 
Doe doth also covenant, promise, grant, and agree, to and with the 
said Samuel Roe, his executors, administrators and assigns, that the 
said vessel now is, and at all times during the said voyage shall be, 
at the best endeavor of the said John Doe, his executors and ad¬ 
ministrators, at his and their own proper costs and charges, in all 
things made and kept stiff, stanch, and strong, and well furnished 
and provided as well with men and mariners sufficient and able to 
sail, guide, and govern the said ship, as with allmannei of rigging, 
boats, tackle, apparel, furniture, provisions, and appurtenances, 
fitting and necessary for the said men and mariners, and for the 
said ship during the voyage aforesaid. 

In Witness Whereof, we have hereunto set our hands and 
seals, this tenth day of June, one thousand eight hundred and 
eighty-four. 

Signed, sealed, and delivered^ JOHN DOE. [Seal-~] 

in presence of I Jo AMU EL ROE. [AcaJ.] 

Caleb 8. Thorniley. ; 

James B. Hovey. J 




he various states have what are termed Stat¬ 
utes of Limitations. Limitation is a certain 
time assigned by statute within which an 
action must be brought, or other legal act 
done. The use of these statutes of limita¬ 
tion is to preserve the peace of the country, 
and to prevent those innumerable perjuries 
which might ensue if a man were allowed to bring an 
action for an injury committed at any distance of time. 
There is also the danger to the defendant that, if an 


action be long delayed, the documentary or other evi¬ 
dence of his rights may have been lost or destroyed; 
and also the hardship of finding himself unexpectedly 
deprived of what he had long had in possession. 

In the different states, the periods of time within 
which the actions designated in the statutes must be 
brought, are: For recovery of real property, from 
five to twenty-one years—in most states, twenty years; 
for actions on judgments or on contracts under seal, ten 
to twenty years; for other contracts, six years or less. 



*£^interestTnd usury. 



w nterest is the annual sum or rate agreed to be 
(ly a'i paid by the borrower of a sum of money to the 
lender for its use. The sum so lent is called 
the principal; the sum per cent agreed on as interest, 
the rate. 

Generally, the rate of interest depends on the profit 
that may be yielded by its employment in industrious 
undertakings. “The rate of interest,” says an au¬ 
thority, “is the measure of the net profit oil capital. 
All returns beyond this on the employment of capital 
are resolvable into compensations under distinct heads, 


for risk, trouble, or skill, or for advantages of situa¬ 
tion or connection.” The rate of interest also varies 
according to the security for the repayment of the 
principal and the duration of the loan. If there is any 
degree of risk as to the repayment of the loan, the 
rate of interest must necessarily be higher to compen¬ 
sate for that risk. 

Usury is a term used to denote excessive or exorbi¬ 
tant interest, or the taking of a higher rate of interest 
than that established by law. In most of the states, 
usurious contracts are void. 














































234 


LAW AND LEGAL FORMS. 




Inn, Hotel, and Boarding House Keepers. 


nn, or hotel, is a place of entertainment for 
travelers. It an inkeeper opens his house for 
travelers, it is an implied engagement to 
entertain all persons who travel that way, 
and upon this universal assumption an action 
will lie against him for damages, if he, without good 
reason, refuses to admit a traveler. Innkeepers are 
also responsible for the safe custody of the goods of 
their guests while they are under their roof; but if the 


ing-house keeper is liable for loss caused by the negli¬ 
gence of his or her servants. An innkeeper is liable 
for a loss without negligence. 

The undertaking of an innkeeper is a general one, to 
u kich the public is a party, and imposes upon him a 
general or public obligation to receive as guests, and 
upon the same terms, all proper persons who travel that 
way. If an innkeeper refuse, without proper reasons, 
to receive a traveler as a guest in his hotel, or to fur¬ 


nish him victuals or lodging, upon his tendering him a 
reasonable compensation for the same, he would not only 
be held for damages to the injured party, but may also 
be publicly prosecuted, indicted and fined. All persons 
entertained at a common hotel are deemed to be guests. 

An innkeeper, like a common carrier, becomes an 

insurer of the goods intrusted to him by his guests, and 

can limit his liability only by an express agreement, or 

by a special contract with the guest. 

© 


goods are lost through any negligence of the owner 
himself, then the responsibility of the innkeeper ceases. 
An innkeeper may retain the goods of his guest until 
the amount of his bill is paid. 

A boarding-house is not an inn, nor is a coffee-house 
or eating-room. A boarding-house keeper has no lien 
on the goods of a boarder, neither is he responsible for 
their safe custody as is the innkeeper. 

AVe have authority, however, for saying that a board- 








































































































































































LAW AND LEGAL FORMS* 


235 



IS* 

$* 



Rights and Duties of Farmers. 


* eT' 

's=3, % 



farmer’s title to his farm may arise from 
possession, inheritance, purchase, or hiring. 
He may have and hold it by prescriptive 
right. If he has held uninterrupted posses¬ 
sion for twenty years, more or less (the 
period is longer or shorter in the different states), the 
land is his, unless a claim is made by a party having 
the right, but who, from disability, was unable to 
assert it. 

In the United States there is no right of primogeni¬ 


ture. .Real property may come by inheritance, as com¬ 
monly understood, i. e., by will of the deceased, or 
under the law as heir of the deceased. 

By purchase, the farmer gets his title in the deed, 
the only mode of transfer of land in this country, as 
indicated in the matter under the head of Deeds, which 
see. Farms may be bought at auction. If so, the 
plan or description of the property, in any case, must 
give true information, or the purchaser need not 
take it. 



AN AMERICAN FARM SCENE. 


FIXTURES. 

Mucn importance is attached to the boundaries. 
These should be clearly determined, in order to avoid 
trouble arising from their inaccuracy. The cpiestion, 
what does the farmer get, is answered by the bounda¬ 
ries. Within them, he gets whatever there may be of 
ground or earth; as meadows, pastures, woods, waters; 
also, dwelling-houses and other improvements; for, 
with the conveyance of land, the structures upon it 


pass. Land is considered to extend indefinitely up¬ 
ward, and downward to the center of the globe. 

The question as to what are, or are not fixtures, is 
of some importance, as determining the rights of land¬ 
lord and tenant, heir and executor, etc. Fixtures in 
general are personal chattels let into the earth, or ce¬ 
mented or otherwise fixed to some erection previously 
attached to the ground, and are thus legally immova¬ 
ble. If they be entirely clear of the soil, they are not 




















































































23G 


LAW AND LEGAL FOKMS. 



fixtures, and may be carried off at pleasure. Hence a 


tenant may construct erections—even barns, sheds and 
the like—upon blocks, rollers, pillars or plates, so that 
they shall not be deemed fixtures but remain movable 
chattels. The general rule is, that whenever a tenant 
has affixed anything to the premises during his term, 
he cannot again sever it without the landlord’s consent. 
To this rule, however, various exceptions have been 
made in favor of what are termed trade fixtures. A 
tenant may safely remove such things as he has fixed 
to the land for purposes of trade or manufacture, pro¬ 
vided the removal cause no material injury to the 
estate. 

As regards agricultural fixtures, a tenant of a farm 
or lands shall, with the consent in writing of the land¬ 
lord for the time being, at his own cost erect any farm- 
buildings, either detached or otherwise, or put up any 
other building, engine or machinery, either for agricul¬ 
tural purposes or for the purposes of trade and agricul¬ 
ture (which shall not have been put up in pursuance of 


some obligation in that behalf), then all such buildings, 
engines and machinery shall be the property of the 
tenant and shall be removable by him, notwithstanding 
that the same, or any part thereof, may be built in or 
permanently fixed to the soil; so as the tenant, in mak¬ 
ing such removal, do not in anywise injure the land or 
buildings belonging to the landlord, or otherwise to 
put the same in like condition as they were in before 
the erection of anything so removed. But the tenant, 
before making any such removal, should give the land¬ 
lord or his agent due notice of his intention to do so, 
and the landlord or agent may purchase the things pro¬ 
posed to be removed. Another exception to the gen¬ 
eral rule is in favor of such fixtures as are put up for 
ornament or domestic use, as hangings, ornamental 
chimney-pieces, stoves, fire-frames, furnaces, gates, 
looking-glasses, etc. 

When an owner sells his farm, such things as men¬ 
tioned above go with it, unless he expressly reserves a 
right to retain them. 


- ---- - 

^ ROADS, TREES, ETC. 

--^-- 


n adjoining road is, to its 
middle, owned by the 
farmer, whose land it 
bounds, unless there are res¬ 
ervations to the contrary in 
the deeds through which he 
derives title. But this own¬ 
ership is subject to the right 
of the public to use it as a 
road. If the farmer wishes 
to do so, he may plant trees 
next to the road, and these 
must be respected as his 
property. They may be re¬ 
moved by officers in charge 
of roads, but private parties 
are liable for their wanton 
injury. A farmer who places 
airpthing in the road, as 
wood, sled or cart, or any 
permanent structure, is lia¬ 
ble to any party who suffers 
harm from running against 
them. 

At the time of the purchase of a farm, the purchaser 
is, of course, entitled to all the trees upon it, but not 
those cut for sale or fuel. 


If a tree grows so as to 
come over the land of a 
neighbor, the latter may cut 
away the parts which so come 
over, for he owns his land 
and all that is above or below 
it. If it be a fruit tree, he 
may cut every branch or twig 
which comes over his land, 
but he cannot touch the fruit 
which falls to the ground. 
The original owner of the 
tree may enter peaceably 
upon the land of the neigh¬ 
bor and take up the branches 
and fruit and take them 
away. 

All the manure, whether 
spread on the fields or is con¬ 
tained in the barn-yard or 
, other place, will go with the 
farm when the farmer sells 
the land. If the farm be let 
to another, the manure goes to the lessee, unless the 
lessor reserves the right to take it away. Manure | 
may be removed before selling the farm, if it is not 
done secretly or in a way prejudicial to the purchaser 

























































LAW AND LEGAL FORMS. 


237 


of the property. Or, the manure may be sold sep¬ 
arately. 

The rocks and stones on the land belong to the owner 
of the farm. It is unlawful for any one to take away 
even a pebble. 

RIGHT OF WAY. 

A private right of way may be grounded on a special 
permission, as where the owner of the land grants to 
another the liberty of passing over his land; in which 
case it is confined to the grantee alone, and cannot be 
assigned or conveyed to another. It may also be to 
the grantee, his heirs and assigns, being owners of such 
a house or close; in which case the right passes with 
the ownership of such property. The grantor may 
also impose such restrictions upon his grant as he 
thinks proper. A private right of way may be also 
constituted by prescription, as where all the owners 
and occupiers of such a farm, or all the inhabitants of 
such a hamlet, have for a long time used such ground, 
such usage supposing an original grant. 

To gain a private right of way over a farm by pur¬ 
chase or grant, it must be by deed, full and regular, 
and executed in the same way as a deed of the land 
itself. If an arrangement be made in an oral manner 
or in a simple form in writing, but not in a formal 
manner by deed under seal, notwithstanding the grant¬ 
or receive full payment from the grantee, it would be 
in law revocable. This right of way being in the 
nature of an interest in land, it is by strict law to be 
conveyed by a deed. 

A right of way acquired by prescription, as indi¬ 
cated, depends on a longer or shorter period, varying 
according to usage of different states or countries. In 
most states of the Union the period is twenty years, 
but in some states only fifteen; and the way must have 
been used without opposition or peaceably, and while 
a claim was made to do so, not by permission or con¬ 
sent of the farmer. A way only very rarely used, or 
used against the protest of the farmer—or even with 
his tacit consent—would not be legally used, no matter 
how long such use had continued. A way must be in 
a regular and uniform place, since no man can acquire 
the right by prescription to wander over the land of 
the former where he pleases, or where he finds it suits 
his convenience. 

This right of way is obtained, not necessarily by a 
single owner who has used it for twenty years, but it 
is sufficient if successive owners have used it wifcnin 
that length of time. If gained only by using it for a 
particular purpose, as for getting out wood from a 


wood lot, that would not give the right to use it for 
all purposes, after the wood had been cut off and the 
lot was covered over with improvements. 

If a back lot be sold, it is necessary to grant a right 
of way over your remaining land in order to enable 
the buyer to pass to and fro in getting to any high¬ 
way ; otherwise his lot would be useless. This right, 
by necessity, is given by law. Should you sell to 
another one-half, or all that portion of your land lying 
next a highway, and have no way out other than over 
the part sold, the law would give you the right to 
cross the land of the buyer, whether the deed says 
anything about it or not. Though by your deed there 
be a warrant to the effect that the land is to be free 
and not in any way incumbered, the right of way will 
be given. “ Necessity knows no law.” This right of 
necessity lasts as long as the necessity continues, and 
then it ceases. When the land in the rear is, from the 
laying out of a new highway, made accessible from the 
other side, the owner of the rear land can no longer 
cross over the front portion that he sold and over which 
necessity compelled him to pass. So long as it is neces¬ 
sary to cross over another man’s land, you must go as 
you are directed if the way be reasonable. If the way 
should become suddenly obstructed by natural causes, 
as a washout, something falling in the road, or debris 
piled so as to trench on the way, you would be allowed 
by law to deviate from the track and pass around the 
obstruction until you had opportunity to make repairs 
or remove obstructions. You must keep the track 
clear yourself. If there be no stipulations to the con¬ 
trary, you have the right to make suitable gates or 
bars at the entrances from the highway, and these must 
be respected by the other party, who will not be 
allowed to leave them open so that his cattle may enter 
upon your land or your cattle get out. 

Rights of way as above described are likely to be¬ 
come nuisances to the former, and sometimes lead to 
judicial contests. 

RAILROAD LINES THROUGH FARMS. 

Railroad lines are extended over the land of the 
former, as a rule, by virtue of an easement, and not by 
fee in any land that a company takes by law for a road¬ 
bed. If a railroad company buys the land of a farmer, 
of course the company’s right to it is absolute, and in 
some states a railroad company may have this absolute 
ownership when the land is seized and condemned for 
railroad uses contrary to the will of the owner. If the 
company has only an easement or right of way, then 
the exclusive rights of property in the land and the 






























238 


LAW AND LEGAL FORMS. 


trees and herbage upon it belong to the farmer. But 
the company would have the right to remove any trees, 
buildings or other objects which may be within the 
strip of land over which the line is constructed, and 
which interfere with the operation of the line. It 
may be taken as understood that the farmer would not 
be allowed, if he were so disposed, to go upon the strip 
that the railroad company was authorized to use, and 
cut and carry away what was growing thereon, or 
remove turf or soil just as he pleased; and if a stranger 
should do so, he would be liable to the farmer for so 
doing. 

If a railroad line be changed and the road-bed in the 
farmer’s land is abandoned by the company, the land, 
having been taken for railroad purposes by law, reverts 
to the farmer, who may reoccupy it. 

As regards the fencing on 
both sides of the road-bed, 
it is generally provided by 
statute that the railroad com¬ 
panies shall build and main¬ 
tain it. A railroad com¬ 
pany is liable for any injury 
to the domestic animals which 
stray on the road and which 
belong to the farmer whose 
land joins the railroad line. 

If there be no law requiring 
a railroad company to fence, 
then it is the duty of the 
farmer to keep his animals 
off the road; for the com¬ 
pany, unless from negligence 
in running the train, is not 
liable for injury done to the animals. Bailroad com¬ 
panies are not liable for injuries to animals of farmers 
whose lands do not join their lines, unless through neg¬ 
ligence in running the animals down. 

WATER RIGHTS. 

As regards water rights, the farmer may make rea¬ 
sonable use of streams on his own land. He may dig 
or cut the channel of a stream on his own land so as to 
alter its course, but he cannot divert it from the land 
of his neighbor, nor cause it to enter his neighbor’s 
land by other than its natural channel. He may dam 
the stream in order to form ponds on his own land, but 
not subject the adjoining land to the damage of over¬ 
flow. If the stream be small, so as to afford no more 
water than he requires for reasonable uses, then, per¬ 
haps, he would have a right to use the whole of it. 


Otherwise, the farmer would not have the right to use 
all, or monopolize the stream to the disadvantage of 
his neighbor. 

Where an adjoining owner dams a stream so as to 
flow on another’s land, the owner of such land may 
enter on the land of the one who has so dammed the 
water, and remove the portion of the dam which caused 
the overflow. Or where a natural stream becomes 
obstructed through any cause, one would have the 
right to enter on another’s ground and remove the 
obstruction, so the water may flow freely and relieve 
his land from the overflow; nor would the owner of the 
land, in such case, have any just cause of complaint if 
the rubbish from such stream was deposited on its banks. 

A farmer owns to the middle of the main current of 
an adjoining stream, if it be not navigable. 

A farmer has a right to all 
the surface water on his land 
—that which does not flow, 
but results from falling rains 
and melting snows, or oozes 
out of the ground from 
springs or marshy places. 
He can use it all on his own 
land, and need not let any of 
it flow on to a neighbor’s land 
unless he chooses. And if 
he chooses to do so, he can 
turn it all off onto his neigh¬ 
bor’s land, even to the injury 
of the latter. When surface 
water is gathered into a 
stream, with bed and banks, 
it is flowing water and is 
then subject to different rules. A farmer can protect 
himself from surface water by building an embank¬ 
ment at the edge of his own land, although by so doing 
he may make quite a pond to the injury of his neigh¬ 
bor’s crop near the embankment. While a farmer 
may turn his surface water onto your land without 
being liable, the surveyor of a highway may similarly 
turn the road-wash on you, even to sweep sand and 
gravel into your best mowing grounds. 

Should your neighbor, in digging down on his own 
land, even near the line, by chance cut off the under¬ 
ground water-course that feeds your well, so as to 
cause your well to run dry, you would have no right 
in law to proceed against him. But he must be care¬ 
ful not to dig so near as to cause a caving in of your 
land into the excavation. 

As regards water rights and drainage, the law varies 
in different'States. 




































































LAW AND LEGAL FORMS. 


239 






/5L N the limited sense in which it is here used, the 
(jy Y) word trespass signifies no more than an entry on 
another man’s ground without lawful authority, 
and doing some damage, however inconsiderable, to his 
real property. The common law regards every entry 
upon another’s land, (unless by the owner’s leave, or in 
some very particular cases), as an injury or wrong, for 
satisfaction of which an action of trespass will lie; but 
determines the quantity of that satisfaction by consider¬ 
ing how far the offense was wilful or inadvertent, and by 
estimating 
the value of 
the actual 
damage sus¬ 
tained. 

A man is 
not only an¬ 
swerable for 
his own tres¬ 
pass, but that 
of his cattle 
also, and be¬ 
sides his com¬ 
mon remedy 
by action, the 
law gives the 
injured party 
the power to 
distrain the 

cattle thus doing damage, till the owner shall make 
him satisfaction. 

A farmer may order a trespasser off from his land, 
and if the trespasser refuses to go, then the farmer 
may use such force as is necessary to effect the object. 
But he must do the trespasser no grievous bodily 
injury, nor use any more force than is required in such 
a case. The farmer may call for help, And, if neces¬ 
sary, seize, bind and carry off the trespass r, and then 
release him. 

Crossing another’s land, with the owner’s permission 
(without regard to the number of years), would not 
give an acquired right to so continue. To gain the 
right to cross another’s premises, it must appear that 
such crossing must have been without the owner’s per¬ 
mission, and through a legal claim to do so. Where 


others have been in the habit of passing to and fro 
on an owner’s premises, and the owner desires such 
crossing to cease, it is advisable for him to cause 
notices to be put up ordering all parties to cease cross¬ 
ing his premises under penalty of being considered 
trespassers. 

The statutes of some states makes wilful trespass a 
criminal offense, but usually trespass is considered a 
civil offense, and the owner’s remedy would be through 
an action at law for damages, which, at best, is a tedi¬ 
ous process, 
and does not 
always insure 
satisfactory 
results. 

But, where 
a person en¬ 
ters another’s 
premises for 
the ostensi¬ 
ble purpose of 
purloining 
fruit or other 

Property, 

such entry 
would be con- 
si d e r e d a 
crime,and the 
person so en¬ 
tering could be criminally punished, whether the per¬ 
son has accomplished his object or not, and the law 
gives to the owner the right to forcibly put such persons 
oft' his premises, but would not be allowed to use undue 
violence. Owners of land are not permitted by law 
without duly posting notices to that effect, to place any 
instruments on their premises which are calculated to 
kill or maim those who might enter on the premises. 
If another’s fowls should come on an owner’s land and 
injure his growing crops he would have the right of 
action against the owner for the damage they had caused 
him, but should he destroy them, he could be held for 
their full value, notwithstanding he may have repeat¬ 
edly ordered the owner of the fowls to keep them off 
his premises, and warned him that if he did not do so 
he would kill them. 



















































































































240 


LAW AND LEGAL FORMS. 






DAMAGE BY FIRE. 



tt farmer may kindle a fire on his own land, but in 
doing so he must exercise due caution, in order 

\ to prevent it from spreading to the premises or 
house of his neighbor. If the latter suffers dam¬ 
age or loss through the negligence of the former, an 
action for damages will lie against the farmer. 

If the owner of a farm has materials, as brush, dry 
grass, etc., which he would burn up or dispose of in 
some way, he should carefully note whether it would 
not be best to rid himself of such materials in some 
way other than by fire. This 
is specially incumbent upon 
him if his neighbor’s fences, 
woods, sheds, etc., are quite 
near, and still more so if the 
season be dry and all com¬ 
bustible things are therefore 
extremely susceptible to the 
clanger of burning. 

But one’s own negligence 
does not, it seems, at all 
times render them responsi¬ 
ble for the results of a fire 
caused by their carelessness; 
unless it can be made to ap¬ 
pear that the fire was caused 
intentionally on the part of 
the one who set it in opera¬ 
tion, he would not be held 
for damages. 

If a person should care¬ 
lessly drop fire from a pipe, 
or in any other careless manner, on his own premises, 
from which the flames should extend to, and consume 
an adjoining owner’s property, the one so causing the 
fire to spread would not be responsible in law for such 
damage, as it would be considered punishment enough 
that the careless party suffer the loss of his own 
property. 

Nor would one be held for damages by a lire which 
originated through causes beyond his control, even 
though he was careless after the fire ignited and per¬ 
mitted it to go out of his control. 

Should a sportsman while out hunting carelessly set 
lire to your woods, and if the fire should spread in such 
a manner as to destroy your fences, crops, out-build- 



mgs, and house, or any of them, he would be respon¬ 
sible to you for the loss so occasioned, notwithstanding 
that he may have put forth extraordinary effort to 
quell the fire; he would also be responsible for all inci¬ 
dental damages arising from the fire, as, if the sparks 
from the fire should be blown by wind from one farm 
to another, the entire loss would be attributable to the 
first cause, and the one who wrongfully set the fire in 
operation would be held for the remote, as well as the 
immediate loss by the fire. 

If a farmer loses his house, 
or other building, by fire 
thrown from the locomotive 
or cars, the railroad com¬ 
pany is liable for the loss if it 
be occasioned by negligence 
on the part of the company 
or their employes. 

As a general rule, the 
railroad company, or com¬ 
panies, would likely be an¬ 
swerable in such cases, with 
or without negligence. 

As the liability from fire 
communicated from locomo¬ 
tive engines has become so 
great there has been statute 
laws passed in many of the 
States by which the railroad 
companies, or the lessees of 
the road, are held responsi¬ 
ble for all damages arising 
from fire from this cause, and this, irrespective of any 
carelessness on the part of the company or its em¬ 
ployes. 

HIRING A FARM BY LEASE. 

A written bargain of this kind will suffice if the 
description o' the land be fairly definite. The law will 
seek to car j ; nto effect the meaning of the parties to 
a lease. 

As to the renewal of a lease, the lessor is not bound, 
except in case of an express covenant to do so. This 
express covenant may be in the lease or in a separate 
paper. 

Leases are made to contain provisions to the effect 
that the lessor may enter and expel the tenant on 












































































LAW AND LEGAL FORMS. 


241 


account of non-payment of the rent, or that the ten¬ 
ant forfeits the lease and all rights on account of non¬ 
payment of the rent. The lessor must first make a 
demand for the rent due and for the exact amount, and 
on the day it becomes due and payable; he must make 
this demand of the tenant himself, and at a certain 
place, if so mentioned in the lease. Otherwise, his 
re-entry will not be justified. 

When a landlord makes a bargain with one who 
becomes his tenant, he should give assurances that his 
farm will answer the purpose it is proposed to put it 
to. He should know the defects or ill condition of his 
land, and let these be understood by the intending 
lessee. If the latter finds he has been deceived; that 
the premises will not suit his purpose, and he cannot 
use it as he intended, then the lessee may reject the 
lease, and the lessor may not be able to enforce his 
claim against him. 

A farm that is leased to a tenant may be sold subject 
to the lease, and the buyer becomes the lessor. Or, the 
owner of the farm may sell a part of it, or may sell the 
whole in parts to differ¬ 
ent parties, and the rela¬ 
tions of the hirer and 
lessee would be the same. 

But now there must be 
an apportionment of rent. 

The tenant will pay the 
same rent, but will pay 
it to the different parties 
entitled to it, each his share. In case of the death of 
a lessor, before the expiration of the term for which 
the farm is leased, the lessee is liable to the executors 
or administrators of the deceased for the rent which 
accrued before his death, and to the heir or heirs after- 
ward. 

There should be an understanding between the lessor 
and the lessee of a farm to the effect that it should be 
properly cultivated and kept up in accordance with the 
requirements of good husbandry. This should be set 
down in the lease. Various things relating to how the 
farm shall be used, such as growth or rotation of 
certain crops, cutting wood, what portions of land 
should be broken up and sown, distribution of ma¬ 
nure, etc., all maybe set down and agreed upon in the 
lease. 

The owner of a farm may hire it out on shares, 
the owner furnishing to the occupier such tools as 
may be agreed upon, and the latter paying to the 
former a certain proportion of the produce as agreed 
upon. 



HIRING OF HELP. 

In this country the relation of the hired and the hirer 
is in the nature of a contract. A farmer may make 
such a bargain as he wishes to with the man he hires, 
or the latter may go to work without any words or 
arrangement with regard to just what he shall do and 
what he shall get for his services. He commences to 
work with the knowledge and consent of the hirer. 
Where a particular bargain is made, to pay so much for 
a particular kind of work, etc., the parties will be held 
to their contract. If no particular bargain, or no bar¬ 
gain is made, the law will settle the matter for the 
parties by presuming that the hired man has done his 
work reasonably well, or as well as usual in such cases, 
and the farmer is bound to pay him a fair price, accord¬ 
ing to custom, or as determined by the jury which 
passes on the case. 

If a man hires out to work for certain wages, for a 
certain time, but leaves his work before the time con¬ 
tracted for has expired—if he leaves without sufficient 
cause—he forfeits all his wages, and is not entitled to 

any part of them, and 
would also be held re¬ 
sponsible to his employer 
for any damages that 
might arise through hav¬ 
ing left at a time when 
his services were much 
needed. If a man has 
agreed to work for an¬ 
other for one year at a stipulated price per month, and 
should leave the farmer, without just cause, just at or 
before harvest time, and the farmer should be compelled 
to pay twenty dollars extra per month for another per¬ 
son to supply his place, he would have a right of action, 
and could recover the overplus of twenty dollars for 
each month up to the expiration of the contract; in 
such case the workman could not claim any compensa¬ 
tion for the work he had previously done and for which 
he had not received pay; this will also be applicable in 
the hiring of help whether by the day, month or year, 
or by the contract to complete a certain amount of 
work; as if one is employed to erect and complete a 
certain building for a price mentioned, and without 
just cause should abandon the work before it is com¬ 
pleted, he would not be entitled to pay for what he 
had done. 

If a farm laborer should be guilty of any misconduct 
so as to justify the farmer in discharging him before 
the expiration of the contract, he might collect from 
the farmer the amount the services were actually worth. 




































LAW AND LEGAL FORMS. 


If the laborer should have just cause for quitting 
work before his time has expired, he would be allowed 
to do so, and could compel his employer to pay him for 
what he had already done. If the laborer should be¬ 
come physically incapacitated, through any cause, from 
performing that for which he was employed, he would 
be excusable for quitting, or, if any contagious disease 
should become prevalent in the neighborhood, or in the 
family of the employer, would be a proper excuse for 
leaving the employer. 

Should the farmer ill-treat his help, as by not fur¬ 
nishing them with sufficient or proper food, they would 
be excusable for leaving his service. 

If the employer should require his help to perform 
unnecessary or unlawful work on Sunday, it would give 
them good cause for leaving before the expiration of 
their time, but not so, where the work required on 
Sunday is necessary farm work, such as the care of 
stock, and what is ordinarily known as 





LEASES,* 



“farm chores,” etc.; for all such work the hands are 
not entitled to extra compensation. 

A farmer is responsible for the culpability of his 
hired help in so far as this: If he ordered his hired 
man to steal from his neighbor, he would, together 
with the thief, be responsible. Without his order or 
assent, the farmer would not be responsible for the 
wrong-doing of his hired man. But a farmer is respon¬ 
sible on account of the extension of the rule pertaining 
to negligence to his hired help, as, through the care¬ 
lessness or mistake of his hired man, the property of 
his neighbor might be damaged. Thus, if the farmer 
ordered his hired man to burn a pile of brush in a safe 
place, and through the carelessness of the man the 
neighboring premises caught fire and was damaged, the 
farmer would be liable for the direct effects and conse¬ 
quences of the fire. 

The attention of farmers is directed to the matter 
given under the head of Leases. 



lease is defined to be “ properly a con¬ 
veyance of any lands or tenements 
(usually in consideration of rent or 
other annual recompense) made for life, 
for years, or at will, but always for a less 
time than the lessor has of the premises; 
for if it be for the whole interest, it is 
more properly an assignment than a 
lease.” 

The usual words employed 
to constitute a lease are, “de¬ 
mise, grant, and to farm let.” 
By this conveyance, an 
estate for life, for years, 
or at will, may be 
created, either in 
corporeal or 
incorporeal 


Being an instrument of much importance, a lease 
should always be drawn by a respectable attorney, who 
will see that all the conditions, in the interest of the 
lessee, are fulfilled. 

In taking a lease, the tenant’s solicitor should care¬ 
fully examine the covenants, or if he take an under¬ 
lease, he should ascertain the covenants of the original 
lease; otherwise, when too late, he may find himself so 
restricted in his occupation that the premises may lie 
wholly useless for his purpose, or he may be involved 
in perpetual difficulties and annoyances; for instance, 
he may find himself restricted from making alterations 
convenient or necessary for his trade; he may find him¬ 
self compelled to rebuild or pay rent in case of fire; 
he may find himself subject to forfeiture of his lease, 
or other penalty, if he should underlet or assign his 
interest, carry on some particular trade, etc. 

The covenants on the landlord’s part are usually the 
granting of legal enjoyment of the premises to the 
lessee; the saving him harmless from all other claim¬ 
ants to title; and also for future assurance. On the 
tenant’s part, they are usually to pay the rent 
and taxes; to keep the premises in suitable 
repair; and to deliver up possession, when the 
term has expired. 
































































LAW AND LEGAL FORMS. 


243 


If the landlord agree to pay all the rates and taxes, 
it should be so set down in the lease. If the tenant is 
to be responsible for taxes, it must be expressly agreed 
in the lease that he shall be. 

Unless there be a covenant against assignment, a 
lease may be assigned, that is, the whole interest of the 
lesseemay be conveyed to another, or it may be underlet; 
if, therefore, it is intended that it should not, it is 
proper to insert a covenant to restrain the lessee from 
assigning or underletting. Tenants for terms of years 
may assign or underlet, but tenants at will cannot. 

A tenant who covenants to keep a house in repair is 
not answerable for its natural decay, but is bound to 
keep it wind and water tight, so that it does not decay 
for want of cover. A lessee who covenants to pay rent 
and keep the premises in repair, is liable to pay the 
rent although the premises may be burned down. 

If a landlord covenant to repair, and neglect to do so, 
the tenant may do it, and withhold so much of the rent. 
But it is advisable that notice thereof should be given 
by the tenant to the landlord, in the presence of a wit¬ 
ness, prior to commencing the repairs. 

A tenant must deliver up possession at the expiration 
of the term (the lease being sufficient notice), or he 
will continue liable to the rent as tenant by sufferance 
without any new contract; but if the landlord recog¬ 
nizes such tenancy by accepting a payment of rent after 
the lease has expired, such acceptance will constitute a 
tenancy; but previous to accepting rent, the landlord 
may bring his ejectment without notice; for the lease 
having expired, the tenant is a trespasser. 

All notice, of whatsoever description, relating to 
tenancies, should be in writing, and the persons serving 
the said notice should write on the back thereof a mem¬ 
orandum of the date on which it was served, and should 
keep a copy of the said notice, with a similar memoran¬ 
dum attached. 

Houses are considered as let for the year, and the 
tenants are subject to the laws affecting annual ten¬ 
ancies, unless there be an agreement in writing to the 
contrary. 

No consideration will waive the payment of the rent, 
should the landlord insist on demanding it. Even 
should the house be burned, blown or fall down, the 
tenant is still liable for rent; and the tenancy can only 
be voidable by the proper notice to cpiit, the same as if 
the house remained in the most perfect condition. 

The landlord himself is the person most proper to 
demand rent. He may employ another person, but if 
he does, he must authorize him by letter, or by power 
of attorney; or the demand may be objected to. 


When an agent has been duly authorized, a receipt 
from him for any subsequent rent is a legal acquittance 
to the tenant, notwithstanding the landlord may have 
revoked the authority under which the agent acted, 
unless the landlord should have given the tenant notice 
thereof. 

A tenant should be careful of his last quarter’s receipt 
for rent, for the production of that document bars all 
prior claim. Even when arrears have been due on 
former quarters, the receipt , if given for the last quar¬ 
ter, precludes the landlord from recovery thereof. 

When either the landlord or tenant intends to termi¬ 
nate a tenancy, the way to proceed is by a notice to 
quit, which is drawn up in the two following ways: 

LANDLORD'S NOTICE TO LEAVE AT END OF TERM. 

(Name and address of tenant .) 

Sir: Being in the possession of a certain messuage 
or tenement, with appurtenances, situate ( describe the premises 
briefly ), which said premises were demised to you by me for a cer¬ 
tain term, to wit: from the.day of.A.D. 188.., 

until the. day of.A.D. 188.., and which said term 

will terminate and expire on the day and year last aforesaid, I 
hereby give you notice that it is my desire to have again, and 
repossess the said messuage or tenement, with the appurtenances, 
and I therefore do hereby require you to leave the same upon the 
expiration of the said hereinbefore mentioned term. 

Witness my hand this ... day of . • A.D. 188.. 

( Witness-') (Signature.) 

LANDLORD’S NOTICE TO QUIT FOR NON-PAYMENT OF RENT. 

SHORT FORM. 

State of. .188.. 

To ( Name of tenant). You being in possession of the 
following described premises, which you occupy as my tenant, 
{here describe the premises sufficiently to identify them), in {city, 
toicn , or county, as the case may be), aforesaid, are hereby notified to 
quit and deliver up to me the premises aforesaid, in fourteen days 
from this date, according to law, your rent being due and unpaid. 
Hereof fail not, or I shall take a due course of law to eject you 
from the same. (Signature.) 

( Witness.) 

A notice to quit on account of non-payment of rent, 
may be given at any time, and will be effective at the 
end of the period, which is determined by law. The 
day on which the tenant must quit should be specified. 

SHORT FOR3I OF LEASE, WITHOUT CONDITIONS. 

This Indenture, made this.day of.A.D. 18.., 

between.of.in the County of.and State of 

.of the one part, and... of the.of the other 

part: 

Witnesseth, That the said.for the consideration herein¬ 

after expressed, hath demised, granted and leased, and by these 
presents doth hereby demise, grant and lease unto the said ... ... 

and.assigns .......together with all the privileges and 

appurtenances thereunto belonging. TO HAVE AND TO HOLD 

the above described premises for and during the term of. 

years from the date hereof. 

And the said.doth covenant and agree to pay the said 

.or his assigns, the sum of-dollars, as yearly rent for 

said premises, in. equal payments of.dollars each, at 

the expiration of each and every.months from date, during 

the continuance of this Lease. 

























































244 


LAW AND LEGAL FORMS. 


In Witness Whereof , the said parties have to this and one 
other instrument of the same tenor and date interchangeably set 
their hands and seals the day and year first above written. 

Signed, sealed, and delivered, in^\ 

the presence of l . {.Seal .J 

.J .[<SeaA] 

FORM OF LEASE BY GRANT, IN USE IN THE WESTERN 

STATES. 

This Indenture, made and entered into on the second day of 
January one thousand eight hundred and eighty-four, by and 
between John Doe, of Memphis, Tennessee, party of the first part, 
and Samuel Roe, of the same place, of the second part: 

Witnesseth, That the said party of the first part, in considera¬ 
tion of the rents reserved, and the covenants hereinafter contained, 
does hereby grant, demise, and to farm let, unto the said party of 
the second part, the ground floor, cellar, second and third stories of 
the premises known as 4S7 DeKoven street, in the City of Memphis. 

To Have and to Hold the Same, With all the rights, 
immunities, privileges and appurtenances thereto belonging, unto 
the said party of the second part, and his executors, administrators 
and assigns, for and during the full end and term of three years, 
commencing on the first day of March, 1884, under and subject to 
the stipulations hereinafter contained, the said party of the second 
part yielding and paying to the said party of the first part, for the 
said premises, the annual rent of six thousand dollars, payable in 
monthly payments; that is to say, five hundred dollars in hand at 
the ensealing and delivery of this instrument, five hundred dollars 
on March first next, and five hundred dollars on the first of each 
ensuing month thereafter, until the above-named sum of six thou¬ 
sand dollars shall have well and duly been paid; which rent the said 
party of the second part, for himself and his executors,administrators 
and assigns, covenants well and truly to pay, at the times aforesaid. 

And the said party of the second part covenants and agrees 
that if the rent aforesaid should at any time remain due and unpaid, 
the same shall bear interest at the rate of eight per cent per annum, 
from the time it so becomes due, until paid. And the said party of 
the second part further covenants and agrees that it shall be lawful 
for the said party of the first part, and those having freehold estate 
in the premises, at reasonable times, to enter into and upon the 
same, to examine the condition thereof; and also that the said party 
of the second part and his legal representatives shall and will, at 
the expiration of this lease, whether by limitation or forfeiture, 
peaceably yield up to the said party of the first part, or his legal 
representatives, the said premises, in the condition received, only 


excepting natural wear and decay, and the effects of fire; and that 
the said party of the second part, for and during all the time that 
he or any one else in his name, shall hold over the premises after 
the expiration of this lease, in either of said ways, shall and will 
pay to said party of the first part double the rent hei-einbefore 
reserved. Also the said party of the second part further covenants 
and agrees that any failure to pay the rent hereinbefore reserved, 
when due and within ten days after a demand of the same, shall 
produce an absolute forfeiture of this lease, if so determined by 
said party of the first part, or his legal representatives. Also that 
this lease shall not be assigned, nor the said premises, or any part 
thereof, underlet, without the written consent of the said party of 
the first part, or his legal representatives, under penalty of for¬ 
feiture. And that all repairs of a temporary character, deemed 
necessary by said party of the second part, shall be made at his 
own expense, with the consent of the said party of the first part, 
or his legal representatives, and not otherwise. 

Provided Always, And these presents are on this express 
condition, that if the said party of the second part, or his legal 
x-epresentatives, shall fail to pay the rent hereinbefore reserved, 
for the space of ten days after the same shall have become due, or 
shall fail to perform any of the covenants hereinbefore entered into 
on his and their part, then the said party of the first part shall be 
at liberty to declare this lease forfeited, by serving a written notice 
to that effect on the said party of the second part, or his legal 
l-epresentatives, and to re-enter upon and take possession of the 
demised pi-emises, free from any claim of the lessee or any one 
claiming under him. And all estate herein granted shall, upon 
service of such notice, forthwith cease, and said lessor, his heirs, 
legal l-epresentatives or assigns, shall be forthwith entitled to the 
possession of the demised pi-emises without any further pi-oceed- 
ing at law or otherwise, to x-ecover possession thereof. And the 
said party of the first part covenants and agrees with the said 
paxty of the second part, and his legal representatives, that the 
covenants herein contained being faithfully performed by the said 
party of the second part, he shall peaceably hold and enjoy the 
said demised pi-emises, during the term afox-esaid without hinder- 
ance or internxption by the said lessor or any other person. 

In Witness Whereof, the said pax-ties have executed this 
indenture in duplicate, signing their names and affixing their 
seals to both parts thereof the day and year in this behalf above 
written- 

In presence of } JOHN DOE. [iS'eaA] 

. \ SAMUEL ROE. [SeaZ.] 





4 G A M 


—:■-*e- 



+ 




T here is no right of property in 
wild animals. Any person may 
kill or catch game, whether beast, 
bird or fish. But no man has any 
rig-lit under the law to go on the land 
of another to shoot, or for any other 
purpose, unless by permission of the 
owner of the land. In some locali¬ 
ties it is usual to put up signs on the 
roadside, with the words “No shoot¬ 
ing allowed on these premises.” 
From this one receives the assurance 
that he will be prosecuted if he shoots 
on the land, but may infer that he 
will be allowed to walk peacefully 
over the land. If he has leave to go 



on the land, then he may shoot and 
catch wild animals and fish, and what 
he gets is his. So he can be prose¬ 
cuted for being upon the land without 
leave, not for shooting or catching 
or taking game there. 

A man may stand in a road adjoin¬ 
ing a farm and shoot a bird, but 
should it fall within the boundaries 
of the farm, he cannot step over the 
line to get the bird without being a 
trespasser. 

A hunter does not acquire legal 
ownership in wild animals until they 
are in his possession. A wounded 
animal belongs to its captor. 

















































p 




he law distinguishes animals into such as are 
tame and such .as are wild. The former are sel¬ 
dom or never found wandering at large, while 
the latter are usually found at liberty. Tame or 
domestic animals are property. A farmer has 
certain rights and liabilities on account of them. 
Those who kill or injure them are liable. If his 
neighbor's cattle, or other four footed animals, 
come upon his land, he may confine them in a 
pen, or turn them into the road. In the former 
case he must give notice to the owner of such 
animals; in the latter case, he is not required to 
give notice. 

The owner of domestic animals is bound to keep them 
at home; otherwise, he may lose them or be obliged 
to answer for any injury or damage they do to the per¬ 
son or property of his neighbor. 

Dogs are naturally mischiev¬ 
ous, and the farmer is answera¬ 
ble for any injury they do to 
others. If a dog runs at any¬ 
one in the public road in a 
threatening manner, or runs at 
anyone on his own land, the 
animal may be killed on the 
spot. In some states the dogs 
are required to be licensed; if 
the law is not observed, they 
are outlawed, and may be killed 
by anybody who is upon his 
own or common grounds. 

Hens cannot be penned up or impounded. They 
may be driven away, but must not be killed. A 
neighbor might shoot a hen for habitually getting her 
food from his garden instead of the grounds of her 
owner, where she ought to be; he might throw the 
carcase over the fence and into the lot of its owner. 
For this, it seems, he would be liable. But a jury, 
who fix the damages in cases of trespass, would proba¬ 
bly not give much more than a cent’s worth of damage 
to the owner, whose property had been actually kept 
at his neighbor’s expense. 

Where a farmer turns his animals loose in the public 
highway, and they should injure another in either per¬ 
son or property, who was lawfully using the highway, 



the owner would be held for the damages. 


‘ ‘ A farmer’s old black sow was wollowmg in a gut¬ 
ter by the road side, and frightened a horse and threw 
a young lady out of the carriage; the farmer was held 
for damages.” “ A man permitted his horse to feed in 
the highway. Some children were there playing, and 
some of them began to switch him, whereupon he 
kicked one of them, from the injury of which the child 
died. The farmer was held for manslaughter.” Severe 
as this law may seem, it might be more harsh if the 
owner was cognizant of the fact that his animal was 
vicious, as by reference to the old Mosaic laws, that, 
“ If the ox were wont to push with his horn in time 
past, and it hath been testified to his owner, and he 
hath not kept him in, but that he hath killed a man or 
a woman; the ox shall be stoned, and his owner shall 
also be put to death ” (Exodus 21-29). 

A person who owns or keeps vicious animals on his 

own premises would be held for 
any damages caused to persons 
crossing, or going on his premi¬ 
ses, notwithstanding that the 
person so injured was a tres¬ 
passer on the farmer’s land, un¬ 
less the farmer has taken the 
precaution to post up notices 
warning passers by of the dan¬ 
ger. A man was fined five hun¬ 
dred dollars for injury done a 
man from a vicious bull which 
he kept on his premises for the 
purpose of ridding himself of the annoyance of people 
coming on his premises to catch fish from a pond 
thereon. The owner’s liability is even greater when 
people are lawfully entitled to cross or go on to his 
premises. Where an owner is aware that any brute or 
brutes that he may have are vicious, and he does not 
confine them, he is, in law, guilty of gross negligence. 
But it would be different if he was not aware of their 
vicious propensities. Without some carelessness can 
be proven on the part of an owner of a horse which 
ran away and injured some person, he would not be 
responsible for damage. But where a farmer leaves his 
team unhitched and it runs away and injures others or 
their property it might be otherwise. 

The farmer has the right of ownership in animals 
the same as in any other species of personal property, 





















































246 


LAW AND LEGAL FORMS. 


and can only be deprived of such ownership by and with 
his own consent. Where animals have strayed away, 
or been stolen for such a period of time as to give the 
farmer just cause to give them up as lost forever, and 
they should afterwards be discovered, the ownership 
would still reside in him. This would include such 
animals as were once public property, but which have 
been reclaimed by man, as where a flock of wild geese 
had been tamed, and afterwards strayed from their 
owner and were shot by a sportsman, who supposed 
that they were still the property of the public. He 
was held for the value of the geese. 

Bees are held to be private property while in one’s 
own hive, and often when on one’s own premises; but 
where they take to the woods and lodge in a tree 
belonging to another man, a question might arise as to 
the right of ownership. 

If a man owns a dog, and allows him to run at large, 
he will be held responsible for any damage the dog may 
do. This will be the case notwithstanding that the dog 
was never known to be otherwise than gentle and good 


natured. If, while the dog is at large, a child or chil¬ 
dren should tease him until he became irritated to such 
an extent as to bite one of them, the owner would have 
to pay the damages, which might be quite extensive. 
But it would be different if a man should molest a dog 
and get bitten, as the dog would then be the victor. 
A man must pa} 7- all damages his dog has caused, even 
though the dog be licensed, as the license is not 
intended to protect the owner from the depredations 
of his dog. 

When a person is assaulted by a vicious dog, he may 
take the law in his own hands by shooting the dog to 
death; but he would not be permitted to place poison 
where the dog might get it; or where a dog is chasing 
any animals belonging to other than the owner of the 
dog, the dog may be shot without rendering the person 
so killing liable for damages; and so, if a dog should 
continually come upon your premises, and disturb your 
peace by howling or barking, you may shoot him with¬ 
out being liable for damages. Hot so, if the dog was 
merely crossing your premises. 








-Mi* 


FRUIT, WHO OWNS IT? 









t often becomes a question involving some 
nice points, and frequently troublesome and 
expensive litigation, between persons whose 
boundary lines are joined, and where either 
or both of the parties have fruit trees near 
such line, to know at all times which party is entitled 
to the fruit from such trees. 

It is generally supposed that a person who owns 
land owns not only the surface, but also everything be¬ 
low and above it, and that his property 
extends downward to the center of the 
earth, and upward indefinitely, includ¬ 
ing all that is above as well as all that 
which is underneath the surface. But 
it seems that there is a limit to this 
general rule. An owner surely owns 
everything above his land which is 
affixed to it, but it would be different where trees stood 
on the land owned by another, notwithstanding that 
some of the roots from which the trees drew their sus¬ 
tenance extended to and even imbeded in the soil of 
an adjoining owner, as this would not give him any legal 
right to the fruit from such trees, though the branches 
on which the fruit grew should overhang his line. The 
owner of the land on which the tree stands would have 
the right to pick the fruit from the entire tree, and 



should the owner of the land over which the branches 
extended attempt by force to prevent the owner from 
gathering his fruit, he might be liable for an assault and 
battery. If the fruit should fall into an adjoining own¬ 
er's field, the owner of the tree might have the right to 
cross over and pick it up without being a trespasser. 

An owner of land would be responsible for any and 
all damages arising from having poisonous trees, the 
branches of which should overhang the land of another, 
so that his cattle feeds from them and 
are thereby killed. 

Where a tree stands on a dividing 
line, the tree as well as the fruit would 
be owned in common between the par¬ 
ties owning the land, and neither of 
them would be allowed, without per¬ 
mission, to cut the tree down. 

Every one owning land has a perfect right to plant 
fruit or shade trees to any number, and at any place on 
such grounds, as may suit his own convenience or taste; 
and if the trees should shade a neighbor’s ground in 
such a way as to render it useless, or if they should 
cause his house to become damp and unhealthy, he 
would not be excusable for injuring the trees in any 
way. Any resort tending to the destruction of trees 
on another’s premises would be a dangerous business. 


































LAW AND LEGAL FORMS. 


2 47 



c~''£L 




Gy~i 


m 




(•MORTGAGE. 




st 


^ts 




"eN^ 


B y mortgage, the conveyance 
of an estate, real or per¬ 
sonal, is effected by a debtor 
In favor of his creditor, as a 
pledge or security for a debt. 
The debtor, or person who con¬ 
veys property as security for 
debt, is called the Mortgagor. 
The creditor, or person to whom 
property is mortgaged, is called 
the Mortgagee. The convey¬ 
ance is absolute in form, but sub¬ 
ject to a proviso by which it is 
to become void, or by which the pledge is to be recon¬ 
veyed upon repayment to the grantee of the principal 
sum secured, with interest, on a certain fixed day. 
Upon the non-performance of this condition, the mort¬ 
gagee’s estate becomes absolute at law, but remains 
redeemable in equity during a limited period. 

In general, every description of property, and every 
kind of interest in it which is capable of absolute sale, 
may be the subject of a legal mortgage, or its equiva¬ 
lent in equity. 

A deed, if really intended only as a security for 
money, will be treated as a mortgage, although, in 
form, it purports to be an absolute conveyance or 
assignment. 

So long as the mortgagor remains in possession, the 
mortgaafee’s estate is not absolute. As to the rights of 
the mortgagee, he is entitled to enter into possession 
of the lands, and after notice to the tenants, to recover 
the rents and profits, unless there is some agreement to 
the contrary. He may grant leases, subject to the 
equity of redemption, and avoid by ejectment, without 
notice, any leases that may have been made by the 
mortgagor without his concurrence subsequently to his 
mortgage. He must, however, account for the rents 
which he receives, and pay an occupation rent for such 
parts as he may keep in his own possession. 

A mortgagee is not allowed to obtain any advantage 
out of the security beyond his principal and interest. 
Though the mortgagee, after the mortgagor’s default 
in payment of the principal sum and interest, has the 
absolute legal estate, he is still considered in equity to 
hold only as a security for his debt. In order to obtain 
absolute possession of the estate, the mortgagee has to 


file a bill of foreclosure against the mortgagor, calling 
upon the latter to redeem his estate forthwith, by pay¬ 
ment of the principal money, interest, and costs, and 
if he fail to do so within the time specified by the 
court—usually three years—he is forever barred and 
foreclosed of his equity of redemption, and the mort¬ 
gagee becomes owner in equity as he before was in law. 
In the event of a sale, the surplus, after deduction of 
the principal sum, interest, and expenses, must be 
accounted for and paid to the mortgagor, his heirs, 
executors, administrators, or assigns. 

The above general remarks apply principally to 
mortgages of land. 

FORM OF A MORTGAGE. 

This Indenture, Made this.day of.in the year 

of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and.between 

.of the.in the County of.and State of. 

party of the first part, and.of the.in the County of 

.and State of..party of the second part. 

Whereas, The said party of the first part is justly indebted 

to the said party of the second part in the sum of.dollars 

secured to be paid by.certain... 

Now, Therefore, this Indenture Witnesseth, That the 
said party of the first part, for the better securing the payment of 
the money aforesaid, with interest thereon according to the tenor 
and effect of the said. .• -above mentioned, and also in consid¬ 
eration of the further sum of One Dollar to.in hand paid by 

the said party of the second part, at the delivery of the Presents, the 
receipt whereof is hereby acknowledged, ha.. granted, bargained, 
sold, remised, released, conveyed, aliened and confirmed, and by 
these Presents do grant, bargain, sell, remise, release, convey, alien 

and confirm, unto the said party of the second part and to. 

heirs and assigns forever, all the following described lot.., piece.., 

or parcel.., of land, situate in the County of.and State of 

.and known and described as follows, to wit: (Here insert 

description of property .) 

To Have and to Hold the Same, Together with all and 
singular the tenements, hereditaments, privileges, and appurte¬ 
nances, thereunto belonging, or in anywise appertaining; and also, 
all the estate, interest and claim whatsoever, in law as well as in 
equity, which the said party of the first part ha., in and to the 
premises hereby conveyed, unto the said party of the second part, 

.heirs and assigns, and to their only proper use, benefit, and 

behoof forever; 

Provided always, and these Presents are upon this express 

condition, that if the said party of the first part,.heirs, 

executors, or administrators, shall well and truly pay, or cause to 
be paid, to the said party of the second part.heirs, execu¬ 

tors, administrators, or assigns, the aforesaid sum of money, with 
interest thereon, at the time and in the manner specified in the 

above mentioned.according to the true intent and meaning 

thereof, then and in that case these Presents, and everything herein 
expressed, shall be absolutely null and void. 

But it is f urther Provided and Agreed, That if default 

be made in the payment of the said.or of any part thereof, 

or the interest thereon, or any part thereof at the time and in the 
manner and at the place above limited and specified for the pay- 


















































































LAW AND LEGAL FORMS. 



ment thereof, or in case of waste or non-payment of taxes or 
assessments, or neglect to procure or renew insurance, as herein¬ 
after provided, or in case of the breach of any of the covenants or 
agreements herein contained, then and in such case, the whole of 

said principal and interest, secured by the said.in this 

Mortgage mentioned, shall thereupon, at the option of the said 

party of the second part.heirs, executors, administrators, 

attorneys, or assigns, become immediately due and payable; any¬ 
thing herein or in said.contained to the contrary notwith¬ 

standing. And this Mortgage may be immediately foreclosed to 
pay the same by said party of the second part,.heirs, exec¬ 

utors, administrators, or assigns; or the said party of the second 

part,.heirs, executors, administrators, attorneys, or assigns, 

after publishing a notice in any newspaper at that time published 

in the.in the State of.for .weeks before the 

day of such sale, may sell the said premises, and all right and 

equity of redemption of the said party of the first part. 

heirs, executors, administrators, or assigns therein, at public auction, 
at the.in the.in theState of.or on said prem¬ 

ises, or any part thereof, as may be specified in the notice of such 
sale, to the highest bidder for cash, at the time mentioned in such 
notice, or may postpone or adjourn said sale from time to time at 
discretion, with or without re-advertising, and may sell said prem¬ 
ises enmasse, or in separate parcels. 

And the said party of the first part hereby specially covenant 
and agree, .to and with the said party of the second part to waive, 
and hereby waives. right of equity of redemption, and fur¬ 
ther agree that.will neither assert or claim any such right 

on a sale of the above described premises by virtue of this Mort¬ 
gage. And upon the making of such sale or sales, the said party 
of the first part do., hereby authorize, empower and direct the 
said party of the second part, his executors, administrators, attor¬ 
neys or assigns, in his or their own name, to make, execute and 
deliver to the purchaser or purchasers thereof, a deed or deeds for 
the premises so sold, and covenant and agree that all the recitals of 
such deed or deeds setting forth the fact of due notice, advertise¬ 
ment, and sale and any and all such other facts and statements as 
may be proper to evidence the legality of such sale or sales or con¬ 
veyance or conveyances, and that the same have been duly made in 
all respects so as to meet the requirements herein contained, or 
arising in law, and necessary to convey a good title, shall be taken 
and considered as prima facie evidence of all such facts and mat¬ 
ters set forth in such recitals; and out of the proceeds of such sale, 
or money arising therefrom, the said party of the second part.. •. 

... .executors, administrators, attorneys, or assigns first to pay all 
costs and expenses incurred in advertising, selling and conveying 
said premises, including the reasonable fees and commissions of 
said party of the second part, and all other expenses, including all 
moneys advanced for taxes, and other liens or assessments with 

interest thereon at.per cent per annum, together with the 

sum of.dollars for attorney’s fees, then to pay the principal 

of said.whether due and payable by the terms thereof or 

not, and interest thereon up to the time of such sale and to render 

the overplus, if any, to said party of the first part.legal 

representatives or assigns, on reasonable request, and in case of the 
foreclosure of this Mortgage by proceedings in court, or in case of 
any suit or proceedings at law or in equity, wherein said party of 

the second part.executors, administrators or assigns shall 

be a party, plaintiff or defendant by reason of.being a party 

to this Mortgage,heor they shall be allowed and paid their reason¬ 
able costs, charges, attorney’s and solicitor’s fees, in such suit or 
proceeding by said party of the first part, and the same shall be a 
further charge and lien upon said premises under this Mortgage to 
be paid out of the proceeds of sale thei’eof, if not otherwise paid 
by said party of the first part. 

And in Consideration of the money paid as aforesaid to 
the said party of the first part, and in order to create a first lien 



and incumbrance on said premises under this Mortgage, for the 
purposes aforesaid, and to carry out the foi-egoing specific applica¬ 
tion of the proceeds of any sale that may be made by virtue hereof, 
the said party of the first part do. .hereby release and waive all right 
under, and benefit of, the exemption and homestead laws of the 

State of.in and to the lands and premises aforesaid, and the 

proceeds of sale thereof, and agree to surrender up possession 
thereof to the purchaser or purchasers at such sale, peaceably on 
demand. 

And the said.for.and.heirs, executoi’S, and 

administrators, covenant and agree to and with the said party of 

the second part.executors, administrators and assigns, that 

at the time of the ensealing and delivery of these presents . 

well seized of said premises in fee simple, and ha.. good right, full 
power and lawful authority to grant, bargain and sell the same in 
manner and form as aforesaid; that the same are free and clear of 
all leins and incumbrances, whatsoever; and that.will for¬ 

ever warrant and defend the same against all lawful claims; that 
the said party of the first part will in due season pay all taxes and 
assessments on said premises, and exhibit once a year, on demand, 
receipts of the proper persons, to said paity of the second part, or 

.assigns, showing payment thereof, until the indebtedness 

aforesaid shall be fully paid; and will keep all buildings that may 
at any time be on said premises, during the continuance of said 
indebtedness, insured in such company or companies as the said 

party of the second part or.assigns may from time to time 

dii-ect, for such sum or sums as such company or companies will 
insure for, not to exceed the amount of said indebtedness, except 
at the option of said party of the first part, and will assign, with 
proper consent of the insurei’s, the policy or policies of insurance 

to said party of the second part or.assigns, as further 

security for the indebtedness afoi-esaid. 

And in case of the refusal or neglect of said party of the first 
part, or either of them, thus to insure, or assign the policies of 
insurance, or to pay taxes, said party of the second part, or his 
executors, administrators or assigns, or either of them, may pro¬ 
cure such insurance, or pay such taxes, and all moneys thus paid, 

with interest thereon at.per cent per annum, shall become 

so much additional indebtedness, secured by this Mortgage, and to 
be paid out of the proceeds of sale of the lands and premises afore¬ 
said, if not otherwise paid by said party of the first part. 

And it is Stipulated and Agreed, That in case of default 
in any of said payments of principal or interest, according to the 

tenor and effect of said.aforesaid, or either of them, or any 

pai’t thei’eof, or of a breach of any of the covenants or agi’eements 
herein by the party of the first part,.executors, administra¬ 

tors or assigns, then, and in that case, the whole of said principal 
sum hereby secured, and the interest thereon to the time of sale, 

may at once, at the option of said party of the second part. 

executors, administrators, attorneys, or assigns, become due and 
payable, and the said premises be sold in the manner and with the 
same effect as if the said indebtedness had matured. 

In Witness Whereof, the said party of the fix-st part. 

hereunto set.hand, .and seal., the clay and year first above 

written. 

.[tfeai.] 

.[/S'eaZ.] 

*. [tfeaZ.] 

Signed, sealed, and delivered 
in 'presence of 






































































LAW AND LEGAL FORMS. 


249 



* 


IK 




III 

<r 

- nrrnc i- 

_9 

| 

m\ 


U lL t. Yj o. 


m 



m 


}—>;• 


•X 


I 


deed is a formal document, on paper or parchment, 
duly signed, sealed and delivered. In this coun¬ 
try, generally, lands are transferred only by a 
deed, which is signed, sealed, acknowledged, 
delivered and recorded. When made by one party 
only, a deed is called a deed poll; when several parties 
are concerned, an indenture. A deed poll is cut even, 
or polled at the edges. The form commences in the 
mode of a declaration, “ Know all men by these pres¬ 
ents, that,” etc. The form appropriated to an inden¬ 
ture, or a deed among several parties, is: “ This inden¬ 
ture, made, etc., between, etc., Witnesseth,” etc. 

A properly-arranged deed of conveyance usually con¬ 
sists of the following parts: First, the date and names 
of the parties; secondly, the recitals in which the 
intentions of the parties and former transactions with 
regard to the same are recount¬ 
ed as far as necessary. Then the 
operative part, consisting of the 
habendum, which defines the 
estate or interest to be granted; 
the tenendum, usually joined 
with the habendum, but it is 
unnecessary, since the tenure is 
never expressed, except upon a 
sub-grant or lease reserving 
rent; the reddendum, or the 
reservation of some new thing, 
such as rent to the grantor. Next come the con¬ 
ditions, if any, annexed to the grant, the cove¬ 
nants, and the conclusion, which mentions the execu¬ 
tion, etc. 

A deed must be signed and sealed by the grantor, 
and by the grantee also, if any agreement or covenant 
is entered into by him. The delivery and recording 
of a deed completes its efficacy, and thence it takes 
effect. 

A deed is good although it mentions no date, or has 
a false or impossible date, provided the real date of 
its delivery can be proved. After execution, a deed 
may become void by erasure, interlineation or other 
alteration in any material part; but, generally, such 
alterations are presumed to have been made before 
execution. 




FORM OF A WARRANTY DEED. 

This Indenture, Made this.day of., in the year 

of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and eighty-., between 

.of the., in the County of.and State of. 

party of the first part, and.of the., in the County of 

.and State of., party of the second part. 

Witnesseth, That the said party of the first part, for and in 

consideration of the sum of.dollars in hand paid by the said 

party of the second part, the receipt whereof is hereby acknowl¬ 
edged and the said party of the second part forever released and dis¬ 
charged therefrom, ha... .granted, bargained, sold, remised, released, 
conveyed, aliened and confirmed, and by these presents do... .grant, 
bargain, sell, remise, release, convey, alien and confirm unto the said 

party of the second part, and to.heirs and assigns forever, 

all the following described lot.., piece.., or parcel... of land situated 

in the County of.and State of., and known and 

described as follows, to-wit: . 

Together with all and singular, The hereditaments and 
appurtenances thereunto belonging or in anywise appertaining, and 
the reversion and reversions, remainder and remainders, rents, issues 
and profits thereof; and all the estate, right, title, interest, claim or 

demand whatsoever, of the said party of 
the first part, either in law or equity, 
of, in and to the above bargained prem¬ 
ises, with the hereditaments and appur¬ 
tenances: To Have and to Hold the 
said premises above bargained and de¬ 
scribed, with the appurtenances, unto 

the said party of the second part,. 

heirs and assigns, forever. 

And the said.party of the 

first part, for.heirs, executors 

and administrators, do.... covenant, 
grant, bargain and agree, to and with 

the said party of the second part,. 

heirs and assigns, that at the time of 
the ensealing and delivery of these pres¬ 
ents.. well seized of the premises above conveyed, as of a good, 

sure, perfect, absolute and indefeasible estate of inheritance in law, in 
fee simple, and ha.. good right, full power and lawful authority to 
grant, bargain, sell and convey the same in manner and form afore¬ 
said, and that the same are free and clear from all former and other 
grants, bargains, sales, liens, taxes, assessments and incumbrances, of 
what kind or nature soever: and the above bargained premises, in the 
quiet and peaceable possession of the said party of the second part, 

.heirs and assigns, against all and every other person or persons 

lawfully claiming or to claim the whole or any part thereof, the said 
party of the first part shall and will Warrant and Forever Defend. 

And the said party of the first part hereby expressly waive... and 
release.. any and all right, benefit, privilege, advantage and exemp¬ 
tion, under or by virtue of any and all Statutes of the State of. 

providing for the exemption of homesteads from sale on execution 
or otherwise. 

In Witness Whereof, the said party of the first part.here¬ 
unto set.hand, .and seal, .the day and year first above written. 

Signed, sealed, and delivered in pres-) .[<&«£.] 

ence of .1 

































































































250 


LAW AND LEGAL FORMS. 


FORM OF TRUSTEE’S DEED. 

This Indenture, Made this.daj r of.in the year 

of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and eighty.between 

.of the.in the County of.and State of 

party of the first part, and.of the.in the County of 

.and State of.party of the second part. 

Witnesseth, That, whereas,.of the. •..... in the County 

of.and State of.by a certain Trust Deed dated the 

.day of.A. D. 18... .did bargain, sell, and convey 

unto.as Trustee, his.heirs and assigns, all the prem¬ 
ises hereinafter described, to secure the payment of.certain 

promissory note , in said Trust Deed particularly mentioned: 


And, whereas, it was expressly provided in said Trust Deed, 

that, in case default should be made in the payment of the said- 

promissory note , or any part thereof, either of principal or inter¬ 
est, according to the tenor and effect thereof, or in case of the 
breach of any of the covenants or agreements in said Trust Deed 
mentioned, then, on the application of the legal holder of the said 

promissory note ,.the said.after publishing a notice 

in.any newspaper printed in the.before the day of 

such sale, might sell and dispose of the said premises, and all the 

right, title, benefit, and equity of redemption of the said... 

heirs and assigns thei’ein, at public auction, at the.in said 

.County of.and State of..to the highest bidder 

for cash, at the time mentioned in such notice; and also make, exe¬ 
cute, and deliver to the purchaser or purchasers thereof, a good and 
sufficient deed or deeds for the premises so sold; which said Trust 

Deed is recorded in the Recorder’s Office of the County of. 

and State of.in book.of.page. 

And, tvhereas, also, default having been made in the pay¬ 


ment of.said promissory note , due, as aforesaid. 

and.the legal holder thereof having applied to me, as such 


Trustee, to cause said premises herein described to be sold for the 
purposes mentioned in, and in accordance with the provisions of 
said Trust Deed, I, the undersigned party of the first part, on the 

.day of.A. D. 188 , caused a notice to be published 

in the.a newspaper printed in the.County of. 

and State of.that said premises hereinafter described would, 

on the.day of.A. D. 188 , at.o’clock in the 

.noon of said day, be sold at public auction, at the.in 

said County of.to the highest bidder for cash, by virtue of 

the power and authority in me vested by said Trust Deed; which 

said notice was printed.for.consecutively in said 

paper, commencing on the .day of.A. D. 188 } and 

ending on the .day of.A. D. 188 . 

And, whereas, also, the said premises having been, by the 

said party of the first part, on the.day of.A. D. 188 , 

at.o’clock in the.noon of said day, in the manner 

prescribed in and by said Trust Deed, and at the place last afore¬ 
said, in pursuance of said notice, offered for sale at public auction, 
to the highest bidder, for cash, and the said party of the second 
part having been the highest bidder therefor, and having bid for the 

tract.hereinafter named, the sum of.Dollars. 

duly declared the purchaser thereof. 


Now, therefore, this Indenture Witnesseth, that the 
said party of the first part, as Trustee, as aforesaid, for and in con¬ 
sideration of the sum so bid as aforesaid, to.in hand paid by 

the said party of the second part, the receipt whereof is hereby 
acknowledged, has granted, bargained, sold, aliened, remised, 
released, and confirmed, and by these Presents does grant, bargain 
sell, alien, remise, release, and confirm, unto the said party of the 
second part, and to.heirs and assigns forever, all the fol¬ 

lowing described lot , piece , or parcel of land, situate in the 

County of.and State of.known and described as 

follows, to wit . 


Together with All and Singular the tenements, heredi¬ 
taments, and appurtenances thereunto belonging, as the same are 
described and conveyed in and by the said Trust Deed; and also, 
all the estate, right, title, interest, property, claim, and demand 

whatsoever, both in law and equity, of the said .as well as 

of the said party of the first part, of, in, and to the above described 
premises with the appurtenances, as fully, to all intents and pur¬ 
poses, as the said party of the first part hath power and authority 
to grant, sell, and convey the same by virtue of the said Trust 
Deed, TO HAVE AND TO HOLD the said above granted premi¬ 
ses, with their appurtenances, and every part thereof, unto the said 
party of the second part.heirs and assigns, forever. 

In Witness Whereof, the said party of the first part. 

hereunto set.hand and seal the day and year first above 

written. 

Signed, sealed, and delivered , in') 

the presence of ( .[AeaJ.] 

.J .r<SeaZ.] 

DEED OF GIFT,BY INDENTURE WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY 

WHATEVER. 

This Indenture, made the.day of. in the year 

one thousand eight hundred and.between {name, residence 

and occupation of the grantor) of the first part, and {name, resi¬ 
dence and occupation of grantee) of the second part; 

Witnesseth, that the said {grantor) as well for and in considera¬ 
tion of the love and affection which he has and bears towards the 
said {grantee) as for the sum of one dollar, lawful money of the 
United States, to him in hand paid by the said party of the second 
part, at or before the ensealing and delivery of these presents, the 
receipt whereof is hereby acknowledged, has given, granted, 
aliened, enfeoffed, released, conveyed and confirmed, and by these 
presents does give, grant, alien, enfeoff, release, convey and confirm, 
unto the said party of the second part and his heirs and assigns 
forever, all {here describe carefully the land or premises granted , by 
metes and bounds, and dimensions, contents or quantity, or boundary 
marks or monuments, and refer by volume and page to the deed of the 
land to the grantor, under which he holds it). 

Together xvith All and Singular the tenements, heredita¬ 
ments and appurtenances thereto belonging or in anywise apper¬ 
taining, and the reversion and reversions, remainder and remain¬ 
ders, rents, issues and profits thereof. And, also, all the estate, 
right, title, interest, property, possession, claim and demand 
whatsoever, of the said party of the first part, in and to the same, 
and every part and parcel thereof, with their and every of their 
appurtenances, TO HAVE AND TO HOLD the said hereby 
granted and described premises and every part and parcel thereof, 
with the appurtenances, unto the said party of the second part, and 
his heirs and assigns, to his and their only proper use, benefit and 
behoof forever. 

In Witness Whereof, the said party of the first part has 
hereunto set his hand and seal the day and year first above written. 

(Signature.) [<S<?aA] 

Sealed and delivered in presence of: 

QUITCLAIM DEED WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY. 

This Indenture, made the.day of.in the year 

one thousand eight hundred and.between {name, residence 

and occupation of grantor) of the first part, and {name, residence 
and occupation of the grantee) party of the second part; 

Witnesseth, That the said .party of the first part, for and in 

consideration of the sum of.lawful money of the United 

States of America, to him in hand paid, by the said party of the 
second part, at or before the ensealing and delivery of these pres¬ 
ents, the receipt whereof is hereby acknowledged, has remised, 
released and quitclaimed, and by these presents does remise, release 
and quitclaim, unto the said party of the second part, and to his 





































































































LAW AND LEGAL FORMS. 


251 


heirs and assigns forever {here carefully describe premises 
granted). 

Together with all and singular, The tenements, heredi¬ 
taments and appurtenances thereunto belonging, or in anywise 
appertaining, and the reversion and reversions, remainder and 
remainders, rents, issues and profits thereof. And also all the 
estate, right, title, interest, property, possession, claim and demand 
whatsoever, as well in law as in equity, of the said party of the 
first part, of, in, or to the above described premises, and every 
part and parcel thereof, with the appurtenances: To Have and 
to Hold all and singular the above mentioned and described 
premises together with the appurtenances, unto the said party of 
the second part, and his heirs and assigns forever. 

In Witness Whereof, the said party of the first part has here¬ 
unto set his hand and seal the day and year first above written. 

Sealed and delivered in presence of : (Signature.) [*S’«a?.] 

State of.) 

County of .( '" > ' 

On This .day of.in the year one thousand eight 

hundred and. before me personally came ( name of grantor ) 

who is known by me to be the individual described, and who exe¬ 
cuted the foregoing instrument and acknowledged that he executed 
the same. (Signature ." 4 


BOND FOR A DEED. 

Know All Men by these Presents , That I {name of obligor) 

of the Comity of.and State of.am held and firmly 

bound to {name of obligee) of the County of . and State of 

.in the sum of.dollars, to be paid to {name obligee) 

or his executors, administrators, or assigns, to the payment 
whereof I bind myself, my heirs, executors and administrators, 
firmly by these presents, sealed with my seal and dated the day of 
........A. I), 18... 

The condition of this obligation is that if I, the said {name of 

obligor ), upon payment of.dollars and interest thereon, as 

agreed and promised by said {name of obligee) agreeably to his 

promissory note, dated.18.., and made payable as follows, 

to wit: {describe note). Shall convey to said {name obligee) or 
his heirs, executors, or assigns forever, the following described 

real estate, situate, lying and being in the comity of.and 

State of. to wit: {here give careful description of land) 

deed or deeds in common form duly executed and acknowledged, 
and in the mean time shall permit said {name of obligee) to occupy 
and improve said premises for his own use, then this obligation 
shall be void, otherwise it shall remain in full force. 

(SlGNATE'RE.) [Sea*.] 

Signed, sealed and delivered in presence of: 





ill, or testa¬ 
ment, has 
been defined 
to be the de¬ 
claration, in 
proper form, 
of what a man wills to 
be performed after his 
death. 

All wills, whether 
of real or personal 
estate, must be in writ- 
in and signed at the 
foot or end thereof by 
the testator, or by some 
person in his presence, 
and by his direction, 
in the presence of two witnesses at least, present at 
the time, who must subscribe and attest the will in his 
presence. “ The signature must be so placed at, after, 
following, under, or beside, or opposite the end of the 
will, that it shall be apparent on the face of the will 
that the testator intended to give effect by such his 
signature to the writing signed as his will.” 

In general, all persons who have sufficient under¬ 
standing are capable of disposing by will of both real 


and personal estate. 
A married woman can 
make a will of the 
property settled to her 
separate use. In most 
of the states minors 
may becpieath personal 
property; in most cases 
the age for this pur¬ 
pose is eighteen for 
males and sixteen for 
females. Otherwise, 
no will made by any 
person under the age 
of twenty-one is valid. 

A will is a revocable 
instrument, and is re¬ 
voked by marriage either in the case of a man or 
woman, but it is not revoked by any other change of 
circumstances. It may, however, be revoked by an¬ 
other will subsequently executed. A will might be 
revoked by tearing off the name, but the question, 
“who tore it off,” would come up. If a testator 
wishes to revoke an existing will, it is better to 
destroy it; or, if the old one cannot be got at by the 
testator, he should make a new one. In the beginning 




































































LAW AND LEGAL FORMS 


of this latter in¬ 
strument, he 
should say that 
it is his last will. 
No obliteration, inter¬ 
lineation, or other altera¬ 
tion in a will, is valid, except so 
far as the words or effect of the will 
before the alteration shall be ap¬ 
parent unless with such alteration. But 
if the signature of the testator and sub¬ 
scribing witnesses be made in the margin 
opposite or near the alteration, or at the 
foot or end, referring to the alteration, it 
Avill be valid. 

A will takes effect as if executed immediately before 
the testator’s death, unless a contrary intention be 
shown by the will; and lapsed and void devises fall 
into the residue unless the will shows a contrary 
intention. 

When a person has resolved upon making a will, he 
should select from among his friends, persons of trust 
to become his executors, and should obtain their con¬ 
sent to act. And it is advisable that a duplicate copy 
of the will should be entrusted to the executor or 
executors. Or he should otherwise deposit a copy of 
his will, or the original will, in the office provided by 
the probate court for the safe custody of wills. 

Codicil is a supplement to a will, where anything is 
omitted which the testator would add, or which he 
would explain, alter, or retract; and it is the same 
with a testament, and taken as part thereof; and 
it must be executed in the same manner as a will, 
and be attested by two witnesses at least, who must 
be present when the testator signs or acknowledges 
it; and they must sign their names, as witnesses 
thereto, in his presence and in the presence of each 
other. 

Any number of codicils may be made to a will. A 
will is changed somewhat by a codicil, but not revoked 
by one. Alterations in wills or codicils should be very 
clearly stated, and it would be well to use the follow¬ 
ing words: “I hereby expressly confirm my former 

will, dated-, excepting so far as the disposition of 

my property is changed by this codicil.” 

A will made by word of mouth is called nuncupa¬ 
tive ; that written entirely by the hand of the testator 
is olographic. Another kind of will is the mystic, or 
sealed testaments. 

The personal property of any person deceased, left 
undisposed of by deed or will, is divisible among his 


widow—should he leave one—and his next of kin, in 
the following order: 

(1) Children, 

Grandchildren, 

Great-grandchildren. 

The next inheritors, in the absence of these, are 

(2) Father; if none, 

Mother, and 

Brothers and sisters, and their children, but not 
their grandchildren. 

(3) Grandfathers and grandmothers; if none, 

(4) Uncles and aunts; if none, 

(5) Cousins, and great-nephews and nieces. 

If the deceased leave a widow, but no child or chil¬ 
dren, one-half of his personal estate will fall to his 
widow, and the other half will be divisible among the 
next of kin. The father of an intestate without chil¬ 
dren is entitled to one-half of his estate, if he leave a 
widow, and to the whole if he leave no widow. When 
the nearest of kin are the mother and the brothers and 
sisters, the personal estate is divisible in equal por¬ 
tions, one of which will belong to the mother, and one 
to each of the brothers and sisters; and if there be 
children of a deceased brother or sister, an equal por¬ 
tion is divisible among each family of children. 

The more complicated forms of wills require the 
superintendence of a professional adviser. 

In the provinces of the Dominion of Canada, the 
laws in relation to wills are substantially the same as 
those of the United States. 

GENERAL. FORM OF A WILL DISPOSING OF BOTH REAX AND 

PERSONAL ESTATE. 

Know all Men by these Presents , That I ( name of testa¬ 
tor) of ( here name town or city , County and State , business calling 
or profession), being ( in good or ill health, as the case may be) and 
of sound and disposing mind and memory, do make and publish 
this, my last will and testament, hereby revoking all former wills 
by me at any time heretofore made. 

And as to my worldly estate, and all the property, 
real, personal, or mixed, of which I shall die seized 
and possessed, or to which I shall be entitled at the 
time of my decease, I devise, bequeath, and dispose 
thereof in the manner following, to wit: 

First, My will is, that all my just debts and funeral 
expenses shall, by my executors hereinafter named, 
be paid out of my estate, as soon after my decease as 
shall by them be found convenient. 

Item. I give, devise and bequeath to my beloved 
wife {name) all my household furniture, my 
horses, carriage, and carriage harness; and 
also ten thousand dollars in money, to be 
paid to her by my executors, herein¬ 
after named, within six months after 
my decease; to have and 
to hold the same to her 
and to her executors, ad¬ 
ministrators, and assigns 











































LAW AND LEGAL FORMS. 


forever. I also give to her the use, improvement and income of 
my dwelling-house, land and its appurtenances, situated ( here 
describe property') and my land situated in ( describe land) to have 
and to hold the same to her for and during her natural life. 

I give and bequeath to my honored mother (name) .dollars, 

in money, to be paid to her by my executors hereinafter ap¬ 
pointed, within six months after my decease; to be for the sole 
use of herself, her executors, administrators and assigns. 

I give and bequeath to my daughter (name) (here describe and 
itemize the property and items to be given); to have and to hold the 
same together with all the profits and income thei’eof, to her, the 
said (name), her heirs, executors, administrators, and assigns, to 
her and their use and benefit forever. 

I give, devise, and bequeath to my son (name) the reversion or 
remainder of my dwelling or mansion house, and its appurte¬ 
nances, situate in (describe property) and all profits, income, and 
advantage that may result therefrom, from and after the decease 
of my beloved wife, (name); to have and to hold the same to him, 
the said (name), his heirs and assigns, from and after the decease 
of my said wife, to his and their use and behoof forever. 

I give and bequeath to my second son (name), the reversion or 
remainder of my land situated in (describe it) and its appurte¬ 
nances. and all the profits, income and advantage that may result 
therefrom, from and after the decease of my beloved wife (name). 


to have and to hold the same to the said (son's name) his heirs and 
assigns from and after the decease of my said wife, to his and 
their use and behoof forever. 

All the rest and residue of my estate, real, personal, and mixed, 
of which I shall die seized and possessed, or to which I shall be 
entitled at my decease, I give, devise, and bequeath to be equally 
divided between and among my said sous (names). 

And, lastly, I do nominate and appoint my said sons (names), 
to be the executors of this my last will and testament. 

In Testimony Whereof, I, the said (name of testator), have 
to this, my last will and testament, contained (number of sheets of 
paper), and to every sheet thereof, subscribed my name, and to 
this, the last sheet thereof, I have subscribed my name and affixed 
my seal this.day of.in year of our Lord one thou¬ 


sand eight hundred and. 


(Signature.) [Seal -] 


Signed, sealed, published, and declared by the said (name testa¬ 
tor), as and for his last will and testament, in the presence of us> 
who, at his request and in his presence, and in the presence of 
each other, have subscribed our names as witnesses thereto. 

(Signature.) 

(Signature.) 

(Signature.) 


C'd 




EXECUTORS AND ADMINISTRATORS. 






THE WASHINGTON HOMESTEAD, MOUNT VERNON. 



n executor is a person intrusted by a testator to 
carry out the directions and requests in his will, 
and to dispose of his property as directed therein, 
after his decease. When no executor is named 
by will, or when those named refuse to act, then the 


probate court nominates certain persons to act as 
administrators to the deceased. 

Before probate of the will, an executor may effectu¬ 
ally do most of the acts that he could enforce after¬ 
ward; but an expected administrator can properly do 























































































* 



. .. —-^—v^r\ 

254 


LAW AND LEGAL FORMS. 



no act whatever before obtaining letters of administra¬ 
tion. An administrator, after receiving letters of ad¬ 
ministration, is in most respects in the same position 
as an executor, and the cases relating to the one apply, 
in general, to those of the other. 

The right to nomination as administrators or execu¬ 
tors, generally speaking, is in the order of relationship 
to the deceased. In this country, the widow or next 
of kin, have the first right to be appointed, but the 
courts have some discretion in the matter. An admin¬ 
istrator is required generally to enter into bond with 
sureties for the faithful execution of his trust. 

An executor may refuse to act; but having once 
acted, he cannot divest himself of the office or its 
responsibilities. If a person take upon himself to act 
as executor without any just authority, as by inter¬ 
meddling with the goods of the deceased, he is called 
an executor de con tort i. e., to his own hurt, and is 
liable to all the trouble of his office, without any of 
the profits or advantages; but merely doing acts of 
necessity or humanity, as locking up the goods, or 
burying the deceased will not be so construed. 

An executor is not entitled to any remuneration for 
his own personal trouble or loss of time, unless it be 
expressed in the will. 

The duties of an executor are to bury the deceased 
in a suitable manner, to prove the will, and make up 
an inventory of the personal estate; to collect the 
goods and chattels of the deceased, and to pay his 
creditors in the order of legal priority. The legacies 
are then to be paid as far as the assets extend, observ¬ 
ing the distinction between a specific and a general 
legacy, the residue, if any, going to the next of kin. 

The office of an executor is one of great trust and 
responsibility, as he not only represents the deceased, 
but is also a trustee for behoof of the creditors, lega¬ 
tees, and next of kin, of the deceased. He is liable 
for any loss occurring to the estate through negligence; 
for paying sums not due, unless upon decrees; for pay¬ 
ing simple-contract creditors before special creditors, 
or legatees before all the debts are discharged, if there 
should be any deficiency in the estate. 

If an executor intromit with the funds or movables, 
so as to lead to a suspicion of fraud, or so as to leave 
no means of ascertaining its extent, he is liable for all 
the debts of the deceased; otherwise, an executor is 
liable for the debts of the deceased only to the amount 
of the inventory. 

The office of an administrator is to administer or dis¬ 
tribute the goods of a person who has died without 
making a will; or, having made a will, without ap¬ 


pointing an executor. In such cases, letters of admin¬ 
istration are taken out of the principal or a district 
registry of the court of probate. Administration is 
used for managing the affairs of minors, lunatics, etc. 


n q 


^ 2 - 







IT guardian is one who has the care of the person 
M and property of a minor, who is called his ward. 

\ The guardian is considered as a trustee for his 
ward, and is accountable for the due manao-ement 
of the infant’s property, and is answerable not only for 
fraud, but for negligence or omission. 

A guardian may manage and dispose of the personal 
property of his ward at his own discretion, but it is 
best to get the advice or sanction of the court before 
making any important contract. He cannot sell the 
real estate without leave of the proper court, but may 
lease it if authorized to do so by will or court. He 
should not convert the personal property into real on 
his own responsibility. 

A married woman may become a guardian with the 
consent of her husband. A single woman who is a 
guardian usually loses her power to act as such by 
marriage, but she may be re-appointed. 

A guardian is not entitled to the service of his ward, 
or is he held for the support of his ward out of his own 
property. The guardian is required to educate and see 
that his ward has employment suitable to his circum¬ 
stances and rank in life, and where the guardian may 
think it to the best interests of the ward, he can 
apprentice him to some trade or calling from which he 
may be able to earn a livelihood. A guardian, like the 
father of a child, would have the legal right to exer¬ 
cise reasonable coercive measures, when necessary, to 




































































LAW AND LEGAL FORMS. 


255 


bring bis ward under proper discipline. A guardian 
would be expected to furnish his ward with tlie neces¬ 
saries of life, which would include all of those things 
ordinarily used by those similarly situated in life, but 
would not be liable if others should furnish like things 
which he had provided. But a guardian must not fur¬ 
nish his ward with things which would not be consid¬ 
ered necessaries, lest the court might decide that he 
could have the privilege of paying the bill from his 
own exchequer. 

PETITION FOR APPOINTMENT OF A GUARDIAN BY A MINOR 
OVER FOURTEEN YEARS. 

To the Honorable , the Judge of the Probate Court for the County 
of ..* 

The Petition of ( name of minor making application ) respect¬ 
fully represents: That the petitioner is a minor child above the 
age of fourteen years, of ( name of father), late of the Comity of 

., that he has no person legally authorized to take care of 

his person and estate, and prays the court that he may be permit¬ 
ted to make choice of a suitable person for that purpose. 

(Signature.) 


BOND BY GUARDIAN. 

Know all Men by these Presents , That we. ( names of 

bondsmen), both of (toicn or city). County of.and State of 

., are held and firmly bound unto the Commonwealth of 

(State) (r>r the proper obligee according to statute ), in the sum of 
six thousand dollars, lawful money, to be paid to the said Com¬ 
monwealth. her certain attorney or assigns; to which payment, 
well and truly to be made, we do bind ourselves, our heirs, execu¬ 
tors and administrators, jointly and severally, firmly by these 
presents; sealed with our seals, and dated this-of .. - A. D. IS. . 

The condition of this obligation is such, that if the above boun- 
den (name of guardian), guardian of (nameof ward), a minor child 
of (here give name of the father of the ward), late of said (name of 
town), deceased, shall at least once in every three (or, as the require¬ 
ment is) years and at any other time when required by the Probate 

Court (or the other proper court), of the County of., render 

a just and true account of the management of the property and 
estate of the said minor under his care, and shall also deliver up 
the said property agreeable to the order and decree of the said 
court, or the direction of law, and shall in all respects faithfully 
perform the duties of guardian of the said (name of ward), then 
the above obligation shall be void; otherwise it shall remain in full 
force and virtue. 

Signed, sealed and delivered' 

in presence of I (Signature.) \_Seal.~\ 

(Signature.) 

(Signature.) J (Signature.) [Seal.] 




Jhe right of a creditor to retain the property 
of his debtor until his debt lias been paid, 
is called a lien. 

Liens are either general or specific. A 
general lien is a right to retain certain 
goods until all the claims of the holder 
against the debtor are satisfied. This sort 

c 

of lien is not favored by the law. 

A specific lien is the right to retain certain goods for 
claims arising from these goods. Thus, in the sale of 
any article, the vendor has a right to retain it until 
the price agreed be paid. As a general rule, a work¬ 
man may retain any article which he has improved or 
repaired for the price of his labor; as a tailor who has 
received cloth to make into a coat may retain the coat 
until he is paid for the labor of making it. 

Liens are implied by law, or authorized by custom; 
or they may be created by express contract. The cus¬ 
tom, however, to be legal, must be reasonable; but 
this does not apply to special contract, which is good, 
though it may also be foolish or hard. 


Lien can exist only where the possession of the 
goods has been legally obtained, and ceases to exist the 
moment they are parted with. 

In some states a mechanic employed upon a house, 
and, in some upon any property or work, has a lien 
upon the same for a certain time, and he may recover 
the amount of his wages, and the price of materials 
which he has supplied. He may sue for his wages, 
and lay an embargo upon the property; or, according 
to the laws of certain other states, he may file a peti¬ 
tion in the clerk’s office or proper court; and, in any 
case may have the property sold to satisfy his claim, if 
the owner fails to meet it. 

Maritime lien applies to ships, freight, or cargo, 
and differs from the other in not depending upon pos¬ 
session, and requiring a legal process for its enforce¬ 
ment. It may arise by law or by special contract. 
Seamen have a lien on the vessel for their wages. 
Bottomry is also a lien established by special contract, 
on a vessel for repairs or necessary supplies to her to 
enable her to complete her voyage. 













































































LAW AND LEGAL FORMS. 


LAW OF SHIPPING. 





ne of the principal subjects embraced in the 
system of commerce is that of the law of 
shipping. The evidence of the American 
character of a vessel is secured by registration 
in the custom-house. Vessels may or may not 
be registered. It is important that they should 
be registered, in order to have certain privi¬ 
leges and protection under the government. 

A vessel of twenty tons burden, if for service in the 
coasting trade or fisheries, must be enrolled and licensed 
accordingly. If less than twenty tons burden, she need 
only be licensed, and if licensed for the fisheries, she 
may be permitted by the collector to visit and return 
from foreign ports. She must also be registered if she 
is to engage in the coasting trade or fishery, and if 
licensed and enrolled, she 
may become a registered 
ship, and have the privi¬ 
leges of such vessels. 

A ship is personal prop¬ 
erty, but its ownership and 
transfer are regulated some¬ 
what as real property. It 
may be transferred or sold 
by some instrument in writ¬ 
ing. It may be owned by 
two or more persons, who 
may build it together, or 
join in purchasing it; or each may purchase his share, 
and have equal ownership. A part-owner may sell his 
share. In case of death, his share goes to his repre¬ 
sentatives. 

Bottomry is in the nature of a mortgage of a ship, 
and is said by Blackstone to have originally arisen from 
permitting the master of a ship, in a foreign country, 
to hypothecate the ship in order to raise the money to 
refit. It arises when the owner takes up money to 
enable him to carry on his voyage, and pledges the 
keel or bottom of the ship as a security for the repay¬ 
ment; in which case it is understood that if the ship 
be lost, the lender loses the whole of his money; but 
if it returns in safety, then he shall receive back his 
principal, and also the premium or interest agreed 





upon, however it may exceed the legal rate of 
interest, it being considered in the nature 
of an insurance, and not usury. And this is allowed 
to be a valid contract in all trading nations. In this 
case, the ship and tackle, if brought home, are answer- 
able (as well as the person of the borrower) for the 
money lent. But if the loan is not upon the vessel, 
but upon the goods and merchandise, which must neces¬ 
sarily be sold or exchanged in the course of the voyage, 
then only the borrower, personally, is bound to answer 
the contract, who, therefore, in this case, is said to 
take up money at respondentia (i. e ., a loan upon goods 
laden on board a ship; respondentia differing from 
bottomry, which is a loan on the ship itself). 

These terms are also applied to contracts for the 

repayment of money bor¬ 
rowed, not on the ship and 
goods only, but on the mere 
hazard of the voyage itself; 
when a man lends a mer¬ 
chant $5,000, to be em¬ 
ployed in a beneficial trade, 
with condition to be repaid 
with extraordinary interest, 

V 

in case such a voyage be 
safely performed; which 
kind of agreement is some¬ 
times called foenus nauti- 
cum, and sometimes usura maritima. But as this gave 

o 

an opening for usurious and gaming contracts, espe¬ 
cially upon long voyages, it was enacted by the statute 
19 George II, C. 37, that all moneys lent on bottomry 
or respondentia, on vessels bound to or from the East 
Indies, shall be expressly lent only upon the ship, or 
upon the merchandise; that the lender shall have the 
benefit of salvage; and that if the borrower have not 
an interest in the ship, or in the effects on board, equal 
to the value of the sum borrowed, he shall be responsi¬ 
ble to the lender for so much of the principal as hath not 
been laid out, with legal interest and all other charges, 
though the ship and merchandise be totally lost. 

Charter-party, is a mercantile instrument in writ¬ 
ing, with or without seal, by which a party desiring to 































































































LAW AND LEGAL FORMS. 


257 


export goods from this country, or to import them 
from abroad, engages with some shipowner to take an 
entire vessel for the purpose, at a freight or reward 
thereby agreed for. Upon the execution of such an 
instrument the ship is said to be chartered or freighted, 
and the party by whom she is engaged is called the 
charterer or freighter. But, where, instead of taking 
the entire vessel, the owner of goods merely bargains 
for their conveyance on board of her for freight (other 
goods being at the same time conveyed for other pro¬ 
prietors), she is described, not as a chartered, but a 
general ship; and in this case no charter-party is usu¬ 
ally executed, but a bill of lading only. It may be 
here stated that the word freight is sometimes synony¬ 
mously used with that of cargo. 

Manifest, is a paper containing the particulars of a 
ship and cargo, including the name and tonnage of the 
vessel, the name of the place to which it belongs and 
name of master; the names of the places where the 
goods on board have been laden and for which they are 
destined; a particular account of the packages on 
board, with thair marks, contents, shippers, con¬ 
signees, etc., as far as may be known to the master. 
The manifest must be made out, dated, and signed 
by the master of the vessel at the place or places 
where the goods, or any part of them, are taken on 
board. 

Salvage is an allowance made to persons other than 
the crew, by whom ships or goods have been saved 
from the sea, lire, pirates, or enemies. The officers 
and crew of a ship cannot claim salvage in respect of 
services rendered to it, unless, indeed, their duty to its 
owners had ceased by the master’s bona tide abandon¬ 
ment of it at sea, without hope of recovery. No fixed 
positive rule or rate is laid down fixing the amount of 
salvage, but the general principle is, that a reasonable 
compensation be made. 

The ingredients that are to be taken into account in 
determining the amount of salvage are (1) enterprise 
in the salvors in going out in tempestuous weather to 
assist a vessel in distress, risking their own lives to 
save their fellow-creatures, and to rescue the property 
of their fellow-subjects; (2) the degree of danger and 
distress from which the property is rescued, and 
whether it was in imminent peril and almost certainly 
lost, if not at the time rescued and preserved; (3) the 
decree of labor and skill which the salvors incur and 
display, and the time occupied; (4) the value. Where 
all these circumstances concur, a large and liberal 
reward ought to be given; but where none, or scarcely 
any, bike place, the compensation can hardly be de¬ 


nominated a salvage compensation; it is little more 
than a remuneration for labor. 

The person intrusted with the care and navigation of 
a ship is called the master. He is the confidential ser¬ 
vant of the owners, who are bound to the performance 
of every lawful contract entered into by him relative 
to the usual employment of the vessel. The master 
has power to pledge both ship and cargo for repairs 
executed in foreign parts, but not for repairs executed 
at home. 

With respect to collision, the rule is, that the party 
in fault suffers his own loss and compensates the other 
party who sustains loss through him. In case neither 
party is in fault, the loss rests where it kills, and like¬ 
wise if both parties are in fault, though it is equally 
divided in admiralty. 

Every seaman on board a vessel bound from a port 
in this country to any other port, must sign the ship¬ 
ping articles which every master of a vessel is required 
to have. These articles must set forth the voyage, 
and the terms on which each seaman goes on the ves¬ 
sel. The courts will protect seamen from oppressive 
articles. 

The pilot is the steersman or person on board a ship 
who has charge of the helm and the ship’s course. 
Pilots require to be found properly qualified and ap¬ 
pointed. After a pilot is taken on board, if the master 
is bv law obliged to do so, the master has no longer 
any command of the vessel till she is safe in harbor, 
and the owners are not responsible for any loss or 
damage that may arise from her mismanagement, 
unless it appear to have arisen from the neglect or 
misconduct of the master or crew in obeying the orders 
of the pilot. There are, however, cases in which it is 
lawful, and even necessary, for the master to interfere 
with or supercede a pilot; in which case, of course, 
the responsibility of the pilot ceases. But if it be 
optional for the master to take on board a pilot and he 
do so, the pilot is regarded as the servant of the own¬ 
ers, who are responsible for his conduct. Pilots are 
themselves answerable for any damage resulting from 
their own negligence or incompetency. 

Average implies whatever loss or damage is incurred 
by any portion of a ship or cargo for the preservation 
of the rest. hen such damage occurs, the several 
persons interested in the vessel, freight, and cargo, each 
contribute their proportion to indemnify the owner of 
the part in question, against the damages or expense 
which has been incurred for the general benefit. This 
allowance is for loss or damage that happens accident¬ 
ally. General average also implies jeopardy of all. 






















































258 


LAW AND LEGAL FORMS 




ire insurances are almost invariably effected 
ggr by joint-stock companies, of which there are, 
3Cv with few exceptions, one or more in all the 
considerable towns throughout the country. 
tjj s Some of these insure entirely at their own risk, 
and for their own profit; in others, which are 
called mutual insurance companies, every person insured 
becomes a member or proprietor, and participates in 
the profits or loss of the concern. 

In fire insurance, the insurers, in consideration of a 
certain premium received by them, either in a gross 
sum or in annual payments, contract to indemnify the 
insurer against all loss or damage he may sustain in his 
houses, or other buildings, stock, goods, or merchan¬ 
dise, by fire, 
d u r i n g a 
specified pe¬ 
riod. Usu¬ 
ally the pe¬ 
riod is for 
one year, 
and renewed 
annually by 
payment of 
another pre¬ 
mium. 

As in ma¬ 
rine insur¬ 
ance, a mis¬ 
representa¬ 
tion, where¬ 
by the prop¬ 
erty insured 

m a y b e RUINS OF THE 

charged at a lower rate of premium than it otherwise 
would be, invalidates the policy. The party effecting 
the insurance must also have a bona fide interest in the 
property insured. 

Fire insurances are not, in this country, subject to 
the law of average, as in marine insurances; and the 
amount insured is payable to its full extent, provided 
the loss or damage is equal to the sum insured. The 
conditions on which an insurance is granted are in all 
cases printed upon the policy, and form a part of the 
contract. 



A policy of insurance is not in its nature assignable, 
as it is only the interest of the insured that is designed 

•J C 

to be covered by the policy, nor can it be transferred 
without the express consent of the office. 

Risks are of various kinds, and are commonly divided 
into common, hazardous, extra-hazardous, and special. 

Double insurance cannot be permitted, because it 
would tempt to fraud. 

Each company has its own form of policy, which it 
furnishes to the applicant. 

Any description of property which may be injured 
by fire may be insured. Where more than one person 
has a legal or equitable interest in property, each per¬ 
son so interested may insure his interest to its full 

value; as a 
mortgagor 
and a mort¬ 
gagee have 
different in¬ 
terests in 
the s a m e 
property, 
each may in- 
sure; the 
mortgagee 

C C 

insures his 
debt, and 
when this 
debt has 
been p aid 
the policy 
ceases to be 
in force, but 

CHICAGO FIRE. should there 

be a loss for which the insurers are liable, and before 
the mortgage has been canceled, the insurers would be 
held to pay the amount to the one holding the mort¬ 
gage, if the amount should not exceed the sum insured, 
after which the insurers would be entitled to an assign- 
ment of the debt from the mortgagee, and could, by a 
suit at law, collect the amount of the insurance from 
the mortgagor, which operated merely as a transfer of 
the indebtedness from the mortgagee to the insurance 
company. If the mortgagor should have his interest 
in the property insured, he would be entitled to the 































































































































































LAW AND LEGAL FORMS. 


259 


amount of the insurance, and the mort<ra£ee would be 
compelled to look to him for a liquidation of the mort¬ 
gage. An agent who may have the custody of a prin¬ 
cipal’s goods, may have them insured, but as the 
principal, also, has the right to have the same goods 
insured, there must be care taken to avoid confounding 
these several interests, that all of the several sums of 
the insurance added together shall not more than equal 
the value of the property insured. 

Where the insured desires to make any repairs or 
changes in the premises insured, he should so inform 
the insurers, and when practicable procure their writ¬ 
ten assent thereto. The alterations, or repairs would 
not, in themselves, render a policy void, unless such 
alterations have substantially enhanced the risk, but, 
it seems that the insurer would not be held, in the 
absence of their assent, to a new risk arising from 
alterations or repairs, but should a loss occur, while 
the premises were undergoing repairs or alterations, 
from causes independent of such changes, the insurers 
would be held. It is well to have a clause inserted in 
the policy providing for necessary and ordinary repairs. 

FORM OF IMMEDIATE NOTICE OF LOSS. 

Take yotice, That on the second day of January inst., a fire 
broke out in building Xo. 126 on Walnut street, in the City of Cin¬ 
cinnati, State of Ohio, whereon I am insured by you, by your pol¬ 
icy. Xo. 28.964, for the sum of eight thousand dollars. 

The fire was caused and caught from the burning of building Xo. 
125, which joined on to mine. 

The house was wholly destroyed by fire, and I shall claim a pay¬ 
ment from you under your policy. 

Written and sent this third da}" of January in the year 1884. 

JOHX DOE. [Sea*.] 

Witness to the signature axul sending: 

Samuel Roe. 

Some insurance companies insert a clause in their 
policies requiring the insured to make a sworn state¬ 
ment, to be accompanied by a certificate from a notary 
public or a magistrate, setting forth all the facts and 
circumstances known by the insured in relation to the 
causes of the fire as well as the loss. 

FORM OF NOTICE WITH CERTIFICATE. 

To the . Insurance Company: 

Whereas, The said.Insurance Company, by their policy, 

numbered and dated on the. day of.in the year. 

caused me to be insured in the sum of.dollars against loss or 

damage by fire to the following described building: that is to say 
(Here describe and designate the building sufficiently to shoic clearly 
where and what it was, taking the description of the policy , but not 
copying it at length-') 

Now, I the said ( Name of the assured) having been solemnly 
sworn, do depose and say: 

1. That on the.day of..now last past, between the 

hours of_and_a fire broke out in said building, whereby the 

same was greatly damaged (or destroyed ), and the said fire was, 
according to my best knowledge and belief, caused by ( Here set 
forth the causes as far as they are known, or supposed on reasonable 
grounds) and I aver that the said fire was not caused by me, or by 


my design and concurrence, or with any previous knowledge oh 
my part, or in any manner attributable to me or to my agency, 
direct or indirect. 

2- That I was interested in the said property in the following 
manner: that is to say (Here say whether the insured owned the 
property himself, or was a tenant of it, or a landlord, or mortgagor 
or mortgagee, or trustee , or how otherwise he was interested.) 

3. That there was no other insurance against fire of the said 
property (or, if there was any other, state what it was). 

4. That the occupants of the building at the time of the fire 
were, so far as is known to me, the following persons: (Setforth 
the names of the occupants, the parts of the building occupied by each 
one, and the purpose for ichich it icas occupied). 

5. That the actual value of the building in dollars at the time of 

the fire, was, according to my best belief and judgment. 

dollars. (If the property was personal , as goods, furniture, or the 
like, say, as may appear by the schedule annexed). 

6. That the Avhole of said value was lost by the fire; and being 
more than the sum insured thereon, I now claim of said insurance 

company said sum of.dollars (or if the building xcas injured 

and not destroyed , then say that so much of the value—stating the 
amount—of said building was lost by fire, inasmuch as the building, 
if repaired, cannot be restored to as good a condition as before, for a 
less amount than that sum). 

Witness my hand at.this.day of.in the 

year. (Signature.) 

CERTIFICATE TO BE APPENDED TO THE FOREGOING. 

State of . ) 

County of .j s * 

I., a justice of the peace in and for said county (or what 

else may be his office) dwelling near to the property above men¬ 
tioned, in the town (or city) of.. • -have investigated the cir¬ 

cumstances attending the said fire, and am personally acquainted 

with the said..whose character is good; and I belieA r e 

that the above statement to which the said.has made 

oath in my presence is true; that the loss cannot be imputed to 
fraud or misconduct on his part; and that he has suffered by the 

fire a loss of.dollars. I am not in any way interested in the 

said property, or in the said policy, or any claim under the same. 

In Witness of all which I have hereunto set my hand and my 

seal (of office, if he has an official seal) at-this-day of-in 

the year. (Signature of Magistrate. [Sea?.] 

ASSIGNMENT OF A POLICY TO BE INDORSED THEREON. 

I ., insured by the within policy, in consideration of a 

dollar paid to me by.and for other good considerations, do 

hereby assign, and transfer to the said.this policy, together 

with all the right, title, interest, and claim which I now have or 
hereafter may have, in, to, or under the same. 

Witness my hand this.day of.in the year. 

Witness: (Signature.) 

Where it is not practicable to indorse the transfer 
on the policy a separate form may be used. The fol¬ 
lowing form will answer: 

o 

Whereas, the.Insurance Company, by their policy, 

numbered.and dated cm.day of.in the year 

.caused me to be insured against loss or damage by fire on 

a certain building, being (designate the building) in the sum of 

.dollars; now I, the said., in consideration of one 

dollar paid to me by.and for other good considerations, 

have transferred and assigned, and do by these presents transfer 

and assign unto the said.the said policy of insurance, and 

all the right, title, interest or claim, which I now have or ever may 
have, in, to, or under the same, and in and to any sum of money 
which now is or shall ever be payable thereon. 


Witness my hand this.day of.in the year ... 

Witness: (Signature.) 










































































260 


LAW AND LEGAL FORMS. 


<r 7IS- 


rf]-® «— 

{ -E* 

MARINE INSURANCE. 

. <5L -Fh 

r © 

4J-® . 


%■ 



he three great divisions of insurance are 
marine, fire, and life insurance. The last 
two are of much later origin than the first. 

A marine insurance is a contract entered 
into between persons having some interest 
in vessels, their cargo, or their earnings, on 
the one side, and the insurers, or persons 
who, on the payment of a certain premium, undertake 
to indemnify the former against specified losses during 
a particular voyage, or for the time specified in the 
policy. 

The insurers are usually called underwriters, because 
they write their names at the foot of the policy. 

The contract of insur¬ 
ance is one pre-eminent¬ 
ly based on the assump¬ 
tion of perfect good faith 
between the parties, and 
hence any concealment, 
or misrepresentation of 
material facts, likely to 
affect the underwriter’s 
estimate of the risk, will 
render the policy void, 
even where the conceal¬ 
ment or misrepresenta¬ 
tion may have resulted 
from a mistake, without 
the intention to deceive. 

The policy of insurance is printed with blank spaces, 
to be filled up with the particulars of each case. 

In all voyage policies, it is implied in the contract, 
that the ship shall be seaworthy at the commencement 
of the risk; and in any case, a ship must be fit for its 
purpose, whether a freighting ship to Europe, a coast¬ 
ing schooner, or a vessel in port. 

In case of any loss or misfortune, the insured and 
their servants are expected to labor for the recovery of 
the goods, merchandise, or ship, or any part thereof, 
for the insurers, who will bear the expenses thereof. 

When an absolute total loss occurs, the assured are 
entitled to recover the amount of the policy, without 
giving any notice of abandonment. In this connec¬ 
tion, the term, abandonment, is used to denote that, 
prior to compensation being demanded for the loss of 




a ship or goods, the owner must abandon or make over 
to the insurer his entire interest in any portion of the 
rescued property. 

When the subject insured is so seriously damaged 
that its recovery might cost more than its eventual 
value, it forms a “constructive total loss,” and notice 
of abandonment requires to be given by the insured, 
when the underwriters become owners of the vessel, 
and bound for the amount of the insurance. 

When there is a partial loss, or damage, arising from 
any of the causes insured against, it is determined by 
what is known as particular average. In every case 
of partial loss, the underwriter is liable to pay such 

proportion of the sum 
he has subscribed as the 
damage sustained by 
the subject of insurance 
bears to its whole value 
at the time of insur¬ 
ance. 

It is not necessary to 
name the ship in a policy 
on o-oods, as the insur- 
ance would be valid if it 
is mentioned that the 
goods are aboard any 
ship, nor is it necessary 
to mention in the policy 
the name of the party 
in whose favor the contract is made. If made to A, or 
“whomsoever it may concern,” in such case an action 
could be maintained by anyone interested and intended 
to be insured. 

No valid insurance can be effected on a voyag-e under- 
taken in violation of law, as in violation of an embargo, 
or blockade, or for the purpose of trading with an 
enemy; and any illegality when the voyage commences 
would render the entire contract illegal, and would 
release the insurance company from any liability. But 
if at the time of insurance the voyage was lawful, then 
the insurers would only be released from liability for a 
loss from causes which the illegality was the immediate 
cause. It is a well settled principle, that insurance on 
property for export or import, contrary to the law where 
the policy is made or sought to be enforced, is void. 












































































LAW AND LEGAL FORMS. 



fe insurance, or assurance, is a contract for 
payment of a certain sum in the event of 
the death of a particular person, in con¬ 
sideration of a premium paid at once or 
periodically. 

Assurances are said to be absolute when 
the amount of the assurance is payable on 
the death of the party assured; contingent , 
when the payment depends also upon some 
other event, as the existence of some other 
person or persons at the time of the death. 
They are also temporary when the sum is 
payable only on the expiry of the life 
within a certain time; deferred, when pay¬ 
able only in the event of the expiry of the 
life after a certain time; and for the whole 
life, payable at the death of the individual, 
whenever that may happen. Assurances 
are also effected on joint lives under various 
contingencies. 

The system of life-assurance seems to 
have been borrowed from the marine, and 
the practice at first was for individuals to 
underwrite life risks in the same way as 
marine. But life-assurance is now effected 
in this country in a manner quite similar 
to that of fire-insurance by the mutual 
companies. 

The proprietary, or joint-stock companies, are formed 
of persons who have subscribed a capital, on the assur¬ 
ance of which the business of the company is carried on, 
and who divide the profits entirely among themselves. 
In the mutual-assurance societies, on the other hand, 
there is no proprietary, the assured being likewise the 
assurers, and dividing the profits among themselves, 
after deducting the expenses of management, and re¬ 
serving a guaranty fund. 

The premiums to be paid are adjusted according to 
the age of the party on whose life the assurance is 
made; being lowest on young lives, and increasing from 
year to year as the expectancy of life diminishes. 

Before effecting an assurance, there are certain forms 
to be filled up, and certain regulations to be complied 


with, so as to ascertain the state of health of the pro¬ 
poser ; for unless he be in good health, the office will 
not undertake the risk at the ordinary rate. 

If the proposer misstates or conceals anything that 
may affect the rate of premium, it vitiates the policy, 
though some offices now declare their policies to be in¬ 
disputable after a certain time. 

If an assurance is effected by one person on the life 
of another, the assurer is generally required to prove 
that he has a sufficient interest in the life to warrant 
him in taking out a policy to the extent proposed. 

Most offices will generally lend the value of a policy 
at a moderate rate of interest on its security. It is also 
the practice among offices to allow a policy-holder to 
resign his assurance, and to return him a certain por¬ 
tion of the premiums paid. The sum so returned is 
generally about one-third of the premiums paid and 
the bonuses declared on the policy. 

The premium to cover the risk upon life-assurance is 
usually paid in money, or by a note at once, if the 
period be for one year only, or less. For more than a 
year, it is usually payable annually. By agreement, it 
may be paid quarterly, with interest from the day when 
the whole is due. If notes are not given, the entire 
amount of the premium is presumed to be due. 

A life-policy may be assigned, and the assignee of a 
policy is entitled, on the death of the party insured, to 
receive the full amount assured. An assignment may 
be by a separate deed, which should be properly exe¬ 
cuted and delivered. In this way a policy may be 
assigned, without delivery. Otherwise, a delivery and 
deposit of the policy would be taken as an assignment, 
without a written paper to that effect. 

A creditor may insure the life of his debtor to the 
amount of all and any legal debts that may be owing 
or due to him; and so a trustee would have an insurable 
interest to the value in which he is trustee. 

The insurance in the above cases is mainly a contract 
on the part of the insurers to indemnify the insured 
against loss, therefore if the claim on which the 
insurance is based has been satisfied, the insured would 
have no claim. Otherwise it would be a wager policy, 
as the assured would have no interest in the life insured. 

























































































LAW AND LEGAL FORMS. 







V 


Mortgages of Chattels, or Personal Property. 






11 

S-f**- 


(Chattel mortgages are allowed in most of the 
| states of the Union. Any form which would 
^ ^ suffice as a bill of sale of the property, and 
plb having in addition to the words of sale and trans- 
qV fer, a provision for the avoidance of it when the 
debt is paid, would be sufficient. 

Generally, the mortgagor retains possession if the 
mortgage be recorded. There is provision for equity 
of redemption, and as regards a mortgage of personal 
property, the period is very much shorter than that in 


the case of land. In the former case, the period is, 
usually, sixty days. 

A pledge of personal property is different from a 
mortgage. Things subject to pledge are ordinarily 
goods and chattels; but money, debts, negotiable 
instruments, and, indeed, any other valuable thing of 
a personal nature, may be delivered in pledge. It is of 
the essence of the contract, that there be an actual 
delivery of the thing to the pledgee, for his right is 
not consummated except by possession. In virtue of 





the pledge, he acquires a special property in the 
thing, and is entitled to the exclusive possession of 
it during the time and for the objects for which it is 
pledged. 

The pledgee has aright to sell the pledge when there 
has been a default in the pledger in complying with 
the engagement; but the possession of the pledge does 
not suspend the right to sue for the whole debt or 
other engagement without selling the pledge, for it is 
only a collateral security. A pledgee cannot become 
the purchaser at a sale. 


A loan of stock admits of the privilege of sale or 
pledge. The borrower can use it as he chooses in any 
way as he may have occasion; but he must return the 
same amount of the same stock, when it is required. 
If the stock be pledged to him, it cannot be so used 
unless by special agreement. 

FORM OF CHATTEL MORTGAGE. 

This Indenture, Made this second day of January, in the 
year of our Lord, one thousand eight hundred and eighty-four, 
between John Doe, of the City of Quincy, in the County of Adams 
and State of Illinois, party of the first part, and Samuel Roe, of 






























































































































































































ij 




LAW AND LEGAL FORMS. 


the City of Quiney, in the County of Adam? and State of Illinois, 
party of the second part: 

Witnesseth, That the said party of the first part, for and in 
consideration of the sum of one dollar, in hand paid, the receipt 
whereof is hereby acknowledged, does hereby grant, sell, convey 
and confirm unto the said party of the second part, his heirs and 
assigns, all and singular the following described goods and chat¬ 
tels. to wit: )List and schedule of the articles , specifying them 
with sufficient distinctness to make it certain ichat they are.) 

Together with all and singular, The appurtenances there¬ 
unto belonging, or in anywise appertaining. To Have and to 
Hold the same unto the said Samuel Roe, his heirs, executors, 
administrators and assigns, to his and their sole use forever. 
And the said John Doe, for myself and my heirs, executors, and 
administrators, do. .covenant and agree with the said Samuel Roe, 
and with his heirs, executors, administrators and assigns, that I am 
lawfully possessed of the said goods and chattels, as of my own 
property; that the same are free from all incumbrances; that I will, 
and my heirs, executors and administrators, shall warrant and de¬ 
fend the same unto the said party of the second part, his heirs, 
executors, administrators and assigns, against the lawful claims 
and demands of all persons, and that I will keep the said goods 
and chattels insured against loss by fire for the full insurable value 
thereof, in such companies as the holder of the note.. hereinafter 
mentioned may direct, and make the loss, if any, payable to, and 
deposit the policies with, the holder of said note.., as further 
security for the indebtedness hereinafter mentioned. 

Provided, Nevertheless, That if the said John Doe. his 
executors, administrators or assigns, shall well and truly pay, or 
cause to be paid, unto the said Samuel Roe, his heirs, executors, 
administrators or assigns, the sum of one thousand dollars, in six 
months from the date first above written, with eight per cent inter¬ 
est, as also a certain promissory note, bearing even date herewith, 
signed by the said mortgagor, whereby he promises to pay the 
said sum and interest at the time aforesaid, then and from thence¬ 
forth these presents, and everything therein contained, shall cease, 
and be null and void, otherwise shall remain in full force and 
virtue. 

And Provided, Also, That it shall be lawful for the said 
party of the first part, his executors, administrators and assigns, 
to retain possession of the said goods and chattels, and at his own 
expense to keep and use the same until he or his executors, admin¬ 
istrators or assigns, shall make default in the payment of said sum 
of money above specified, either in principal or interest, at the 
time or times, and in the manner hereinbefore stated. 

And the said Party of the First Part, Hereby cove¬ 
nants and agrees, that in case default shall be made in the pay¬ 
ment of the note aforesaid, or of any part thereof, or the interest 
thereon, or any part thereof, on the day or days respectively on 
which the same, or any part thereof, shall become due and payable; 
or if the party of the second part, his executors, administrators or 

assigns, shall feel. •_insecure or unsafe, or shall fear diminution, 

removal or waste for want of proper care of said property; or if 
the party of the first part shall sell or assign, or attempt to sell or 
assign, the said goods and chattels, or any part thereof, or any 
interest therein; or if any writ issue from any court, or by any 
justice of the peace, or any distress warrant shall be levied on said 
goods and chattels, or any part thereof; or if the party of the first 
part shall fail or neglect to keep the property insured for the fur¬ 
ther security of the party of the second part, and to deposit the 
policies, as aforesaid; then, and in any or either of the aforesaid 
cases, all of said note., and sum., of money, both principal and 
interest, shall, at the option of the party of the second part, his 
executors, administrators or assigns, without notice of said option 
to any one, become at once due and payable, anything in said 
note.. or in this mortgage to the contrary notwithstanding; and 
the party of the second part, his executors, administrators or 
assigns, or any of them, shall thereupon have the right to take 




immediate and exclusive possession of said property, and every 
part thereof, and for that purpose may pursue the same or any part 
thereof, wherever it may be found, and also may enter any of the 
premises of the said party of the first part, with or without force 
or process of law, wherever the said goods and chattels may be, 
or be supposed to be, and search for the same, and if found, to take 
possession of, and remove and sell, and dispose of, said property, 
or any part thereof, at public auction, to the highest bidder, after 
giving ten day’s notice of the time, place, and terms of sale, 
together with a description of the property to be sold, either by 
publication in some newspaper in the City of Quincy, or by simi¬ 
lar notices posted up in three public places in the vicinity of such 
sale, or at private sale, with or without notice, for cash, or on 
credit, as the said Samuel Roe, his heirs, executors, administrators 
or assigns, agents or attorneys, or any of them, may elect, at any 
which sale at auction the said mortgagee, his heirs, executors, 
administrators or assigns, agent or attorneys, or either of them, 
may become the purchasers, and out of the money arising from 
such sale, to retain all costs and charges for pursuing, searching 
for, taking, removing, keeping, storing, advertising and selling 
such property, goods, chattels, and effects, and all prior liens 
thereon, together .. the amount due and unpaid upon said note 
or any part of it either in principal or interest, rendering the 
over-plus of money arising from such sale (if any there shall be) 
unto John Doe or his legal representatives, which sale or sales so 
made shall be a perpetual bar, both in law and equity, against the 

party of the first part, .legal representative and 

Witness The hand and seal of the party of the first part, the 
day and year first above written. 


Signed , sealed , and delivered , in 
the presence of 
John Daniel. 

Marshall Green. 


JOHN DOE. [&?<?£•] 
SAMUEL ROE. [SeaZ.j 


SHORT form of chattel mortgage. 

Know All Hen by these Presents, That.of the 

Town of.in the Coimty of.and State of.in 

consideration of the sum of.dollars, to . • • .paid by. 

of the County of.and State of..the receipt whereof 

is hereby acknowledged, do.. .hereby grant, sell, convey, and con¬ 
firm, unto the said.and to-heirs and assigns, the follow¬ 
ing goods and chattels, to wit: . 

To Have and to Hold All and singular the said goods and 
chattels, unto the said mortgagee.. herein, and .. . .heirs, execu¬ 
tors, administrators and assigns, to.and their sole use. forever. 

And the mortgagor, .herein, for.and for.heirs, executors 

and administrators, do.... hereby covenant to and with the said 

mortgagee. ...heirs, executors, administrators and assigns, 

that said mortgagor.lawfully possessed of the said goods 

and chattels, as of.own property; that the same are free from 

all encumbrances, and that-will, and - • • executors and adminis¬ 
trators shall, warrant and defend the same to.the said 

mortgagee.., ... .his heirs, executors, administrators and assigns, 
against the lawful claims and demands of all persons. 

Provided, Nevertheless, That if the said mortgagor.., .... 
executors or administrators, shall well and truly pay unto the said 

mortgagee..,-executors, administrators or assigns,..... 

then this mortgage is to be void, otherwise to remain in full force 
and effect. 

And, Provided, also, That it shall be lawful for the said 
mortgagor.., . ...executors, administrators and assigns, to retain 

possession of the said goods and chattels, and at.own expense, 

to keep and use the same, until-or ... executors, administrators 

or assigns, shall make default in the payment of the said sum of 
money above specified, either in principal or interest, at the time 
or times, and in the manner hereinbefore stated. • And the said 
mortgagor.., hereby covenant.. and agree. • that in case default 
shall be made in the payment of the note-, aforesaid, or of any 
part thereof, or the interest thereon, on the day or days respec- 































































264 


LAAV AND LEGAL FOPAIS. 


tively on which the same shall become due and payable; or if the 
mortgagee ., ... executors, administrators or assigns, shall feel 
... .insecure or unsafe, or shall fear diminution, removal, or waste 
of said property; or if the mortgagor., shall sell or assign, or 
attempt to sell or assign, the said goods and chattels, or any inter¬ 
est therein; or if any writ, or any distress warrant, shall be levied 
on said goods and chattels, or any part thereof; then, and in any 
or either of the aforesaid cases, all of said note., and sum of 
money, both principal and interest, shall, at the option of said 
mortgagee. , ... executors, administrators or assigns, without 
notice of said option to any one, become at once due and payable, 

and the said mortgagee.•., .executors, administrators or 

assigns, or any of them, shall thereupon have the right to take 
immediate possession of said property, and for that purpose, may 
pursue the same wherever it may be found, and may enter any of 
the premises of the mortgagor • •, with or without force or process 
of law, wherever the said goods and chattels may be, or be sup¬ 
posed to be, and search for the same, and if found, to take posses¬ 
sion of, and remove, and sell, and dispose of the said property, or 
any part thereof, at public auction, to the highest bidder, after 




giving.days’ notice of the time, place and terms of sale, 

together with a description of the property to be sold, by notices 
posted up in three public places in the vicinity of such sale, or at 
private sale, with or without notice, for cash or on credit, as the 
said mortgagee.., . • • .heirs, executors, administrators or assigns, 
agents or attorneys, or any of them, may elect; and, out of the 
money arising from such sale, to retain all costs and charges for 
pursuing, searching for, taking, removing, keeping, storing, adver¬ 
tising, and selling such goods and chattels, and all prior liens 
thereon, together with the amount due and unpaid upon said 
note.., rendering the surplus, if any remains, unto said mort¬ 
gagor. ., or... .legal representatives. 

Witness The hand., and seal*, of the said Mortgagor.., this 

........day of.in the year of our Lord one thousand eight 

hundred and... .... 

Sealed and delivered in the'} . [<SeaZ.] 

presence of [ .[$eaZ.] 

£ 3 *--- 





Atf OF* 



COpYRItjpT. 



'he copyright laws of the United States, in force 
December 1, 1873, as amended by Act of Con¬ 
gress, approved June 18, 1874, is condensed so as 
not to occupy much space, and we give the provisions 
as follows: 

Sec. 4948. All records and other things relating to copyrights 
and required by law to be preserved, shall be under the control of 
the Librarian of Congress, and kept and preserved in the Library 
of Congress; and the Librarian of Congress shall have the imme¬ 
diate care and supervision thereof, and, under the supervision of 
the Joint Committee of Congress on the Library, shall perform 
all acts and duties required by law touching copyrights. 

Sec. 4949. The seal provided for the office of the Librarian of 
Congress, shall be the seal thereof, and by it all records and papers 
issued from the office, and to be used in evidence, shall be authen¬ 
ticated. 

Sec. 4950. The Librarian of Congress shall give a bond, with 
sureties, to the Treasurer of the United States, in the sum of five 
thousand dollars, with the condition that he will render to the 
proper officers of the Treasury a true account of all moneys 
received by virtue of his office. 

Sec. 4951. The Librarian of Congress shall make an annual 
report to Congress of the number and description of copyright 
publications for which entries have been made during the year. 

Sec. 4952. Any citizen of the United States, or resident 
therein, who shall be the author, inventor, designer, or proprietor 
of any book, map, chart, dramatic or musical composition, en¬ 
graving, cut, print, photograph or negative thereof, or of a paint¬ 
ing, drawing, chromo, statute, statuary, and of models or designs 
intended to be perfected as works of the fine arts, and the execu¬ 
tors, administrators, or assigns of any such person, shall, upon 
complying with the provisions of this chapter, have the sole 



liberty of printing, reprinting, publishing, completing, copying, 
executing, finishing, and vending the same; and, in the case of a 
dramatic composition, of publicly performing or representing it, 
or causing it to be performed or represented by others. And 
authors may reserve the right to dramatize or translate their own 
works. 

Sec. 4953. Copyrights shall be granted for the term of twenty- 
eight years from the time of recording the title thereof, in the 
manner hereinafter directed. 

Sec. 4954. The author, inventor, or designer, if he be still liv¬ 
ing and a citizen of the United States or resident therein, or his 
widow or children if he be dead, shall have the same exclusive 
right continued for the further term of fourteen years, upon 
recording the title of the work or description of the article so 
secured a second time, and complying with all other regulations in 
regard to original copyrights, within six months before the expi¬ 
ration of the first term. And such person shall, within two months 
from the date of said renewal, cause a copy of the record thereof 
to be published in one or more newspapers, printed in the United 
States, for the space of four weeks. 

Sec. 4955. Copyrights shall be assignable in law by any instru¬ 
ment of writing, and such assignment shall be recorded in the office 
of the Librarian of Congress within sixty days after its execu¬ 
tion; in default of which it shall be void as against any subse¬ 
quent purchaser or mortgagee for a valuable consideration, without 
notice. 

Sec. 4956. No person shall be entitled to a copyright unless he 
shall, before publication, deliver at the office of the Librarian of 
Congress, or deposit in the mail addressed to the Librarian 
of Congress, at Washington, District of Columbia, a printed copy 
of the title of the book or other article, or a description of the 
painting, drawing, chromo, statue, statuary, or model or design 
for a work of the fine arts, for which he desires a copyright; nor 


































































LAW AND LEGAL FORMS. 


265 


unless he shall also, within ten days from the publication thereof, 
deliver at the office of the Librarian of Congress, or deposit in 
the mail addressed to the Librarian of Congress at Washington, 
District of Columbia, two copies of such copyright book or other 
article, or, in case of a painting, drawing, statue, statuary, model 
or design for a work of the fine arts, a photograph of the same. 

Sec. 4957. The Librarian of Congress shall record the name of 
such copyright book, or other article, forthwith in a book to be 
kept for that purpose, in the words following: “ Library of Con¬ 
gress, to wit: Be it remembered that on the.day of., 

., A. B., of., hath deposited in this office the title of a 

book (map, chart, or otherwise, as the case may be, or description of 
the article ), the title or description of which is in the following 
words, to wit: (here insert the title or description ), the right 
whereof he claims as author (originator, or proprietor, as the case 
may be), in conformity with the laws of the United States respect¬ 
ing copyrights. C. D., Librarian of Congress.” And he shall 
give a copy of the title or description, under the seal of the Libra¬ 
rian of Congress, to the proprietor whenever he shall require it. 

Sec. 4958. The Librarian of Congress shall receive from the 
person to whom the services designated are rendered, the follow¬ 
ing-fees: 1. For recording the title or description of any copy¬ 
right book or other article, fifty cents. 2. For every copy under 
seal of such record actually given to the person claiming the copy¬ 
right, or his assigns, fifty cents. 3. For recording and certifying 
any instrument of writing for the assignment of a copyright, one 
dollar. 4. For every copy of an assignment, one dollar. All fees 
so received shall be paid into the Treasury of the United States. 

Sec. 4959. The proprietor of every copyright book or other 
article shall deliver at the office of the Librarian of Congress, or 
deposit in the mail addressed to the Librarian of Congress, at 
Washington, District of Columbia, within ten days after its publi¬ 
cation, two complete printed copies thereof, of the best edition 
issued, or description or photograph of such article as hereinbe¬ 
fore required, and a copy of every subsequent edition wherein any 
substantial changes shall be made. 

Sec. 4960. For every failure on the part of the proprietor of 
any copyright to deliver, or deposit in the mail, either of the pub¬ 
lished copies, or description, or photograph, required by Sections 
4956 and 4959, the proprietor of the copyright shall be liable to a 
penalty of twenty-five dollars, to be recovered by the Librarian of 
Congress, in the name of the United States, in an action in the 
nature of an action of debt, in any district court of the United 
States within the jurisdiction of which the delinquent may reside 
or be found. 

Sec. 4961. The postmaster to whom such copyright book, title, 
or other article, is delivered, shall, if requested, give a receipt 
therefor; and when so delivered he shall mail it to its destina¬ 
tion. 

Sec. 4962. No person shall maintain an action for the infringe¬ 
ment of his copyright unless he shall give notice thereof by insert¬ 
ing in the several copies of every edition published, on the title- 
page or the page immediately following, if it be a book; or if a 
map, chart, musical composition, print, cut, engraving, photo¬ 
graph, painting, drawing, chromo, statue, statuary, or model or 
design intended to be perfected and completed as a work of the 
fine arts, by inscribing upon some visible portion thereof, or of the 
substance on which the same shall be mounted, the following 
words, viz.: ‘‘Entered according to act of Congress, in the year 
...., by A. B., in the office of the Librarian of Congress at Wash¬ 
ington or, at his option, the word “ Copyright,” together with 
the year the copyright was entered, and the name of the party by 
whom it was taken out, thus: “ Copyright, 18.., by A. B.” 

Sec. 4963. Every person who shall insert or impress such notice, 
or words of the same purport, in or upon any book, map, chart, 
musical composition, print, cut, engraving, or photograph, or 
other article, for which he has not obtained a copyright, shall be 
liable to a penalty of one hundred dollars, recoverable one-half for 


the person who shall sue for such penalty, and one-half to the use 
of the LTfited States. 

Sec. 4964. Every person who, after the recording of the title 
of any book as provided by this chapter, shall, within the term 
limited, and without the consent of the proprietor of the copy¬ 
right first obtained in writing, signed in presence of two or more 
witnesses, print, publish, or import, or, knowing the same to be so 
printed, published, or imported, shall sell or expose to sale any 
copy of such book, shall forfeit every copy thereof to such pro¬ 
prietor, and shall also forfeit and pay such damages as may be 
recovered in a civil action by such proprietor in any court of com¬ 
petent jurisdiction. 

Sec. 4965. If any person, after the recordina; of the title of any 
map, chart, musical composition, print, cut, engraving, photo¬ 
graph, or chromo, or of the description of any painting, drawing, 
statue, statuary, or model or design intended to be perfected and 
executed as a work of the fine arts, as provided by this chapter, 
shall, within the time limited, and without the consent of the pro¬ 
prietor of the copyright first obtained in writing, signed in pres¬ 
ence of two or more witnesses, engrave, etch, work, copy, print, 
publish, or import, either in whole or in part, or by varying the 
main design with intent to evade the law, or, knowing the same to 
be so printed, published, or imported, shall sell or expose to sale 
any copy of such map or other article, as aforesaid, he shall forfeit 
to the proprietor all the plates on which the same shall be copied, 
and every sheet thereof, either copied or printed, and shall further 
forfeit one dollar for every sheet of the same found in his posses¬ 
sion, either printing, printed, copied, published, imported, or 
exposed for sale; and in case of a painting, statue, or statuary, he 
shall forfeit ten dollars for every copy of the same in his posses¬ 
sion, or by him sold or exposed for sale; one-half thereof to the 
proprietor, and the other half to the use of the United States. 

Sec. 4966. Any person publicly performing or representing any 
dramatic composition for which a copyright has been obtained, 
without the consent of the proprietor thereof, or his heirs or 
assigns, shall be liable for the damages therefor; such damages in 
all cases to be assessed at such sum, not less than one hundred dol¬ 
lars for the first, and fifty dollars for every subsequent perform¬ 
ance, as to the court shall appear to be just. 

Sec. 4967. Every person who shall print or publish any manu¬ 
script whatever, without the consent of the author or proprietor 
first obtained (if such author or proprietor is a citizen of the 
United States, or resident therein), shall be liable to the author or 
proprietor for all damages occasioned by such injury. 

Sec. 4968. No action shall be maintained in any case of forfeit¬ 
ure or penalty under the copyright laws, unless the same is com¬ 
menced within two years after the cause of action has arisen. 

Sec. 4969. In all actions arising under the laws respecting copy¬ 
rights the defendant may plead the general issue, and give the 
special matter in evidence. 

Sec. 4970. The circuit courts, and district courts having tne 
jurisdiction of circuit courts, shall have power, upon bill in equity, 
filed by any party aggrieved, to grant injunctions to prevent the 
violation of any right secured by the laws respecting copyrights, 
according to the course and principles of courts of equity, on such 
terms as the court may deem reasonable. 

Sec. 4971. Nothing in this chapter shall be construed to pro¬ 
hibit the printing, publishing, importation or sale of any book, 
map, chart, dramatic or musical composition, print, cut, engrav¬ 
ing, or photograph, written, composed, or made by any person not 
a citizen of the United States nor resident therein. 

COPYRIGHTS FOR LABELS. 

Sec. 3. That in the construction of this act, the words “engrav¬ 
ing,” “cut,” and “print” shall be applied only to pictorial 
illustrations or works connected with the fine arts, and no prints 
or labels designed to be used for any other articles of manufacture 
shall be entered under the copyright law, but may be registered in 


























































266 


LAM' AND LEGAL FORMS. 


the Patent Office. And the Commissioner of Patents is hereby 
charged with the supervision and control of the entry or registry 
of such prints or labels, in conformity with the regulations pro¬ 
vided by law as to copyright of prints, except that there shall be 
paid for recording the title of any print or label not a trade-mark, 
six dollars, which shall cover the expense of furnishing a copy of 
the record under the seal of the Commissioner of Patents, to the 
party entering the same. 

GENERAL FORM OF ASSIGNMENT. 

For a Consideration of.dollars, the receipt of 

which is hereby acknowledged, (otherwise for value received), I 
hereby assign, transfer and set over to Samuel Roe, all my title 
and interest in and rights under a certain copyright, and the certif¬ 
icate thereof, bearing date the.day of., the title (or 

description) of which is in the following words, to wit: (copy 
from the certificate); the right whereof I claim as author (or 
proprietor). 

To Have and to Hold the same unto the said Samuel Roe, 
and his legal representatives forever. 

In Witness Whereof, I have hereunto set my hand, this. 

day of. John Doe. 

A communication enclosing an assignment to the 
Librarian of Congress for recording, should be properly 
dated at the head, as in the case of a letter, with 
address line to the left, underneath, “ Librarian of 


Congress, Washington, D. C.,” and then proceed as 
follows : 

Enclosed please find an instrument of writing for the assignment 

of copyright No.-, from Peter Poole (otherwise,.author 

or proprietor) to Samuel Roe (or., publisher), to be re¬ 

corded in your office in conformity with the laws of the United 
States respecting copyrights. 

Find also (post office order, or draft, No., for). 

dollars, fee for recording and certifying said instrument. 

Yours respectfully, 

Samuel Roe. 

In answer to the above, a certificate of recording will 
be returned by the Librarian of Congress, and may read 
as follows: 

Library of Congress, 

[iSeaU) Washington,.188. 

The within assignment of copyright is this day recorded in the 
office of the Librarian of Congress, in conformity with the laws of 
the United States respecting copyrights. 

Witness my hand, and the seal of said office, this-... .day of 

.A. D. 188.. 

.Librarian of Congress 

A short form of assignment may read : 

I hereby assign copyright No.to Samuel Roe, of. 

Dated. John Doe. 


_ 




LAW OF TRADE-MARK. 



? he original trade-mark laws of the United States 
were declared unconstitutional and void by the 
Supreme Court, and on the third of March, 1881, 
Congress passed a new trade-mark law, the text of 
which is as follows : 


An Act to Authorize the Registration of Trade-Marks 
and Protect the Same. 

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the 
United States , in Congress assembled , That owners of trade-marks 
used in commerce with foreign nations, or with the Indian tribes, 
provided such owners shall be domiciled in the United States or 
located in any foreign country or tribes, which, by treaty, conven¬ 
tion, or law, affords similar privileges to citizens of the United 
States, may obtain registration of such trade-marks by complying 
with the following requirements: 

First. By causing to be recorded in the Patent Office a state¬ 
ment specifying name, domicile, location, and citizenship of the 
party applying; the class of merchandise and the particular de¬ 
scription of goods comprised in such class to which the particular 
trade-mark has been appropriated; a description of the trade-mark 
itself, with facsimiles thereof, and a statement of the mode in 
which the same is applied and affixed to goods, and the length of 
time during which the trade-mark has been used. 

Second. By paying into the Treasury of the United States the 


sum of twenty-five dollars, and complying with such regulations 
as may be prescribed by the Commissioner of Patents. 

Sec. 2. That the application prescribed in the foregoing sec¬ 
tion must, in order to create any right whatever in favor of the 
party filing it, be accompanied by a written declaration verified 
by the person, or by a member of a firm, or by an officer of a cor¬ 
poration applying, to the effect that such party has at the time a 
right to the use of the trade-mark sought to be registered, and that 
no other person, firm, or corporation has the right to such use, 
either in the identical form or in any such near resemblance thereto 
as might be calculated to deceive; that such trade-mark is used in 
commerce with foreign nations or Indian tribes, as above indi¬ 
cated; and that the description and facsimiles presented for reg¬ 
istry truly represent the trade-mark sought to be registered. 

Sec. 3. That the time of the receipt of any such application 
shall be noted and recorded. But no alleged trade-mark shall be 
registered unless the same appear to be lawfully used as such by 
the applicant in foreign commerce, or commerce with Indian 
tribes, as above mentioned, or is within the provision of a treaty, 
convention, or declaration with a foreign power; nor which is 
merely the name of the applicant; nor which is identical with a 
registered or known trade-mark owned by another and appropri¬ 
ate to the same class of merchandise, or which so nearly resembles 
some other person's lawful trade-mark as to be likely to cause con¬ 
fusion or mistake in the mind of the public, or to deceive purchas¬ 
ers. In an application for registration the Commissioner of 
Patents shall decide the presumptive lawfulness of claim to the 
alleged trade-mark: and in any dispute between an applicant and 






































































LAW AND LEGAL FORMS. 


267 


a previous registrant, or between applicants, he shall follow, so far 
as the same may be applicable, the practice of courts of equity of 
the United States in analogous cases. 

Sec. 4. That certificates of registry of trade-marks shall be 
issued in the name of the United States of America, under the seal 
of the Department of the Interior, and shall be signed by the 
Commissioner of Patents, and a record thereof, together with 
printed copies of the specifications, shall be kept in books for that 
purpose. Copies of trade-marks and of statements and declara¬ 
tions filed therewith and certificates of registry so signed and 
sealed, shall be evidence in any suit in which such trade-marks 
shall be brought in controversy. 

Sec. 5. That a certificate of registry shall remain in force for 
thirty years from its date, except in cases where the trade-mark is 
claimed for and applied to articles not manufactured in this coun¬ 
try ; and in which it receives protection under the laws of a foreign 
country for a shorter period, in which case it shall cease to have 
any force in this country by virtue of this act at the time that such 
trade-mark ceases to be exclusive property elsewhere. At any 
time during the six months prior to the expiration of the term of 
thirty years such registration may be renewed on the same terms 
and for a like period. 

Sec. 6. That applicants for registration under this act shall be 
credited for any fee or part of a fee heretofore paid into the Treas¬ 
ury of the United States with intent to procure protection for the 
same trade-mark. 

Sec. 7. That registration of a trade-mark shall b eprima facie 
evidence of ownership. Any person who shall reproduce, coun¬ 
terfeit, copy, or colorably imitate any trade-mark registered under 
this act and affix the same to merchandise of substantially the 
same descriptive properties as those described in the registration, 
shall be liable to an action on the case for damages for the wrong¬ 
ful use of said trade-mark at the suit of the owner thereof; and 
the party aggrieved shall also have his remedy according to the 
course of equity to enjoin the wrongful use of such trade-mark 
used in foreign commerce or commerce with Indian tribes as afore¬ 
said, and to recover compensation therefor in any court having 
jurisdiction over the person guilty of such wrongful act: and 


courts of the United States shall have original and appellate 
jurisdiction in such cases without regard to the amount in con¬ 
troversy. 

Sec. 8. That no action or suit shall be maintained under the 
provisions of this act in any case when the trade-mark is used in 
any unlawful business or upon any article injurious in itself, or 
which mark has been used with the design of deceiving the public 
in the purchase of merchandise, or under any certificate of regis¬ 
try fraudulently obtained. 

Sec. 9. That any person who shall procure the registry of a 
trade-mark, or of himself as the owner of a trade-mark, or an entry 
respecting a trade-mark, in the office of the Commissioner of Pat¬ 
ents, by a false or fraudulent representation or declaration, orally 
or in writing, or by any fraudulent means, shall be liable to pay 
any damages sustained in consequence thereof to the injured party, 
to be recovered in an action on the case. 

Sec. 10. That nothing in this act shall prevent, lessen, impeach, 
or avoid any remedy at law or in equity which any party aggrieved 
by any wrongful use of any trade-mark might have had if the pro¬ 
visions of this act had not been passed. 

Sec. 11. That nothing in this act shall be construed as unfavor¬ 
ably affecting a claim to a trade-mark after the term of registra¬ 
tion shall have expired; nor to give cognizance to any court of 
the United States in an action or suit between citizens of the same 
State, unless the trade-mark in controversy is used on goods 
intended to be transported to a foreign county, or in lawful com¬ 
mercial intercourse with an Indian tribe. 

Sec. 12. That the Commissioner of Patents is authorized to 
make rules and regulations and prescribe forms for the transfer of 
the right to use trade-marks and for recording such transfers in his 
office. 

Sec. 13. That citizens and residents of this country wishing 
the protection of trade-marks in any foreign country the laws of 
which require registration here as a condition precedent to getting 
such protection there, may register their trade-marks for that pur¬ 
pose as is above allowed to foreigners, and have certificate thereof 
from the Patent Office. 

Approved March 3,1881. 






































268 


FOREIGN ANI) UNITED STATES PATENTS. 



GENERAL FEATURES OF PATENT-RIGHTS - HOW TO GET A PATENT-COST OF PATENTS IN AMERICA 

AND EUROPE. 




he patent-right is a privilege granted by gov¬ 
ernment to an inventor on account of a new 
contrivance or improvement in the manufac¬ 
tures, granting him a monoply in his inven¬ 
tion for a number of years. The principal 
classes of patents embrace (1) new contrivances applied 
to new ends; (2) new contrivances applied to old ends; 
(3) new combinations of old parts, whether relating 
to material, objects, or processes; (4) new methods 
of applying a well-known object. 

Novelty and utility are the two great features of an 
invention, without which a patent would be invalid. 
The degree of utility need not be great, but it must be 
something applicable to the production of a market¬ 
able article. It must also be a manufacture. 

When an invention has been made for which it is 
desired to procure a patent, the inventor should not, 
on account of impecuniosity or other hindering causes, 
promise or barter away a half or undivided portion of 
the device. It is too often the case that inventors of 
this class, for want of money, and pressure of circum¬ 
stances, abandon or throw away the results of their 
thought and ingenuity. Every inventor should hold 
on to what he has conceived until he has intelligently 
explained its merits to some one of means, who will 
advance the small sum required to secure a patent. In 
order to gain the desired assistance, the inventor may 
grant a privilege for a town or county to the party who 
backs up his appreciation of the improvement by a 
loan. For this purpose the following conveyance will, 
in general, be ample: 


Whereas, I, Richard Roe, of.County of.State 

of.have invented a new and useful improvement in musica 

instruments, for which I am about to apply for letters-patent; and 

whereas, John Doe, of.hath advanced to me the sum of one 

hundred dollars toward the expenses of said patent: 

Notv this Indenture Witnessetli, That for and in consid¬ 
eration of said payment to me made, I do hereby grant and convey 
to the said John Doe, his heirs or assigns, a license to make, use, 

and sell the invention, within the limits of the county of. 

State of.for and during the full end of the term for which 

said letters-patent are or may be granted.* 

Witness my hand and seal, this first day of January, A. D.188.. 

The filing of a caveat affords immediate protection 
against the issue of a patent to any other person for 
the same invention. A caveator is officially notified 
when another party has applied on account of the same 
device, and called upon to file his application for a 
patent. A caveat runs for a year and can be extended 
from year to year. Caveats can only be filed by citi¬ 
zens of the United States, or aliens who have resided 
here one year and have declared their intention to 
become citizens. 

All caveats are secret, and no one can see or obtain a 
copy of a caveat without the order of the caveator. 
The filing of a caveat does not secure any exclusive 
right of sale, and has nothing to do with the grant of 
a patent. The object of a caveat is to give time for 
the accommodation and convenience of the inventor, 
who desires to test or perfect his device. A caveat 

* If further inducement is desirable, the following may be inserted: 

“ And I do hereby further agree, that all of the net profits by me in any 
manner made or received from the said invention and patent shall belong 
to and shall be delivered unto the said John Doe, until he shall have 
received back the said sum of one hundred dollars, with lawful interest 
thereon.” 













































































FOREIGN AND UNITED STATES PATENTS. 


269 


consists of a petition, specification, drawing, and affi¬ 
davit of invention. These papers should be carefully 
drawn up and the invention explained as fully as possi¬ 
ble. No model is required, and the government makes 
no examination as to new features when a caveat is 
filed. On filing the caveat in Washington the Patent 
Office issues an official certificate. 

The official cost for applying for a simple patent is 
$15, and when allowed, $20 more are payable, making 
in all $35. If a patent is not granted the applicant 
loses the cost of making the application. 

Patents are granted to persons of any nationality on 
payment of the same official fee, and are also granted 
to women, minors and executors or administrators of 
deceased inventors. 

Duration of patent is seventeen years. Extensions 
are prohibited on all patents granted since 1861. 
Extensions can only be granted by act of congress. 
Application for extension must be filed and requisite 
fee paid, ninety days before expiration of the patent. 

The average time required to procure a patent is six 
weeks. 

In the event of a refusal to allow a patent b} 7 the 
examiner of patents, an inventor has the privilege of 
appeal. Government fee payable by the applicant, on 
making an appeal to the Examiner-in-Chief, is $10. 
An appeal may be taken from the decision of the 
Examiner-in-Chief to the Commissioner of Patents; 
government fee, $20. From the decision of the Com¬ 
missioner of Patents an appeal may be taken to the 
Supreme Court of the District of Columbia. 

Where there is any doubt about the patentability of 
an invention, the applicant, through a reliable agent, 
may order a preliminary examination at a cost of five 
dollars. 

Applicants for patents are not required to furnish 
models unless officially required to do so. Where a 
model is called for, it should be neatly made, and 
it is requisite that its bulk do not exceed twelve 
inches. In making a model of an improvement on 
some existing machine, it is unnecessary to embrace 
the whole machine, as, for instance, the model of 
a car-coupler need not include a complete car, wheels 
and all. 

Models may be made in any kind of material, as, for 
instance, an applicant may make a model in wood of 
some article that is intended to be manufactured in 
glass; or models may be part wood, part metal. A 
model should be made under close supervision of the 
inventor interested in its construction, if not made 
with his own hands. 


Inventors can save time and money by having their 
business at Washington attended to by a good agent, 
who is familiar with the details of procuring patents. 

The Patent-Office does not prepare patent papers, or 
make models. These must be provided by the appli¬ 
cant or his attorney, according to law, otherwise his 
claim will not be considered. It is requisite that all 
documents deposited in the Patent-Office shall be cor¬ 
rectly and legibly written, and that the drawings 
shall be of a specified size, and finished in an artistic 
manner. 

The personal attendance of applicants at the Patent- 
Office is unnecessary. Their business can be transacted 
by correspondence. All business with the office should 
be transacted in writing. All office letters must be 
sent in the name of the “ Commissioner of Patents.” 

Freight, postage, express charges, and all other 
charges on matter sent to the Patent-Office must be 
prepaid. 

Any person of intelligence and good moral character 
may appear as the agent or the attorney in fact of an 
applicant, upon filing a proper power of attorney. 

Applications for letters-patent of the United States 
must be made to the Commissioner of Patents. A 
complete application comprises the petition, specifica¬ 
tion, oath, and drawings, and the model or specimen 
when required. The petition, specification, and oath 
must be written in the English language. 

“ The applicant for a patent is required by law to 
furnish a drawing of his invention where the nature of 
the case admits of it. The drawing must be signed by 
the inventor or by his attorney in fact, and attested by 
two witnesses, and must show every feature of the 
invention covered by the claims, and when the inven¬ 
tion consists of an improvement on an old machine, it 
must exhibit, in one or more views, the invention 
itself, disconnected from the old structure, and also, in 
another view, so much only of the old structure as will 
suffice to show the connection of the invention there¬ 
with.’ * 

“Drawings must be made upon pure white paper of 
a thickness corresponding to three-sheet bristol board. 
The surface of the paper must be calendered and 
smooth. India ink alone must be used, to secure per¬ 
fectly black and solid lines. The size of a sheet on 
which a drawing is made must be exactly ten by fifteen 
inches.” All drawings must be made with the pen 
only. 

Drawings should be made with the fewest lines pos¬ 
sible consistent with clearness. Letters and figures 
should be carefully formed. 












































270 


FOREIGN AND UNITED STATES TATENTS. 


If any one applies for a patent, and it appears a 
patent for the same thing has been granted to another 
person, the applicant may ask for a declaration of 
interference, when an investigation will be made to 
decide priority of claim. 

Assignment of an invention may be made by the 
inventor or author, either before or after the patent 
has been applied for, or after the patent has been 
issued. The deed of assignment of a patent, or any 
portion of a patent, must be recorded at the Patent 
Office. 

Application papers must be made in the name of the 
real inventor only, who can sign an assignment in 
favor of a partner, when the Commissioner of Patents 
will allow the patent to be issued to them jointly. 
The cost of this assignment is $5. Joint inventors are 
entitled to a joint patent; neither can claim one sep¬ 
arately. 

A new patent will be issued and an old one canceled 
where mistakes or defects render it necessary. Reissues 
of patents may be petitioned for as often as desired. 
New improvements must be separately applied for and 
cannot be included in a reissue. 

A patent for ornamental design, as, statue, bas- 
relief, printing of fabrics, pattern, or any new, useful 
and original article of manufacture may be granted to 
any one, whether citizen or alien. Patents for designs 
are granted for a term of three and one-half years, 
seven years, or fourteen years, as desired. A design 
patent expires at the end of the term for which it is 
first granted—no extension. No models are required 
of designs. 

Design patents are only granted for ornamental pro¬ 
ductions, not for mechanical or other inventions. The 
business relating to design patents can be done by cor¬ 
respondence with reliable patent agents. Photographs 
of designs only need to be large enough to represent 
clearly all the features in any case, and should not be 
mounted. 

Trade-marks are registered at the Patent Office for 
those who desire their use. 

After a patent is issued it is under the control of its 
owner, and not subject to additional payments or taxes 
of any kind. 

PATENTS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 

An inventor may, after a patent has been allowed in 
this country, arrange for patents in foreign countries, 


while his home patent remains in the secret archives 
of the Patent Office for a period not exceeding six 
months. If the inventor permits his home patent to 
issue before he has applied for foreign patents, he is 
liable to suffer loss in European countries through 
others who may appropriate the main features of his 
invention. 

The following schedule shows the best countries in 
which to take patents: 

PATENT APPLICA¬ 
TION COSTS. POPULATION. 

Canada.$50. 5,000,000 

England. 75.40.000,000 

Germany. 100.45,000,000 

France. 100.45,000,000 

Belgium.. 100. 6,000,000 

Spain. 100.18,000,000 

The Spanish patent includes Cuba, Porto Rico, Phil- 
lipines, and all the Spanish colonies. 

In the following countries the costs to apply for 
patents are: Austria, $100; Italy, $150; Russia, $300; 
Sweden, $100; Norway, $100; Portugal, $400; British 
India, $400; Australia and other British colonies, each 
about $300. 

UNITED STATES PATENT FEES. 


On filing each caveat ----- $10.00 

On filing each original application for a patent, 

except for a design - - - - - 15.00 

On issuing each original patent - 20.00 

On every appeal from Examiners-in-Chief - 20.00 

On application for a reissue - - - - 30.00 

On application for extension - 50.00 

Granting an extension - - - - 50.00 

Filing each disclaimer - 10.00 

Certified copies of patents and other papers, 

per 100 words .10 

Recording every assignment , agreement, power 
of attorney, and other papers, of 300 words 
or under 1.00 

If over 300 and under 1,000 - 2.00 

If over 1,000 words ----- 3.00 

Drawings, cost of making same. 

Patents for designs, for three and a half years 10.00 
“ “ for seven years - - 15.00 

“ “ for fourteen years - 30.00 


Duration of patent in Great Britain, fourteen years; 
in France, fifteen years; in Belgium, twenty years. 




















































£ J^gj ,< W SV , 3- 


ment for debt. Cases of durance are limited to those 
guilty of fraud in contracting debts, or debtors intend¬ 
ing to hide or conceal themselves. 

The garnishee or trustee process of collecting debts is 
becoming common. Garnishment is a warning or notice 
given to a party not to pay money, etc., to a defendant, 
but to appear and answer to a plaintiff creditor’s suit. 

If A owes B a debt, and he has nothing in his own 
possession to use in payment of the debt, but has de¬ 
posited goods or credit with C, or has some valid claim 
against C for work done or services rendered, B may 
attach the property or wages in the hands of C, by suit 
against the latter, in order to get what is due him. C 
is, in fact, the trustee of A. The trustee, being noti¬ 
fied, may answer that he has no goods or property in 
his hands belonging to A, and he may declare that he 
owes A nothing for services. Whereupon the plaintiff 
(B) will so interrogate C as to draw out the facts in 
the case. 


A debts by simple contract. A debt of record is a 
< sum of money which appears to be due by the evi¬ 
dence of a court of record, or adjudged to be due on 
an action at law. A debt by specialty, or special con¬ 
tract, is where a sum of money becomes due, or is 
acknowledged to be due, by deed or instrument under 
seal, such as by deed of covenant or sale, bond or obli¬ 
gation, etc. A debt by simple contract is an obligation 
depending upon mere oral evidence, or upon notes 
unsealed, within which class fall bills of exchange and 
promissory notes. Debt is also a personal action of 
contract, which lies for the recovery of a debt in its 
technical sense, i. e. a certain amount of money due by 
one person to another. 

In many of the states there is no arrest or imprison- 





' 

RECOVERY AND COLLECTION OF DEBTS. 

• 

271 











































































































































272 


RECOVERY AND COLLECTION OF DEBTS. 


In most of the states there are provisions for the pro¬ 
tection of a homestead from creditors. There are also 
exemption laws, which provide that the more necessary 
articles of furniture, food and fuel, shall not be subject 
to attachment or execution. 

When meditating a removal from one state to 
another, it is important to ascertain what the provis¬ 
ions of the exemption law of the state are. Likewise, 
those who have dealings with or send or trust out 
iroods to persons residing in other states, should have a 
clear understanding of the exemption laws of the states. 
This is the more imperative as it seems in some states 
an acre or half acre of ground, without regard to loca¬ 
tion or value, is exempt from forced sale. So much 
ground, with improvements, if located inside a city 
corporation, may have a value of a hundred thousand 
dollars or more, and the owner of it, under the exemp¬ 
tion law, might enjoy so large a fortune without being 
compelled to pay his debts. 

ABSTRACT OF HOMESTEAD AND EXEMPTION LAWS. 


ARKANSAS. 

j^iie exemptions may be 
V found in the constitution, 
J which provides that un¬ 
married residents may 
select from their personal 
property, not to exceed in 
value two hundred dollars, 
which, including his wear¬ 
ing apparel, shall be exempt 
from any claims of cred¬ 
itors, except for debts con¬ 
tracted for the purchase 
money therefor while i n the 
hands of the vendee. Mar¬ 
ried residents, who are at 
the head of families, may select from their personal property such 
articles as thej' may choose, not to exceed in value the sum of five 
hundred dollars, which, in addition to the wearing apparel of the 
family, shall be exempt. The homestead of heads of families is 
also exempt, excepting Avhere the debt is for one of the following 
items: “Purchase money,or specific liens,laborer’s or mechanic’s, 
liens for improving same, for taxes, or against executors, adminis¬ 
trators, guardians, receivers, attorneys, for moneys collected by 
them, and other trustees of an express trust, for moneys due from 
them in their fiduciary capacity.” 

Where the homestead is located outside of a city, town, or vil¬ 
lage, and occupied as a residence, it shall consist of not exceeding 
one hundred and sixty acres of land, and the improvements thereon, 
provided the same shall not exceed in value twenty-five hundred 
dollars, but the homestead cannot be reduced to less than eighty 
acres, regardless of value. Where the homestead is in a city, town 
or village, and is owned and occupied as a residence, it shall con¬ 
sist of not exceeding one acre of land, with improvements thereon, 
such as the owner may select, providing the land and improve¬ 
ments do not exceed two thousand five hundred dollars in value, 
and cannot be reduced to less than one-fourth of an acre, without 
regard to value. 

If the owner of a homestead die, leaving a widow, but without 
children, where the said widow has no separate homestead in her 
own right, the same shall be exempt, and all rents and profits shall 
go to her during her life: if the owner has left child or children, 
they or it shall share with the widow, and be entitled to half the 
rents and profits until their twenty-first birth-day, after which it 
shall go to the minor children, then to the widow. At the death 
of the widow, the homestead goes to the minor children of the 
testate or intestate. 




ALABAMA. 

T iie personal property 
of every resident of 
the state, to the value 
of one thousand dol¬ 
lars, to be selected by such 
resident, shall be exempt. 
A homestead, not exceed¬ 
ing one hundred and sixty 
acres of land, and the 
dwelling house and ap¬ 
purtenances thereon, or in 
lieu thereof, at the option 
of the owner,when within 
the limits of any city, 
town, or village, a lot, res¬ 
idence and appurtenances 
thereto, not to exceed in value two thousand dollars; in either case 
the homestead so exempted must be owned and occupied as a res¬ 
idence by the debtor. The above exemption is not operative 
against a laborer's lien for work performed for the debtor, nor 
against a mechanic’s lien for labor rendered on the premises. All 
employes or laborers have exempt twenty-five dollars of their sal¬ 
aries per month. The homestead and personal property above 
mentioned, revert to the widow and minor child or children of the 
debtor at his death. 

And in addition to the foregoing exemptions, there is also 
exempt the wearing apparel of the deceased, and the wearing 
apparel of the widow and children, all yarn and cloth on hand 
intended for their use and consumption, the family bibles and 
books, all family pictures, and such grain, stores and groceries on 
hand as may be necessary to keep the family for one year. All of 
the above mentioned property is required to be set apart by three 
disinterested persons, who are to be selected, two of them by the 
widow, if there should be one, and the other by the judge of pro¬ 
bate court. Such property shall forever be exempt from the debts 
of the deceased. 

Lots used for burial places, pews in churches, all necessary wear¬ 
ing apparel for each member of a family, are also exempt. 


on 


CALIFORNIA. 

IT homestead, consisting 
II of the dwelling house 
II in which the claimant 
presides and the land 
which the same is sit¬ 
uated, may be selected in 
manner provided by law, and 
claimed as exempt from 
forced sale, of five thousand 
dollars in value by any “ head 
of a family,” and of one 
thousand dollars in value by 
any other person. 

Within this limit as to 
value, there is no limit as to 
extent. The homestead must be actually used as a homestead by 
the person setting it apart, and may include the dwelling house, 
all usual, necessary, or convenient appurtenances, and the land 





































































RECOVERY AND COLLECTION OF DEBTS. 


actually used for the purposes of a homestead. If in the country, 
it may include a garden or farm. If in a city, or town, it may in¬ 
clude one or more lots, or blocks. 

If the selection is made by a married person from the “'Com¬ 
munity property,” the land, upon the death of either spouse, 
becomes the property of the survivor, retaining the exemptions 
and privileges as a homestead. If selected from the separate 
property of either spouse, or by one not married, the land, upon 
the death of the person from whose property it was selected, goes 
to his heirs or devisees, subject to the power of the court to 
assign it for a limited period to the use of the family of the 
deceased. 

In personal property specific articles are exempt from execution; 
including chairs, tables, desks, and books, to the value of §200; 
necessary household, table and kitchen furniture, wearing apparel, 
utensils, and implements of trade, used by the debtor in carrying 
on his business; poultry not exceeding $25.00 in value, and earn¬ 
ings for personal services of debtor rendered within thirty days, 
when such earnings are necessary for the use of his family. 

But in no case is an article exempt from execution issued upon 
a judgment for its purchase price, or upon a judgment of fore¬ 
closure of a mortgage thereon. 


COLORADO. 





ousehold goods not 
to exceed in value 
two hundred dollars; 
tools, stock in trade 
or implements not 
to exceed in value two 
hundred dollars; provis¬ 
ions for the debtor’s fam¬ 
ily for six months; if a 
professional man, he may 
retain a library and im¬ 
plements to the value of 
three hundred dollars. 
Working animals to the 
value of two hundred dollars, one cow and calf, ten sheep, and food 
for them for six months, farming implements not to exceed in 
value fifty dollars, and a homestead to the value of two thousand 
dollars, which, in order to be exempt, must have the word “ home¬ 
stead” entered In the recorded title of the same, which must be 
signed by the owner, and attested by the recorder of the county 
where the premises are located, including the date and time the 
entry was made. 

CONNECTICUT. 

'he property' ex¬ 
empted and not 
liable to be taken 
by warrant or ex¬ 
ecution from any one per¬ 
son is scheduled and con¬ 
sists of the following 
articles: Necessary wear¬ 
ing apparel, bedding and 
household furniture, suffi¬ 
cient to support life; any 
member of the militia is 
allowed, for military pur¬ 
poses, arms, equipments, 
uniforms or musical in¬ 
struments. A pensioner would be allowed, while in his hands, any 
money received as a pension from the United States. A debtor is 






allowed his library to the value of five hundred dollars; one cow, 
not to exceed in value one hundred and fifty dollars; any number 
of sheep not to exceed ten, nor to exceed in value one hundred and 
fifty dollars; poultry not to exceed the value of twenty-five dol¬ 
lars; two swine and the pork from two swine, or two hundred 
pounds of pork and two swine. Where the person is at the head 
of a family, he would be allowed twenty-five bushels of charcoal 
and two tons of other coal, two hundred pounds wheat flour, two 
tons hay, two hundred pounds of beef and fish, two cords of wood, 
five bushels each of turnips and potatoes, ten bushels each of rye 
and India'n corn, and the meal or flour manufactured therefrom, 
twenty pounds each of flax and wool, or the y'arn or cloth made 
therefrom; the horse of any practicing physician or surgeon, not 
exceeding the value of two hundred dollars, and his saddle, bridle, 
harness and buggy; one boat, owned and used by one person, who 
is in the business of taking or planting oysters or clams, or taking 
shad, including the tackle, rigging, sails, and the implements used 
in such business, not to exceed in value two hundred dollars; one 
pew which is the property of a person having a family who occupy 
it; one sewing machine which is the property of the person using 
it. or of one who has a family; the lots in cemetery or burying- 
ground, appropriated by its proprietors as a place to bury any one 
person or a family; any money due the debtor for his personal 
services, not in excess of ten dollars; or if the debtor has a wife 
or family, twenty-five dollars; any benefits allowed by associations 
for the support of sick or infirm members is exempted from for¬ 
eign attachments. 

Excepting where suits are brought to recover money due on 
house-rent, provisions, clothing or fuel, furnished to the debtor for 
family use, ten dollars only shall be exempted, and only three dol¬ 
lars shall be exempted for debts accruing for board furnished the 
debtor or his family. 

Wages of a minor to the amount of ten dollars are exempt 
when the action is brought for other debts than those arising from 
necessaries furnished the minor. 

DELAWARE. 

ri chool books, family 
library, family pic- 
L/ tures, seat of pew in 
J church, family bible» 
lot in burying-ground, 
the debtor’s and his fam- 
ly’s wearing apparel, and 
such tools and imple¬ 
ments as are necessary in 
conducting a business or 
trade, not in excess of 
seventy-five dollars, in 
New Castle and Sussex 
counties, and fifty dollars 
in Kent county. 

Household goods, to the head of a family, not to exceed two 
hundred dollars in New Castle county, and in Kent county not to 
exceed one hundred and fifty dollars. 

Sewing machines OM'ned by seamstresses or private families are 
exempt. 

In New Castle county, all wages are exempt. 

Widows, in all cases, shall have the benefit of the same exemp¬ 
tion out of the husband's property that he would have had if 
living. 

Before any application to the execution, the funeral expenses, 
all reasonable bills for medical attendance and medicine, and all 
necessary expenses for last sickness must be paid. 

But if at the time of the execution of the process, the debtor is 
not in possession of all or any of the specified articles, other prop¬ 
erty to that value shall be exempt. 













































































274 


RECOVERY AND COLLECTION OF DEBTS 






FLORIDA. 

T o each head of a fam¬ 
ily,one thousand dol¬ 
lars’ worth of per¬ 
sonal property, such 
as he or she may select; a 
homestead of one hun¬ 
dred and sixty acres, in¬ 
cluding the improve¬ 
ments thereon. Several 
tracts may be set apart to 
make up the one hundred 
and sixty acres, provid¬ 
ing that it is not all in one 
body, or in lieu of this, 
the nead of the family, where owned by him or her, can have one- 
half of one acre within the limits of any incorporated city or 
town, including the improvements thereon, providing that they 
shall not extend to more improvements than the residence and 
business house of the owner. 

No exemptions allowed from sale for taxes, or for obligations 
contracted for the purchase of premises, or improvements on 
same, or for any labor performed on the premises. 

Money due for the personal labor or services of the one who is 
at the head of a family is exempt from attachment or garnish¬ 
ment. 

GEORGIA. 

evert nead of a 
family, or guardian, 
or trustee of a family 
of minor children, or 
every aged or infirm per¬ 
son, or a person having 
the care of a dependent 
female of any age, who is 
not the head of a family, 
realty or personalty, or 
both, not to exoeed in 
value, in the aggregate, 
the sum of sixteen hun¬ 
dred dollars, excepting 
where the debt sought to be recovered is for taxes assessed and 
due on the exempted property, or for the purchase money of the 
property, or for labor performed thereon, or for any material 
furnished which remains on the property, or for the canceling of 
any mortgage or other incumbrance on the same. The debtor 
cannot waive, even though it be in writing, his benefit of exemp¬ 
tion as to wearing apparel, and three hundred dollars’ worth of 
household and kitchen furniture and provisions, such as he may 
select. 

Where a debtor, being the head of a family, does not claim the 
above exemptions, he may choose those allowed by prior laws, 
which are as follows : 

Fifty acres of land, and five additional acres for each child under 
sixteen years of age, including the dwelling house, if not worth 
over two hundred dollars. The land must be located in the coun¬ 
try, notin a city, town or village, nor must it have on it any fac¬ 
tory, mill or other machinery propelled by water or steam, the 
value of which exceeds two hundred dollars. When the debtor’s 
property is within a city, town or village, the homestead must not 
exceed in value five hundred dollars. One horse or one mule for 
farm use; one cow and calf; ten head of hogs, and lift}' dollars’ 
worth of provisions, and five dollars’ worth additional for each 
child; beds, bedding, and common bedsteads sufficient for the 


T 


family; one loom, one spinning wheel, two pair of cards, and one 
hundred pounds of lint cotton; common tools of trade of himself 
and wife; ordinary cooking utensils and table crockery; wearing 
apparel of himself and family; the library of a professional man 
iii actual practice, or business, not to exceed three hundred dollars 
in value; fifty bushels corn, one thousand pounds fodder, a one- 
horse wagon, one set of chairs, one table, and household and 
kitchen furniture, all not to exceed one hundred and fifty dollars 
in value. 

Either class of the above exemptions may be allowed, but not 
both. 


T 


ILLINOIS. 

hie necessary wearing 
apparel,school books, 
bibles,and family pic¬ 
tures of every person, 
and one hundred dollars’ 
worth of other property, 
such as the debtor may 
select; and in addition, 

' _ __ _ where the debtor is at the 

head of a family, residing 
with them, three hundred 
dollars’ worth of prop- 
erty, such as he may se- 
lect, providing that it is 
not from salary, money, or wages due him. Exemptions are not 
allowed when the debt claimed is for the wages of a laborer or 
servant. 

A householder having a family is allowed his residence, includ¬ 
ing a farm, or lot of land and buildings thereon, and occupied as a 
residence, to the value of one thousand dollars. 

The homestead is not exempt from liabilities incurred for the 
purchase or improvements. If the head of the family dies, 
deserts, or does not reside with the family, it would be entitled 
to the exemptions. 

INDIANA. 

ouseholders are al- 
j lowed real or per¬ 
sonal property to the 
amount of six hun- 
; ^vcv f i\ “ dred dollars, on any 

contract made since May 
; "A "'j 'w? j / 31, 1S79, and may be 

If c claimed by the wife if the 
husband should be ab- 
V'\ J sent. If the debt was 

created previous to May 
31, 1S79, the exemption 
would then be three hun- 
dred dollars. 

No exemptions allowed for purchiise money, taxes, or liens for 
labor. 

Where a debtor makes a voluntary assignment, he or she would 
be allowed six hundred dollars without regard to the time debts 
were contracted. 

No homestead exemptions. 

It is provided further by law that no property shall be sold on 
account of an execution for less than two-thirds of its appraised 
cash value. The provisions of this law can be waived in con¬ 
tracts, and to do this the note or contract should be in the fol¬ 
lowing ter ms: Payable without relief from valuation or appraise¬ 
ment lav/s.” 
















































































X- r -- 






RECOVERY AND COLLECTION OF DEBTS. 


275 \ 


IOWA. 

T o householders who 
are residents of the 
state, his own and his 
family’s wearing ap¬ 
parel, such as is kept and 
used by them, and is suit¬ 
able to their condition, 
including their trunks in 
which to keep the same; 
one rifle, or musket, and 
shot-gun, family library, 
pictures, family bible,por- 
traits,paintings and musi¬ 
cal instruments, which are 
not kept for sale; a pew 
in church; a lot in burying ground, not more than one acre; two 
cows and one calf; one horse; six stand of bees; five hogs, and all 
I>igs under six months; fifty sheep, including the wool from them 
and the materials manufactured from such wool; the necessary food 
for all animals for six months; the fiax raised on not exceeding one 
acre of ground including the manufactured goods therefrom; one 
bedstead and the necessary bedding for every two members of the 
family; one hundred yards of cloth manufactured by the debtor; 
all household and kitchen furniture not exceeding two hundred 
dollars; spinning wheels and looms kept for actual use; one sew¬ 
ing machine kept for use; provisions for family use, including fuel, 
for six months. All proper tools, books and instruments of the 
debtor, if the debtor shall be a mechanic, lawyer, farmer, clergy¬ 
man, surgeon, physician, teacher ora professor; the horse or team, 
if not more than two horses or mules; or two yoke of oxen and 
one wagon and the proper harness, by the use of which the debtor 
habitually earns a living. Where the debtor is a printer, he is 
allowed one printing press and the types, material and furniture 
necessary for such printing press and a newspaper office connected, 
not to exceed the value of twelve hundred dollars. If the debtor 
at the head of a family has started to leave the state, he would only 
be allowed to have exempt the ordinary wearing apparel and 
seventy-five dollars’ worth of such property as he might select. 
Xo exemptions against purchase money. A homestead in a city 
or town not in excess of one-half acre, or not more than forty 
acres of land out of a town or city, including, in both cases, all the 
buildings and improvements thereon regardless of value. Unmar¬ 
ried persons, or non-residents, their own wearing apparel and 
trunk in which to keep the same. 


one horse or mule, or in lieu a span ol horses or mules; ten hogs 
and two cows; twenty sheep and the wool from the same; neces¬ 
sary food for the stock for one year, either provided or growing; 
farming utensils, harness, etc., not to exceed in value three hundred 
dollars; provisions and fuel for family for one year; all tools and 
implements of a mechanic, miner or other person used for the pur¬ 
pose of carrying on his business, and in addition, a stock in trade 
not to exceed the value of four hundred dollars; the implements, 
library and office furniture of a professional man. Where the 
resident is not at the head of a family, he has exempt his wearing 
apparel, church seat, burial lot; if a professional man, his office 
furniture,library and implements; to one carrying on business, a 
stock in trade not to exceed in value the sum of four hundred 
dollars. 


T' 


KENTUCKY. 

^de usual nousehold 
aud kitchen furniture 
to the value of one 
hundred dollars; one 
yoke of oxen or two work 
beasts, two cows and 
calves, five sheep, wear¬ 
ing apparel of the family. 
On all debts created after 
June 1, 18G6, so much 
\' f \ f / land, including the dwell- 

\,ing house and appurte- 
n. nances owned by the 

N debtor, not to exceed the 

value of one thousand 
dollars; one sewing machine, one two-horse wagon or ox cart, one 
set of gear, carpeting for one room, all school books, one prayer 
and one hymn book, washing apparatus not to exceed the value of 
fifty dollars, one wash stand, one wardrobe, six cups and saucers, 
six plates, one clock, six knives and forks, and on all debts created 
after May 1,1870, the libraries of preachers, the professional libra¬ 
ries of physicians and surgeons and their instruments to the value 
of five hundred dollars, and the professional libraries of all law¬ 
yers; one horse or cart for a laboring man, tools of a mechanic, 
not to exceed the value of one hundred dollars, where the me¬ 
chanic is a housekeeper and with his family; the wages of all per¬ 
sons who work for wages, up to fifty dollars. Not applicable to 
debts contracted for food, clothing, or house rent. 




KANSAS. 

W HOMESTEAD of one 
II hundred and sixty 
acres of farming 
1 land, or one acre 
within the limits of 
an incorporated city or 
town, with all the im¬ 
provements on the same, 
where occupied by the 
owner as a residence for 
his family; but not ex¬ 
empt for purchase money 
or for any improvements 
thereon, or for taxes. 

Householders are entitled 
to have exempt the following articles: family library, musical in¬ 
struments, a seat or a pew in church, one lot in a burial-ground, bed¬ 
steads, bedding. wearing apparel, stoves and cooking utensils used 
by the family, all implements of industry, one sewing machine, five 
hundred dollars’ worth other household furniture, one yoke of oxen, 


LOUISIANA. 

t touseholders are en- 

M to an exernp- 

tion of property both 

*\ to exceed in value the sum 
/ y ' \ of two^ thousand ^dollars, 

\ / ° r ° r t0Wn ' m l )rove< * 

twenty-five hogs, or in 
lieu one thousand pounds of bacon or its equivalent in pork; it is 
not necessary that these should be attached to the homestead, but 
if on a farm the debtor would be allowed corn and fodder suffi¬ 
cient for one year, also all farming implements not to exceed in 
value the sum of two thousand dollars. A husband would not be 
entitled to any exemption, whose wife owns in her own right any 










































































276 


RECOVERY AND COLLECTION OF DEBTS. 






property or any means to the value of two thousand dollars. The 
above exemptions are provided for by the constitution of 1879. By 
act of 187G, the bed or clothes of the debtor or his wife or family, his 
arms and accoutrements, tools, sewing machines, books, etc., needed 
for his or her calling or livelihood, cannot be seized; nor household 
furniture and cooking utensils, the musical instruments used by any 
member of the family; and if any person should induce another to 
sign away his rights to the above enumerated property, he would 
be subject to a line up to two hundred dollars, and may be im¬ 
prisoned not to exceed six months. 

MAINE. 

yr ny householder of the 
II head of a family may 
XH have exempt from 
^ liability for all debts 
except for liens of 
mechanics and material 
men, a lot of land and 
buildings for a home¬ 
stead, to the value of five 
hundred dollars, provid¬ 
ing the owner files a cei v 
tificate signed by himself, 
declaring his wishes and 
describing his homestead, 
with the register of deeds 
in the county where the property is located; and also one lot in a 
burying-ground, and the following personal property: one bed¬ 
stead and the necessary bedding for every two members of family, 
the necessary wearing apparel, family portraits, school books and 
bibles in use; fifty dollars’ worth of household furniture; one 
cooking, and all iron heating stoves; pew in church, one hundred 
and fifty dollars worth of books used as family library, twelve cords 
of wood at home for use, five tons of anthracite and fifty bushels of 
bituminous coal, ten dollars’ worth of lumber, wood or bark, thirty 
bushels of corn, grain and potatoes, one barrel of Hour, all produce, 
half acre flax and manufactures therefrom for use, sewing machine 
of one hundred dollars’ value, span of mules or horses not to exceed 
in value three hundred dollars, and hay to keep them over winter, 
tools of trade, one set of harness to the value of twenty dollars 
for each mule or horse; a horse or ox sled; one cow and a heifer 
under three years, two swine; two cows, if no oxen, horse or 
mule; ten sheep with their wool and lambs until one year old, hay 
enough to keep them through winter; one plow, one cart or truck 
wagon, one yoke and appendages, a harrow, two chains, one ox sled, 
a mowing machine, insurance policies, unless annual cash payments 
are in excess of one hundred and fifty dollars; a boat of two tons 
capacity, if owned exclusively by an inhabitant of the state. 

MARYLAND. 

"" 7 he necessary wear¬ 
ing apparel for the 
family; family li- 
' brary in use, me¬ 
chanic’s tools when kept 
for use in earning a liv¬ 
ing, also one hundred 
dollars’ worth of other 
property such as the 
debtor may select. If 
the one hundred dollars’ 
worth of property can¬ 
not be selected, then a 
sale may be ordered, and 
one hundred dollars in 
money paid to him. Exemptions not allowed when judgments 
are for seduction or breach of promise of marriage. 


MASSACHUSETTS. 

H ouseholders may 

have exempt from 
execution a home¬ 
stead not to exceed 
m value eight hundred 
dollars. Where it is de¬ 
signed to hold the home- 
stead free from execution 
it must be so recorded. 
The wearing apparel of 
every householder and 
that of his family; one 
bed, bedding and bed¬ 
stead for every two mem¬ 
bers of the family; one 
heating stove in use, and fuel purchased for use, not to exceed 
twenty dollars, and other household furniture to the value of three 
hundred dollars; family library to the value of fifty dollars; bibles 
and school books in use; one hundred dollars’ worth of imple¬ 
ments, fixtures and tools, necessary to carry on his business; ma¬ 
terials and stock in trade which were purchased by him with the 
intention of conducting his business, and which are necessary to 
that business, not exceeding the value of one hundred dollars; 
provisions procured by him for the use of his family to the value 
of fifty dollars; one pew in church, excepting for pay of same, or 
any tax assessed on it; rights of tombs and burial which are in use 
for the dead; one sewing machine, in family use, not to exceed the 
value of one hundred dollars; shares in a co-operative association 
up to the value of twenty dollars; the uniform, arms and accoutre¬ 
ments of an officer or soldier in the militia, which the law requires 
him to keep, the boat and fishing tackle of a fisherman not to 
exceed in value one hundred dollars, which must be in use by him 
or with Which he is procuring a living 


MICHIGAN. 


r 


omestead to the head 
of a family, if in a 
village, to the value 
of fifteen hundred 
dollars; if in the 
country, must not exceed 
forty acres of ground and 
the house thereon. 

When the property ex- 
—_____ ceeds fifteen hundred dol- 
jjf&V / lars in value it may be 
\ / sold, and after paying the 

-debtor that amount the 

residue may be taken by 
the creditor. 

Householders cannot sell or incumber their homesteads without 
the free consent of their wives. 

Householders also have exempt the following personal property: 
household goods and furniture, not exceeding two hundred and 
fifty dollars in value; the wearing apparel of each member of the 
family, pew in church, lots in cemetery, and rights of burial; arms 
and accoutrements, the school books of each member of the fam¬ 
ily, family library, not exceeding in value one hundred and fifty 
dollars; all family pictures, two cows, ten sheep and their fleeces, 
five swine, and provisions and fuel sufficient to keep the house¬ 
holder and his family six months; one yoke of oxen, or in lieu, one 
horse or one span of horses, vehicle, harness, or other things nec¬ 
essary for the person in carrying on the trade, business or profes¬ 
sion in which he is principally engaged, not to exceed in value the 
sum of two hundred and fifty dollars; a quantity of grain, hay, 






















































RECOVERY AND COLLECTION OF DEBTS. 


277 



feed, etc., to keep the above enumerated animals for six months; 
one sewing machine in use by family. 

The mechanical tools and implements of husbandry are exempt 
from all executions. No other personal property is exempt from 
an execution for purchase money. 

Where a householder who has his homestead exempt dies, his 
wife or minor children shall be entitled to the same benefit so long 
as she or they continue to occupy it as a homestead. 


MINNESOTA. 

T o every householder 
a homestead consist¬ 
ing of not exceeding 
eighty acres of land 
and a dwelling house 
thereon, to be selected by 
the debtor, but must not 
be included in any town, 
city or village, or instead, 
if the debtor should so 
select, not exceeding one- 
half acre in any town, 
city or village where the 
inhabitants number less 
thau five thousand; if over 
five thousand inhabitants there must not be to exceed one lot, and 
the dwelling house thereon and its appurtenances owned and occu¬ 
pied by the debtor as a residence. 

If a person entitled to a homestead shall die, his widow or 
minor children shall have the same benefit during the time they 
occupy the same. 

One seat or pew in place of public worship; one lot in cemetery; 
family bible, family pictures, school books or library, and musical 
instruments in use by family; all beds, bedding and bedsteads kept 
and in use by the debtor and his family, and the wearing apparel of 
the family; all stoves in use by the debtor and his family; all cook¬ 
ing: utensils, and other household furniture not above enumerated, 
not to exceed in value five hundred dollars; ten swine, three cows, 
one yoke of oxen, one horse> or in lieu thereof one span of horses 
or mules; twenty sheep and their fleeces; the necessary food for 
the above stock for the term of one year, either growing or already 
provided, or both; one dray, cart or wagon, one drag, two plows, 
one sleigh, and other farming utensils including necessary harness 
for team, not to exeeed in value three hundred dollars; grain nec¬ 
essary for one year's seed, not exceeding fifteen bushels potatoes, 
fifty bushels oats, three bushels corn, thirty bushels barley; one 
sewing machine; one years’ provision for debtor and his family, 
and fuel sufficient for one year; the wages of any laboring man or 
woman, or of any of their minor children, not exceeding twenty 
dollars, for any services that may have been rendered ninety days 
previous to judgment; all instruments and tools of any mechanic, 
minor or other person, used and kept for the purpose of carrying 
on his trade, not to exceed the value of four hundred dollars. 

Also, above and in addition to the articles already enumerated, 
where the debtor is an editor, publisher or printer, he is allowed 
the usual printing outfit, which may consist of presses, type, stones 
and cases, not to exceed in value two thousand dollars, and not 
exceeding four hundred dollars of stock in trade. 

Any mortgage that is lawfully obtained on the property is not 
included in this exemption, however, but such mortgage or other 
alienation of such land by the owner thereof, if he be a married 
man, shall not be valid without the signature of his wife to the 
same, unless such mortgage shall be given to secure the payment 
of the purchase money, or a portion of the same. 

This exemption law is not to be so construed as to exempt any 
property within the state from execution or attachment for the 
wages of clerks, laborers, or mechanics. 



MISSISSIPPI. 

T o every person, 
whether at the head 
of a family or not, 
the following per¬ 
sonal property: All agri¬ 
cultural implements nec¬ 
essary for a farmer, for 
two laborers; the books 
of a student with which 
to complete his educa¬ 
tion; the tools of a me¬ 
chanic necessary to carry 
on his trade; his wearing 
apparel; the libraries of 
the followi ng professional 
men: preachers,licensed attorneys and physicians; also the instru¬ 
ments of dentists and surgeons, not to exceed in value two hundred 
and fifty dollars. Teachers of colleges, schools and academies 
have exempt all globes, maps and books used by them; life insur¬ 
ance policy, the amount of which is not in excess of ten thousand 
dollars, from debts of deceased. To every householder being a 
resident of the state, and having a family, male or female, a home¬ 
stead used as a residence, not to exceed in value two thousand dol¬ 
lars, nor more than one hundred and sixty acres. Where the 
property is worth more than two thousand dollars, it may be 
divided, if practicable; if not, it may be sold, and after paying the 
debtor the remainder is to be paid to the creditor. To a house¬ 
holder the following personal property: one yoke of oxen or one 
span of horses or mules, two cows and calves, five sheep, five 
head of hogs, five swine, one hundred and fifty bushels corn, ten 
bushels wheat or rice, three hundred bundles fodder, two hundred 
pounds of meat, one wagon or cart not to exceed in value two 
hundred dollars, one sewing machine, household and kitchen fur¬ 
niture not to exceed one hundred dollars in value, growing crops. 
Where a householder is a resident of a city, town or village, they 
are allowed to have personal property exempt to the value of two 
hundred and fifty dollars, such as they may select, which is in lieu 
of the foregoing. No exemptions allowed when the debt claimed 
is for purchase money, or for non-payment of taxes or assessments, 
or for any materials furnished for the property, nor for any debt 
for labor on the property. 


MISSOURI. 



f 


|OU SEKEEPERS Or 
heads of families are 
allowed to hold ex¬ 
empt from execution 
or attachment, a 
homestead, if occupied as 
a residence, not to exceed 
in value three thousand 
dollars, when in cities of 
over forty thousand in¬ 
habitants, and not exceed¬ 
ing in quantity eighteen 
square rods of ground, in 
cities of ten thousand and 
over, but less than forty 
thousand inhabitants, a homestead not to exceed the value of fif¬ 
teen hundred dollars, nor more than thirty square rods of ground; 
in cities of less than ten thousand inhabitants, five acres, not to 
exceed in value fifteen hundred dollars; in the country, not to 
exceed one hundred and sixty acres, not to exceed fifteen hundred 
dollars in value. Where a husband abandons his wife, she may 
file a claim to the homestead, describing the property, and state 
that she is the wife of the owner of the land, and in whose name it 















































278 


RECOVERY AND COLLECTION OF DEBTS. 


is recorded, which claim must be entered on record and must be 
acknowledged as deeds are, after which no incumbrance on or con¬ 
veyance of can be made without her consent. 

At the death of a householder who was owning a homestead, 
leaving a widow or minor children surviving him, the homestead 
goes to them during the widow’s lifetime, until the youngest child 
shall have arrived at age, after which the fee simple of the prop¬ 
erty, subject to the homestead therein will pass by descent or 
devise, and can be sold for the descendant’s debts as in other 
cases. Where the descendant, during his lifetime, has placed 
an incumbrance on his homestead, it may be enforced after his 
demise. 

The following personal property is exempt when owned by a 
person not at the head of a family: Wearing apparel, the neces¬ 
sary implements and tools of any mechanic while carrying on his 


faniily, supplies sufficient to keep the family for six months, and 
enough to keep the domestic animals for three months, cooking 
utensils, household furniture, family bible, family pictures, certain 
domestic animals, tools, implements of trade, etc., and sixty days’ 
wages to any laboring man, clerk, etc.; provided that there shall 
be no exemption for Avages due to any clerk, mechanic or laborer, 
or for money due and owing by any attorney at laAv for money or 
other valuable consideration received by such attorney for any 
person or persons. There is no exemption when the execution is 
for debts secured by a mechanics’, laborers’ or A r endors’ liens upon 
the premises, or on debts secured by mortgage upon the premises 
executed and acknoAvdedged by both husband and Avife, or by an 
unmarried debtor. 

NEVADA. 


trade. 

The folloAving personal property is exempt to those Avho may be 
at the head of a family. Ten head of choice sheep, and the pro¬ 
duct thereof in avooI, cloth, or yarn; ten head of choice swine; 
two coavs and calves; tAvo ploAA^s, one hoe, one axe, and one set of 
ploAv gears, and all necessary farm implements for the use of one 
man, working animals to the value of one hundred and fifty dol¬ 
lars; one loom and apparatus used in manufacturing cloth in a 
private family, spinning Avheels and cards; all the spun yarn, 
thread and cloths manufactured for family use; any quantity of 
hemp, flax and avooI, not exceeding tAventy-five pounds each; all 
Avearing apparel of debtor and family; four beds Avith necessary 
bedding, and such other household and kitchen furniture, not 
exceeding the value of one hundred dollars, as may be necessary 
for the family, agreeably to an inventory thereof, to be returned on 
oath with the execution by the officer making the levy; all such 
provisions as may be on hand not above the value of one hundred 
dollars; books and bibles belonging to the family; all lettered 
grave stones and one peAV in church; the necessary implements 
and tools of any mechanic AAdiile carrying on his trade. Ministers 
of the gospel, lawyers and physicians can select such books as may 
be necessaiy to their professions in lieu of other property aboA r e 
mentioned, and doctors of medicine, in lieu of above property, 
can select their medicines. 

The property of a non-resident is not exempt, nor that of any 
person Avho is about to abscond from the state; nor is any property 
exempt from seizure and sale for taxes. If a married man should 
leave the state, his wife may claim the exemption; nor Avould per¬ 
sonal property be exempt as against the purchase money; there is 
no exemption against a claim for Avages of a common laborer or a 
house servant to the sum of ninety dollars, if suit should be com¬ 
menced Avithin six months. 

NEBRASKA. 

homestead to every 
family, Avhether the 
title resides in the 
husband or Avife, 
consisting of dwell- 
a resi¬ 
dence by the claimant, 
and the land and appurte¬ 
nances, not to exceed one 
hundred and sixty acres, 
or if within an incorpo¬ 
rated city or village a 
quantity of adjoining land 
not exceeding tAvo lots; 
in either case the value 

must not exceed two thousand dollars. 

In case the claimant has no lands, there is then exempt personal 

The clothing of the 



ing house used as 




property to the value of five hundred dollars. 


homestead, to be selected by the husband or wife, or 
other head of family, not exceeding in value five thou¬ 
sand dollars, and the following personal property, except 
for incumbrance thereon for debts created for the pur¬ 
chase of the same one horse, harness and vehicle of a physi¬ 
cian, surgeon or minister of the gospel, and food necessary to 
keep the animals one month; one seAving machine in use in 
debtor’s family, not exceeding in value one hundred and fifty dol¬ 
lars; chairs, tables, desks and books worth one hundred dollars; 
household furniture, etc., and provisions and fireAvood for one 
month; the farming utensils of a farmer, and seed provided for 
planting within the ensuing six months, not to exceed in A'alue tAvo 
hundred dollars; one span of mules, or one yoke of oxen, tAvo 
coavs, and food for such animals for one month; one wagon or one 
cart; the implements and tools of a mechanic necessary to carry 
on his trade; the libraries and instruments necessary to a sur- 
veyor, physician, dentist or surgeon; the professional library of 
an attorney and counselor, or minister of the gospel; the dAA'elling 
of a miner not exceeding in value five hundred dollars, and his 
appliances and tools necessary to carry on his mining operations, 
not exceeding in A'alue five hundred dollars; and one span of 
horses, one yoke of oxen, or one span of mules, their harness, and 
the necessary food for the animals for one month, Avhen they are 
necessary in his mining operations. 

A teamster or other laborer avIio habitually earns his living Avith 
a team has exempt, one span of horses ormules, one yoke of oxen, 
and their harness, and one Avagon or cart. 

NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

ne lot in a burying 
ground, the debt¬ 
or’s interest in one 
peAv in a place of 
worship; one yoke of 
oxen, or in lieu thereof, 
one horse; the necessary 
beds and bedding for the 
debtor and family; wear¬ 
ing apparel of the debtor 
and his family; one cook¬ 
ing stove and its furni¬ 
ture; household furniture 
to the value of one hun¬ 
dred dollars; bibles and 
and school books in actual use; one seAving machine; library to 
the value of tAA’o hundred dollars; one hog, one pig, and the pork 
of the same AV'hen slaughtered; one coav; four tons of hay; six 
sheep and their fleeces; provisions and fuel to the value of fifty 
dollars; tools of the debtor’s occupation to the value of one hun¬ 
dred dollars. 

An unmarried person may have exempt, if an oAAmer, a home¬ 
stead not to exceed in value five hundred dollars; the wife and 




























































RECOVERY AND COLLECTION OF DEBTS. 


279 






children of every one who owns a homestead, or any interest in 
the same, are entitled to an exemption in the same not to exceed 
in value five hundred dollars, as against grantees, creditors or heirs 
of such persons, during the life of the widow and until the children 
arrive at maturity. 

Where a wife owns, in her own right, a homestead at her death, 
the life estate of the surviving husband, not to exceed in value the 
sum of five hundred dollars, is exempt to him. 

NEW JERSEY. 

?o every househol¬ 
der having a fam¬ 
ily there shall be 
exempt from sale 
on execution for debt, a 
homestead, where owned 
and occupied as a resi¬ 
dence by the debtor, to 
the value of one thousand 
dollars. 

Articles that are ex¬ 
empt are: one bed and 
bedding, one cradle, one 
stove, one-half cord of 
firewood, one-half ton of 
coal, one table, one spinning-wheel, six chairs, one cow, one hog, 
one hundred pounds of flour, one cooking-pot; knives, forks, 
spoons, plates, one dozen each; six bowls, one barrel, two pails, 
one tub, one coffee-pot, one frying pan, necessary tools of a 
tradesman to the value of ten dollars, and all necessary wearing 
apparel. 

According to supplementary act of 1858, in all cases of assign¬ 
ments of debtors for the benefit of creditors, goods and chattels to 
the value of two hundred dollars, and wearing apparel for the 
debtor and his family, are exempt from forced sale. 

NEW YORK. 

o A householder 
having a family 
there is exempt the 
lot and buildings 
occupied, owned and used 
as a residence by the 
debtor, not to exceed in 
value one thousand dol¬ 
lars, but must be recorded 
in the office of the clerk 
of the county in which 
such property is situated, 
as homestead property. 

The property is not ex¬ 
empt from non-payment 
of taxes or assessments, nor from a debt contracted for the pur¬ 
chase money, nor for any debt contracted previous to the recording 
the same as homestead property. Property so recorded will con¬ 
tinue to be exempt after the demise of the debtor, for the benefit 
of the widow and family, as long as any of them continue to 
occupy it as a homestead, until the death of the widow, or until 
the youngest child reaches maturity. 

Married women are allowed the same exemption as house¬ 
holders. 

Personal property? working tools and team, professional instru¬ 
ments, household furniture, and library not to exceed in value two 
hundred and fifty dollars, and food sufficient to keep the team for 
ninety days. When the debtor supports his family wholly or in 
part by his labor, his earnings for his personal services for sixty 
days preceding are also exempt. 


NORTH CAROLINA. 

ive hundred dol¬ 
lars’ worth of per¬ 
sonal property, 
such as the debtor 
may select, who must be 
a resident of the state, 
and a homestead includ¬ 
ing the dwelling and 
buildings, not to exceed 
in value one thousand 
dollars, to be selected by 
the debtor. There is no 
exemption from debts 
created for the purchase 
of the homestead, or 
taxes, laborers’ and mechanics’ liens. Among certain articles to 
the value of five hundred dollars that are also exempt may be men¬ 
tioned one cow and calf, one loom, one bedstead and bedding for 
every two persons of a family, necessary tools for one laborer, etc. 


OHIO. 


here the hus¬ 
band and wife 
are living to- 


• one thousand' 1 dollars. 1 If 

greater value, and cannot, 
in the opinion of the ap¬ 
praisers be divided with¬ 
out injury, then the plaintiff in execution would be entitled to a 
yearly rental value of over one hundred dollars, until such time as 
the debt, costs and interest shall have been paid. 

Any resident of the state, being a householder, and not the 
owner of a homestead, may hold exempt other chattels as he 
may select to the value of five hundred dollars, which shall be in 
addition to the amount of other personal property otherwise 
exempted. 

No exemptions allowed on a judgment rendered on any incum¬ 
brance on the property which had been made and signed by the 
debtor and his wife, nor for any claim for labor of less than one 
hundred dollars, or for a debt created on account of purchase 
money, nor for a mechanic’s lien, nor for material furnished, or 
labor performed in erecting any buildings on the premises, nor 
for taxes. 

The following personal property is also exempt: The wearing 
apparel of such family, beds, bedsteads, bedding necessary for the use 
of the family; two stoves and the necessary pipes, and fuel for sixty 
days; implements and tools necessary for carrying on his or her 
trade or business; certain domestic animals, and the necessary food 
to last them sixty days; or, if the debtor has not these articles, he 
may select sixty-five dollars’ worth of furniture. All family pictures 
and books; provisions for family use, to the value of fifty dollars; 
one sewing machine and one knitting machine; and in addition to 
the above, where the debtor is an expressman or a drayman, he 
can hold exempt one wagon or dray, one set of harness and one 
horse; if a farmer, one horse or one yoke of oxen, one wagon, and 
the necessary gearing for his team; if a physician.his professional 
books, medical instruments, one horse, one saddle and one bridle, 
not to exceed in value one hundred dollars. 




































































280 


RECOVERY AND COLLECTION OF DEBTS. 






OREGON. 


4 ooks, pictures, 
and musical in¬ 
struments owned 
by any person, 
to the value of seventy- 
five dollars; necessary 
wearing apparel owned 
by any person, to the 
value of one hundred dol¬ 
lars; and if such person 
be a householder, for each 
member of his family to 
the value of fifty dollars; 
the tools, implements, ap¬ 
paratus, team, vehicle, 
harness, or library necessary to enable any person to carry on the 
trade, occupation, or profession by which such person habitually 
earns his living,to the value of four hundred dollars; also a suffi¬ 
cient quantity of fuel to support such team, if any, for sixty days. 
The word “team,” in this subdivision, shall not be construed to 
include more than one yoke of oxen, or a span of horses or mules, 
as the case may be. 

If a householder owns and keeps in actual, or keeps for use, by 
and for his family, the following property is also exempt: Ten 
sheep, with one year’s lleece, or the yarn or cloth manufactured 
therefrom,two cows, and five swine; household goods, furniture, 
and utensils, to the value of three hundred dollars; also food 
enough to support such animals, if any, for three months, and pro¬ 
visions actually provided for family use, and necessary for the sup¬ 
port of such householder and family for six months; one seat or 
pew in a house of worship, and occupied by the householder or his 
family. No exemption when the debt sought to be recovered is 
for the purchase price or any part thereof. 


PENNSYLVANIA. 


here is exempt 
^ fr° m execution, 
Wm' property, either 
real or personal, 
not to exceed in value 
three hundred dollars, in 
addition to bibles, school 
books and wearing ap¬ 
parel, when claimed as 
exempt property by the 
debtor; the privilege be¬ 
ing a personal one, may 
be waived at any time. 
The debtor's widow or 
minor children are enti¬ 
tled to the same sum from his estate, for her or their use. 

A seamstress may hold exempt from sale or execution, all sew¬ 
ing machines used in earning a support. 

No homestead exemption in this state. 

A debtor is not entitled to three hundred dollars from the pro¬ 
ceeds of a sale following the seizure of real estate, if he fails to 
make his choice to retain it. A claim to personal estate, to be 
effective, must be made before the sale; and where the defendant 
neglects to enter his claim, he thereby relinquishes all bene¬ 
fits to be had on account of the statute. Where a debtor gives 
up his right to the exemption by an understanding to that effect 
with one execution debtor, it is a waiver as to all the other 
creditors. 

Excepted from the operation of the statute are mortgages or 
other contracts for the purchase money of real estate. 


RHODE ISLAND. 


he necessary wearing 
apparel of a debtor 
and his family; his 
necessary working 
tools not exceeding two 
hundred dollars in value; 
household furniture and 
family stores, if a house¬ 
keeper, not exceeding 
three hundred dollars in 
value; the bibles, school, 
and other books in use in 
his family; one cow, and 
one and a half tons of hay, 
of a housekeeper; one 
hog and one pig, and the pork from the same, of a housekeeper; 
one pew in a house of worship; a burial lot; mariners’ wages until 
after the termination of the voyage in which same have been 
earned; debts secured by bills of exchange on negotiable promis¬ 
sory notes, and ten dollars due as the wages of a laborer. 


SOUTH CAROLINA. 


T o the head of every 
family a homestead 
to the value of one 
thousand dollars, and 
the annual product there¬ 
of, and personal property 
not to exceed in value the 
sum of five hundred dol¬ 
lars. Where a woman has 
separate property, and is 
married to the head of a 
family, who has not a 
homestead or the where¬ 
with to procure one, she 
may then be entitled to 
the same exemption as the head of a family, but the joint of hus¬ 
band and wife in real estate and personal property must not be in 
excess of one thousand dollars in a homestead and five hundred 
dollars in personal property; no property is exempt from a levy or 
sale for taxes, or for obligations incurred for the purchase of the 
property or any improvements on the same. Homestead right not 
being a personal one, cannot be waived, nor can it be sold except 
for the purpose of purchasing another one. The products from 
the h,omestead are not exempt from a debt which has been created 
in their production. 


TENNESSEE. 


) hile in the 
hands of the 
heads of fami¬ 
lies the follow¬ 
ing property is exempt 
from sale or execution: 
two beds, bedsteads, and 
necessary clothing for 
each, and for each three 
children an additional 
bed, bedstead, and cloth¬ 
ing, the bedstead not to 
exeeed in value twenty- 
five dollars; two cows and 
calves, and if the family 
consists of six persons or more, three cows and calves; one dozen 
knives and forks, one dozen plates, half dozen dishes, one set tabh 




















































































RECOVERY AND COLLECTION OF DEBTS. 


281 


spoons, one set teaspoons, one bread tray, two pitchers, one waiter, 
one coffee-pot, one teapot, one canister, one cream jug, one dozen 
cups and saucers, one dining table and two table cloths, one dozen 
chairs, one bureau not to exceed forty dollars in value, one safe or 
press, one wash basin, one bowl and pitcher, one washing kettle, 
two washing tubs, one churn, one looking-glass, one chopping-axe, 
one spinning-wheel, one loom and gear, one pair cotton cards, one 
pair wool cards, one cooking stove and utensils, or one set of ordi¬ 
nary cooking utensils, one meal sieve, and one wheat sieve, one cra¬ 
dle, one bible and hymn book, and all books used in school, two horses 
or two mules, or one horse and one mule or one horse or mule and one 
yoke of oxen, one ox cart, yoke, ring, staple and log-chain, one two or 
one-horse wagon not to exceed seventy-five dollars in value, and har¬ 
ness, one man’s saddle, one woman’s saddle, two riding-bridles, 
twenty-five barrels of corn, twenty bushels of wheat, five hundred 
bundles of oats, five hundred bundles of fodder, one stack of hay not 
to exceed twenty dollars in value, and where the family consists of 
less than six persons, one thousand pounds of pork, slaughtered or 
on foot, or six hundred pounds of bacon, or where the family con¬ 
sists of more than six persons, then twelve hundred pounds of 
pork or nine hundred pounds of bacon, and all the poultry on 
hand, and fowls to the value of twenty-five dollars; six cords of 
wood, or one hundred bushels of coal, fifty head of sheep, and the 
fleeces that may be shorn from the same, and twenty-five stands 
of bees and the product of the same; and to the heads of families, 
or to a single female who keeps in use from which to earn a living, 
one sewing machine; one hundred gallons of sorghum molasses, 
one hundred pounds of soap, fifty pounds of lard, one hundred 
pounds of flour, fifty pounds of salt, one hundred pounds of beef 
or mutton, one pound of black pepper, one pound of spice, one 
pound of ginger, twenty pounds of coffee, fifty pounds of sugar, 
three bushels of meal, one bushel of dried beans, one bushel of 
dried peas, fifty bushels of Irish potatoes, fifty bushels of sweet 
potatoes (when kept for family use, and not for sale or merchan¬ 
dise), ten bushels of turnips, one pair of andirons, one clock, all 
the canned fruit put up for family use not to exceed twenty dol¬ 
lars in value, twenty bushels of peanuts, three strings of red pep¬ 
pers, two gourds, two punger gourds, a carpet in use by the 
family not exceeding in value twenty-five dollars, and two hun¬ 
dred bushels of cotton seed; and where the head of the family is 
a farmer, there is in addition, exempt while in his possession, two 
plows, two hoes, one grubbing hoe, one cutting knife, one harvest 
cradle, one set of plow gears, one pitchfork, one rake, three iron 
wedges, five head of sheep, and ten head of stock hogs. In the 
hands of each mechanic who is following his trade, he has exempt 
one set of mechanic’s tools, such as would be necessary to his 
trade, and where such mechanic is at the head of a family, two 
hundred dollars worth of lumber or material, or products of his 
labor; also one gun in the possession of every male citizen to the 
age of eighteen years and upward, and every female who is at the 
head of a family; to the heads of families, fifty pounds of picked 
cotton, and twenty-five pounds of wool, and sufficient quantity of 
upper and sole leather to provide winter shoes for the family. 

Where.the householder dies, absconds or deserts his family, the 
property shall be set apart for the use of the wife and family. 

No property shall be exempt for distress or sale for taxes, or on 
a failure or refusal to work on the public roads, or for fines or 
costs for illegal voting, or for giving away or selling intoxicating 
liquors on election day, or for carrying concealed or deadly weap¬ 
ons contrary to law. 

Also, there is exempt to householders, his or her homestead to 
the value of one thousand dollars, and consisting of the dwelling 
house and out buildings, and the land appurtenant thereto. The 
same shall inure to the benefit of a deceased householders’ widow 
and the minor children, but shall not be exempt from sale on exe¬ 
cution for taxes levied on the premises, or for any improvements 
made thereon. The householder may elect where the homestead 
shall be set apart, whether residing on the same or not. 


TEXAS. 

T he homestead of the 
family, when in the 
country, not to con¬ 
sist of more than two 
hundred acres of land, 
which may or may not be 
contiguous, or in lieu 
thereof, any lot or lots in 
a city, town or village, 
used as a homestead, and 
not to exceed in value five 
thousand dollars at the 
time of designation, with¬ 
out reference to the value 
of the improvements 
thereon. No exemption on homestead from purchase money, taxes 
due on same, or for work and material used in constructing any 
improvements thereon. 

There is also exempt to every family, all household and kitchen 
furniture, any lots in a cemetery, all implements of husbandry, 
all tools and apparatus belonging to any trade or profession, and 
all books belonging to private or public libraries, family portraits 
and pictures; five milch cows and calves, two yoke of work oxen, 
two horses and one wagon, one carriage or buggy, one gun, twenty 
sheep, twenty hogs, all provision and forage on hand for home con¬ 
sumption, all bridles, saddles and harness necessary for the use of 
the family. And to every citizen not at the head of a family, one 
horse, bridle and saddle, all wearing apparel, lot or lots in a ceme¬ 
tery, all tools, apparatus, and books belonging to his trade, pro¬ 
fession, or private library. 

VERMONT. 


/Tf HOMESTEAD to 
the value of five 
%/ 'gk hundred dol¬ 
lars, suitable 
apparel, bedding, tools, 
arms, and articles of 
household furniture, as 
may be necessary for up¬ 
holding life, one sewing 
machine kept for use, one 
cow, the best swine, or the 
meat of one swine, ten 
sheep and one year’s pro¬ 
duct of said sheep in wool, 
yarn, or cloth; forage suf¬ 
ficient for keeping not exceeding ten sheep and one cow through 
the winter, ten cords of fire wood or five tons of coal, twenty 
bushels of potatoes; such military arms and accoutrements as the 
debtor is required by law to furnish, all growing crops, ten bushels 
of grain, one barrel of flour, three swarms of bees and hives 
together with their produce in honey, two hundred pounds of 
sugar, and all lettered grave stones, the bible and other books used 
in a family, one pew or slip in a meeting house or place of religious 
worship, live poultry not exceeding in value ten dollars, the pro¬ 
fessional books and instruments of physicians, and the professional 
books of clergymen and attorneys at law, to the value of two hun¬ 
dred dollars, and also one yoke of oxen or steers, as the debtor 
may select; two horses kept and used for team work, and such as 
the debtor may select in lieu of oxen or steers, but not exceeding 
in value the sum of two hundred dollars, with sufficient forage for 
keeping the same through the winter; also the pistols, such arms 
and equipments personally used by any soldier in the service of 
the United States, and kept by him or his heirs as mementoes of his 
service; also one two-horse wagon with whifHetrees and neck-yoke, 














































V. -TT • ' - 5 



RECOVERY AND COLLECTION OF DEBTS. 




or one ox-cart, as the debtor may choose; one sled or set of tra¬ 
verse sleds, either for horses or oxen, as the debtor may select; 
two harnesses, two halters, two chains, one plow, and one ox-yoke, 
which, with the oxen or steers or horses which the debtor may 
select for team work shall not exceed in value two hundred and 
fifty dollars. 

VIRGINIA. 

hVERY householder 
or head of a fam¬ 
ily may have ex¬ 
empt from levy or 
distress, in addition to the 
articles hereafter men¬ 
tioned, real or personal 
property not exceeding in 
value two thousand dol¬ 
lars, such as he may se¬ 
lect; the family bible, 
family pictures, school 
books, and library for the 
use of the family, not ex¬ 
ceeding one hundred dol¬ 
lars in value; a seat or pew in a place of public worship, a lot in a 
cemetery, wearing apparel, beds, bedding, stoves, etc., six chairs, 
and other household furniture and utensils, one horse, one cow, 
five barrels of corn, five bushels of wheat, two hundred pounds of 
bacon, three hogs, ten dollars’ worth of forage or hay, one cooking 
stove, one sewing machine, a mechanic’s tools, not exceeding in 
value one hundred dollars. Where the debtor is actually engaged 
in carrying on agricultural pursuits, he would have exempt one 
yoke of oxen or span of horses or mules, with two plows and other 
agricultural implements. This is known as the “ poor law exemp¬ 
tion,” of which there can be no waiver; even a mortgage on any or 
all of the articles contained in the “poor law exemption” would 
be held to be void. The law further provides that a deed of the 
property claimed under the exemption must be recorded. Where 
the property set apart consists of a homestead exemption it may 
be incumbered or sold by the joint act of the husband and wife, 
or if the householder is unmarried, by him alone. When a house¬ 
holder dies before claiming the exemption, the right continues for 
the benefit of the wife and minor children, during the life of the 
widow, providing she remains his widow, and until the youngest 
child shall become of age, after which period it shall be subject to 
the law of descent, as any other real estate. 

There is no exemption on a homestead for any part of the pur¬ 
chase price of the same, or for services rendered by any laborer or 
mechanic, for lawful claim for any taxes, levies or assessments, for 
rent accruing. 

WEST VIRGINIA. 

HOMESTEAD 110t 
to exceed in 
value one thou¬ 
sand dollars, to 
a husband or parent, or 
the minor children of de¬ 
ceased parents; the home¬ 
stead so set apart must be 
recorded as exempt prop¬ 
erty previous to the date 
of contracting the debt 
from which the debtor 
seeks to have his home¬ 
stead exempted; the 
homestead is not exempt 
from taxes due on the same, nor would it be exempt from any 
debt created for improvements thereon; and there is also, to a 







husband or parent, or minor children of deceased parents, two 
hundred dollars’ worth of personal property; and to any mechanic, 
artisan, or laborer, who is a resident of the state, whether a hus¬ 
band or parent or not, he has exempt such tools as are necessary 
to carry on his business to the value of fifty dollars, but this does 
not seem to be in addition to other property exempted, as no one 
person is allowed, in all, to exceed two hundred dollars in personal 
property. 

WISCONSIN. 


' amily bible, family 
library and pict¬ 
ures, all beds, bed¬ 
steads and bedding 
in use by the debtor and 
his family, all wearing ap¬ 
parel of the debtor and 
his family, all stoves in 
use, and other household 
furniture, not enumerat¬ 
ed, not exceeding two 
hundred dollars in value; 
one gun, rifle, or other 
fire-arm not exceeding 
fifty dollars in value; two 
cows, ten swine, one yoke of oxen and one horse or mule, or in 
lieu thereof, two horses or two mules; ten sheep, and the wool 
from the same, either in the fleece or manufactured into cloth or 
yarn; the necessary food for all the above-named stock for one 
year’s support, either on hand or growing, or both, as the debtor 
may choose; also one wagon, cart or dray, one sleigh, one plow, 
one drag, and other farming utensils, including tackle for teams, 
not exceeding fifty dollars in value; provisions for debtor and his 
family sufficient for one year’s support, either on hand or grow¬ 
ing, or both, and necessary fuel for one year. 

The tools and implements, or stock in trade, of any mechanic, 
miner, or other person, used and kept for the purpose of carrying 
on his trade or business, not exceeding two hundred dollars in 
value; the library and implements of any professional man, not 
exceeding in value two hundred dollars; one sewing machine for 
family; all inventions from debts against the inventor; the earn¬ 
ings of all persons for three months next preceding the issue of 
execution, attachments, etc., and five hundred dollars in money or 
other property, in case debtor has no homestead; all money aris¬ 
ing from insurance on any exempt property, which has been 
destroyed by fire, including policies on the homestead; all moneys 
coming from a life insurance policy on the life of any person, made 
for the benefit of a married woman, are exempt from the debts of 
the insured, and shall be paid to such married woman or her heirs; 
fifteen hundred dollars worth of printing material, presses, etc.; 
papers, plates, maps, and books kept for making abstracts of title, 
when the annual receipts do not exceed one thousand dollars: 
excess over such amount is not exempt. 

The debtor has the right to make all selections under exemp¬ 
tion laws. A homestead consisting of not over forty acres of 
land, used for agricultural purposes, including dwelling-house 
thereon, and all appurtenances, to be selected by the owner, or 
instead, not exceeding one-fourth of an acre within any town plot, 
city, or village, including a dwelling-house thereon. 

This exemption does not effect laborers’ or mechanics’ liens, or 
extend to any incumbrances which have been properly and legally 
entered into. 

Private property is exempt from seizure to pay municipal 
indebtedness, with the exception of debts contracted before a pro¬ 
vision made in 1872. Personal property is not exempt where 
there is indebtedness on account of its purchase price. 






























































DICTIONARY OF MERCANTILE AND LEGAL TERMS. 


283 



DICTIONARY 



—< '—CD-t 1 — < I > —s- 



Abandonment. Surrender of a 
ship or merchandise insured, to 
the insurer. 

Abatement. A rejection of a suit 
on account of some fault either 
in the matter or proceeding; dis¬ 
count allowed for damage done 
to merchandise, or for other 
causes. 

Abstract. A summary of a deed 
or document. 

Acceptance. An agreement to pay 
the contents of a bill. 
Accommodation. A bill of ex¬ 
change accepted by an individual 
for the convenience of the drawer, with whom 
it rests to take it up at maturity. 

Account. A concise record of the business trans¬ 
actions of merchants or others. “ Fictitious 
accounts,” in book keeping, such as are made 
out to show the merchant’s gains and losses, 
under the heads charges, profit and loss, bal¬ 
ance, etc. “Real accounts,” statements made 
out to show the merchant where, how, and in 
what proportions his property is invested, under 
such heads as cash, merchandise, bills receiva¬ 
ble, and the like. 

Account Current. One that is running, or 
unsettled. 

Accountant. A person skilled in mercantile ac¬ 
counts. 

Acknowledgment. An avowal of one’s own act, 
to give it validity. 

Acquittance. A written discharge for a sum of 
money that has been paid. 

Action at law. A right of prosecuting to judg¬ 
ment, in a court of law, a claim for a debt, for 
damages, for an injury sustained, or a wrong 
done, or to obtain possession of what the right 
owner is deprived of. 

Actuary. The manager of a joint-stock company 
under a board of directors, particularly an 
insurance company; also a person skilled in the 
doctrine of life annuities and insurances. 

Adjustment. In marine insurance, the ascertain¬ 
ment of the exact amount of indemnity to which 
the insured is entitled under the policy, when 
all deductions and proper allowances have been 
made. 

Admeasurement. A writ against those who 
usurp more than their own share, as the ad¬ 
measurement of pasture, or of dower. 

Administration. The management of the affairs 
of minors, lunatics, etc. 


Administrator. A person to whom the estate 
and effects of an intestate are committed, for 
which lie is to be accountable when required. 

Adulteration. The introduction of cheap and 
often injurious materials into natural and man¬ 
ufactured products. 

Ad Valorem. According to the value; a term 
used for those duties or customs which are paid 
according to the value of the goods. 

Advance. In commerce, money paid before 
goods are delivered, work done, or any consid¬ 
eration given. 

Adventure, Bill of. A writing signed by one 
who receives merchandise on board of his ship 
wholly at the risk of the owner. 

Advice. In commerce, is information respecting 
trade communicated by letter. 

Affidavit. A statement, in writing, of facts for 
the information of a court in a cause or matter 
pending, or about to be commenced therein. A 
counter affidavit is one made in opposition to 
an affidavit. 

Affirmation. Signifies the ratifying or confirm¬ 
ing a former law or judgment. 

Affreightment. An act or agreement by which a 
ship is hired for the transportation of goods. 

Agent. One who conducts the affairs, or is 
intrusted with the commission of another. 

Agio. A term used to express the difference 
between the value of metallic and paper money 
in a country, or between the metallic moneys 
of different countries. 

Agreement. Is where a promise is made on one 
side, and assented to on the other. 

Allonge. A paper annexed to a bill of exchange 
or promissory note, on which to write indorse¬ 
ments for which there is no room on the bill 
itself. 

Allowance. A deduction from the gross weight 
of goods. See Tare. 

Answer. In law, is a pleading or reply, whereby 
an allegation in a bill of complaint in chancery, 
or inquiries arising thereout, or in a libel or 
articles in the ecclesiastical and other civil 
courts, is or are replied to or rebutted. 

Appeal. Is the removal of a complaint of an 
inferior to a superior court, being in the nature 
of a writ of error. “ Appellant,” or “appellor,” 
one who makes or brings an appeal. 

Appraising. Is the valuing or setting a price 
on goods, An appraiser is one sworn to value 
goods fairly. 

Apprentice. A young person bound by indent¬ 
ures or articles of agreement to a tradesman, or 
artificer, to learn his trade or mystery. 


Arbitration. A mode of deciding controversies 
by means of arbiters or arbitrators. 

Article. In law, the clause or condition in a cov¬ 
enant. 

Arrest. The apprehending and restraining a 
man’s person in order to compel him to be 
obedient to the law. This, in all cases except 
treason, felony, or breach of the peace, must be 
done by the lawful warrant of some court of 
record or officer of justice. Arrest of judgment 
is the staying of judgment, or not proceeding 
to judgment. 

Assessor. One who assesses public taxes, by 
rating every person according to his estate. 

Assets. The stock in trade and entire property 
of a merchant or a trading association; goods 
or estate of a deceased person, subject to the 
payment of his debts; the property of an insol. 
vent debtor. 

Assignee. One who is assigned or appointed by 
another to do any act or perform any business; 
also, one who takes any right, title, or interest 
in property, by an assignment from an assignor, 
or by act of the law. 

Assignor. One who makes an assignment. 

Assignment. A transfer or making over to 
another the right one has in any estate. 

Association. A union of persons or a society 
formed for mutual assistance, or for the joint 
carrying out of some definite object. 

Assumpsit. A voluntary promise by which a 
man binds himself to pay anything to another, 
or to do any work. 

Attachment. A process that issues at the discre¬ 
tion of the judges of a court of record against 
a person, for some contempt, either actual or by 
disobeying its order, for which he is committed. 

Attainder. The immediate consequence when 
sentence of death is pronounced. The criminal 
is then called attaint, attinctus, stained, or 
blackened, having no longer any credit or repu¬ 
tation. 

Attestation. Of a deed, will, or other instru¬ 
ment, is the execution of it in the presence of 
witnesses. 

Attorney. One who is legally appointed to act 
for another. 

Auction. A public sale of goods by persons called 
auctioneers, who are licensed to dispose of goods 
to the highest bidder. 

Audit. To examine, vouch, and certify the cor- 
rectness of the accounts of a public company or 
body. 

Authentication. The giving of authority by 
proper or legal formalities. 













































































y’J< 


DICTIONARY OF MERCANTILE AND LEGAL TERMS. 



Average. In shipping, a contribution to a loss 
suffered by one of a number for the general 
benefit. 

Balance. In book-keeping, to adjust and settle, 
as an account. “ Balance-sheet,” a condensed 
statement of a merchant’s assets and liabilities, 
drawn up in order to show the state of his affairs, 
Bail. Signifies the delivery of a man out of cus¬ 
tody, u)x>n the undertaking of one or more 
persons for him that he shall appear at a day 
limited, to answer and be justified by the law. 
Bailin'. A subordinate magistrate or officer ap¬ 
pointed within a particular province or district. 
Sheriffs’ bailiffs are officers appointed by the 
sheriff to execute writs. 

Bailment. The delivery of goods in trust upon 
a contract, expressed or implied. 

Balance of Trade. In commerce, the aggregate 
amount of a nation’s exports and imports, or 
the balance of the trade of one nation with 
another. 

Bale. A quantity of merchandise packed up in 
a cloth. 

Ballast. In maritime affairs, a certain portion of 
iron, stone, gravel, or such weighty material, 
placed in the bottom of a ship when she has 
either no cargo, or too little to bring her suffi- 
ciently low in the water. 

Bank. An establishment for the receiving of 
moneys and letting them out on interest. 
Banks are generally formed by a number of 
moneyed persons, who, for carrying on the 
business of negotiating bills of exchange, and 
dealing in bullion, etc., advance a considerable 
sum as a joint capital. 

Bankrupt. A trader who fails or breaks, so as to 
be unable to carry on his business or pay his 
debts. 

Bargain and Sale. An instrument whereby the 
property of lands and tenements is, for valuable 
consideration, transferred from one person to 
another. 

Bailiwick. The county or district in which a 
bailiff or deputy sheriff has jurisdiction. 

Barter. Is the exchanging of one commodity 
directly for another, without the employment 
of money or any other medium of exchange. A 
system of barter can only exist in the earliest 
commercial state of a people. 

Bazar. In eastern countries, a market-place, 
either open or covered, where goods are ex¬ 
posed for sale, and where merchants meet for 
the transaction of business. 

Bequest. See Devise. 

Bill. In law, a declaration in writing expressing 
any grievance or wrong which one person has 
suffered from another. 

Bill Book, in book-keeping, contains in one 
part an account of all the “bills receivable,”— 
i. e., bills of which he is to receive payment ; 
and in another an account of all “bills paya- 
ble,”— i. e., those that have to be paid. It con- 
tains a statement of the dates, amounts, when 
due, and other particulars of the several bills. 
See Ledger. 

Bill of Entry, a written statement of goods 
entex'ed at the custom-house. 

Bill of Exchange. A note containing an order 
for the payment of a sum of money, to a person 
called the drawer, who, when he has signed it 
with his name, and written the word accepted, 
he is called the acceptor. 

Bill of Lading, or Invoice. A deed signed by the 
master of a ship, by which he acknowledges the 
receipt of the merchant’s goods, and obliges 
himself to deliver them at the place to which 
they are consigned. 

Bill of Parcels. A tradesman’s account of goods 
sold and delivered. 

Bill of Sale. An instrument for the conveyance 
or transfer of goods and chattels. 

Board of Trade. A body of business men to pro¬ 
mote commercial interests. 

Bona Fide. With good faith; without fraud or 
subterfuge. 


Bond. An obligation or covenant in writing to 
pay any Sum, or perform any contract. 

Bonus. An extra payment for a service rendered 
or a thing received. 

Book-keeper. One who has charge of the books 
and keeps the accounts in any office. 

Bottomry. A contract by which the owner of a 
ship pledges the keel or bottom of the ship as a 
security for repayment of money advanced. 
Broker. One who concludes bargains or con¬ 
tracts for merchants, as exchange brokers, ship 
brokers, mining brokers, etc. “ Brokerage,” is 
that which is paid to a broker for his trouble. 
Bullion. Properly signifies uncoined gold and 
silver, or, more strictly, refined gold and silver 
in bars or other masses; but in political econ 
omy the term is frequently used to denote the 
precious metals both coined and uncoined. 

By Law. A private law made -within some par¬ 
ticular place or jurisdiction. 

Cable. A sea term for a strong rope, which serves 
to keep a ship at anchor. 

Capias ad Respondendum. A writ to arrest a 
defendant who is about to abscond, and keep 
him to answer the plaintiff in action. “ Capias 
ad satisfaciendum,” is issued on a judgment 
obtained in an action against the defendant, to 
satisfy the judgment. 

Capital. In commerce, the accumulated stock of 
every description or fund with which a mer¬ 
chant or manufacturer carries on his business. 
Carat, or Karat. Signifies the twenty - fourth 
part of the weight of any piece of gold or alloy 
of gold. Thus, if the piece weighed is all gold, 
it is said to be twenty-four carat gold; if only 
half of it is gold, it is said to be twelve carat 
gold, and so on. 

Cargo. A general name for all the goods and 
merchandise carried on board a trading vessel. 
Carriers. All persons carrying goods for hire. 
Cash. Ready money, distinguished from bills. 
Cash Book. A book in which is kept an account 
of all the cash received and paid, and of the dis¬ 
count received and allowed. “Cashier,” one 
who has charge of cash. 

Charter Party. A contract between a ship-owner 
and a freighter, by which the entire vessel is 
used for carrying goods at a freight or reward 
agreed upon. 

Circuits. In England, certain divisions of the 
kingdom, through which the judges pass to 
hold courts and administer justice. A similar 
division exists in the United States in respect 
to the national court. 

Citizen. One who participates in the judicial 
and legislative pow r er in a state. Commonly 
the term citizen is employed to denote the 
inhabitant of a town. 

Civil. That which relates to the community, or 
to the policy 7 and government of the citizens 
and subjects of a state. “ Civil law,” otherwise 
called imperial law,—the law of the Roman em¬ 
pire, digested from the laws of the republic and 
those of the emperors, and adopted by most of 
the nations of Europe. “ Civil service,” is ap- 
plied to that department of the government 
service that is neither naval nor military. 

Code. In jurisprudence, is applied to a compila. 

tion of laws made by public authority. 

Codicil. A supplement to a will. 

Cognizance. The hearing of a thing judicially; 

also the acknowledgment of a fine. 

Collateral. In law, a term for what is side- ways, 
or not direct, as collateral kinsmen, those who 
are not descended from one common stock, as 
the issue of two sons, who are collateral kins¬ 
men to each other. 

Collateral Security. Is where a deed is made of 
other lands or property beside those granted by 
the principal mortgage or other security. 
Collator. One who compares copies or manu¬ 
scripts. 

Commission. In law, the warrant, or letters 
patent by which one is authorized to exercise 
jurisdiction; in military affairs, the warrant of 
authority by which one holds any post in the 


army; in commerce, the order by which any 
one trafficks or negotiates for another; also the 
per centage given to factors and agents for 
transacting the business of others. 

Committee. A certain number Of persons elected 
or appointed from a more numerous body to per¬ 
form some special act or investigation. 
Common. In law, a right or privilege claimed 
by one or more persons in another man’s lands, 
waters, woods, etc. “Common law,” the law of 
the realm grounded on general customs or im¬ 
memorial usage. In general the common law of 
England is common in this country. 
Commutation. The substitution of one punish¬ 
ment for another. 

Company. An association of merchants, mechan¬ 
ics, or other traders, joined together for one 
common interest. 

Composition. In commercial affairs, an agree¬ 
ment entered into between an insolvent debtor 
and his creditor, by which the latter accepts a 
part of the debt, in compensation for the whole. 
Compound. AVhere the debtor, not being able to 
pay all his debts, agrees with his creditors to 
pay a part. 

Compromise. A settlement of differences be¬ 
tween parties by a mutual promise or willing¬ 
ness to refer the matter in dispute to the decision 
of arbitrators. 

Consignee. One to whom goods are delivered in 
trust. “ Consignment,” the sending or deliver¬ 
ing over of goods to another person. 

Consignor. One who sends or delivers goods. 
Consols. Are English stocks known as consoli¬ 
dated annuities, which pay three per cent per 
annum. (iVote.—The British government, dur¬ 
ing the process of borrowing the money which 
now forms the national debt, laid itself under 
cextain special conditions; these conditions 
genei-ally consisted in an undei-taking to pay an 
annuity of so much per cent; on account of 
complication and confusion from the number of 
stocks thxxs formed, the consolidated annuities 
act was passed, and an average of the value of 
the diff erent stocks was struck, and the whole 
consolidated into one fund, kept in one account 
at the Bank of England.) 

Constable. An infei-ior officer of justice; town 
or city officer of the peace. 

Contraband. Goods pi'ohibited by law to be 
exported or imported. 

Contract. A covenant or agreement between 
two or more persons, with a lawful considera¬ 
tion or cause. 

Conveyance. A writing sealed and delivered, 
whereby the property in lands and tenements is 
conveyed from one person to anotliei-. 

Coroner. An officer whose pai'ticular duty it is 
to make inquisition into the untimely death of 
any person; this must be done by jury, usually 
where the body is. 

Costs. The expenses attending a law suit, which 
are in part recoverable from the party who loses 
the cause. 

Coupon. Any check or other piece of paper cut 
off from its counterpart; a certificate of interest. 
Court Martial. See Militaiy Law. 

Credit. The lending of wealth or capital by one 
individual to another, the lender being said to 
give, axid the boiTOwer to get or l’eceive ci’edit. 
Currency. The circulating medium of a counti-y, 
that by which sales aixd purchases are effected 
without having recourse to barter. 

Customs Duties. Are dxxties chax'ged xipon com¬ 
modities 

exported from a country. 

Damage. In law, signifies, generally, any hurt 
or liindi-ance which a man receives in his estate. 
Day Book. Sometimes called invoice-book oxxt- 
ward, is a subsidiary book in book-keeping, in 
which is entered a daily account of all the 
goods sold on credit, with the prices and the 
lxames of the ptxrchasei-s. See Ledger. 

Days of Grace. In general, three days allowed 
for the payment of a bill beyond the time 
marked on the face of it. 


on their being imported into, or 












































DICTIONARY OF MERCANTILE AND LEGAL TERMS. 


285 


Debenture. A custom-house certificate, author¬ 
izing the exporter of certain classes of goods to 
receive the amount of drawback to which he is 
entitled upon the goods. 

Debit. Money due for goods sold on credit or for 
services rendered; the word is generally entered 
on the left-hand page of the ledger. 

Debtor. One who owes a debt to another. “Cred¬ 
itor,” the persoii to whom a debt is due. 

Deed. A written contract, signed, sealed, and 
delivered, particularly applied to instruments 
for conveying land. 

De facto. Is applied to actual possession, and 
de jure to right. 

Defaulter. One who fails to deliver funds or 
valuables which he had charge of. 

Delivery. The surrender of funds or goods from 
one to another. 

Demise. A term applied to the conveyance of an 
estate, either in fee, or for life, or years. 

Demurrage. Denotes the detention of a ship by 
a merchant, in loading or unloading, beyond the 
time specified in the charter party, or other 
agreement with the owners. 

Demurrer. A pause or stop in a suit upon some 
difficulty. 

Deposit. A sum of money which one puts in the 
hands of another as security for the fulfilment 
of an agreement, or as a part payment in 
advance; also money left at a bank. 

Deponent. One who gives information on oath 
before a magistrate. 

Deposition. The testimony of a witness taken 
upon oath. 

Derelict. A term applied to such goods as are 
thrown away or relinquished by the owner, as a 
ship voluntarily abandoned at sea. 

Dernier. Last, as a tribunal of dernier resort, 
the last or highest court of appeal. 

Devise. The act whereby a testator conveys his 
lands by will, the conveyance of personal prop¬ 
erty being commonly termed a bequest. 

Deviation. A departure of a vessel from its regu¬ 
lar course. 

Diplomacy. The art of conducting the official 
intercourse of separate states, and particularly 
of negotiating treaties. 

Discount. An allowance made on a bill, or any 
other debt not yet become due, in consideration 
of present payment. 

Dividend. The share of profit in a joint stock. 

Document. Any written instrument produced 
in proof of any fact asserted. 

Domicile. A place of residence; a place “where 
one has placed his hearth and centered his for¬ 
tunes.” 

Double Entry. In book-keeping, is so-called from 
each item being entered twice in the ledger, 
being debited to one set of accounts and cred¬ 
ited to another. By entering each transaction 
on both sides of the ledger, a system of checks 
is established, inasmuch as the entries on the 
credit side must be equal to' the entries on the 
debit side, otherwise the books will not balance. 
See Ledger. 

Draft. 'A bill or order drawn by one person upon 
another for a sum of money; a bill of exchange. 

Drawee. A person on whom an order or bill is 
drawn. 

Drawer. A person who draws an order or bill for 
payment. 

Drawback. An allowance made to merchants on 
the exportation of goods which paid duty 
inward. 

Duplicate. A copy of a manuscript. 

Duress. An unlawful imprisonment or confine¬ 
ment in any wise. 

Duty. That which is paid or due, by way of cus¬ 
tom on merchandise in general. 

Earnest. Something given in order to bind a 
bargain. 

Easement. A privilege or advantage, without 
material gain, which one owner has in the 
land or estate of another owner distinct from 
the ownership of the land; as, a way, water¬ 
course, etc. 


Effects. The movables or goods of any merchant, 
tradesman, etc. 

Embargo. A prohibition issued by authority on 
all shipping not to leave any port. 

Embezzlement. The fraudulent appropriation 
by clerks, servants, or others, of money or goods 
intrusted to their care, or received by them on 
account of their employers. 

Emporium. A common resort of merchants for 
trade. 

Encroachment. An unlawful gaining upon the 
rights and possessions of another. 

Enfranchisement. The making a person a deni¬ 
zen, or free citizen. 

Entry. The taking possession of lands and tene¬ 
ments by one who has title of entry; in com¬ 
merce, the act of setting down in merchants’ 
account books the details of trade. 

Equity. A correction of the common law wherein 
it is deficient. 

Estate. The title or interest which one lias in 
lands, tenements, or hereditaments. 

Evidence. That which tends to prove or dis¬ 
prove any matter of fact, the truth of which is 
submitted to judicial investigation. 

Excise duties. Inland taxes on commodities of 
general consumption. 

Execution. A judicial writ granted on the judg¬ 
ment of the court whence it issues. 

Executor. One appointed by a testator to see 
that his will is executed. “Executrix,” a 
woman executor. 

Ex officio. A term applied to an act done by a 
person by reason of his office. 

Ex parte. On one side; as ex parte statements, 
a partial statement, or that which is made on 
one side only. 

Exports. Goods exported or sent out of one’s 
own country to a foreign land. 

Ex post facto. Literally, from something done 
afterward, as an ex post facto law, a law which 
operates upon a subject not liable to it at the 
time the law was made. 

Extension. An allowance of further time in 
which to pay a debt. 

Fabric. The same as manufacture; lace of the 
fabric of Brussels, etc. 

Fac simile. An exact imitation of an original 
in all its traits and peculiarities, a copy as accu¬ 
rate as possible. 

Factor. Same as Agent, which see. 

Faculty. In law, a dispensation or privilege. 

Factotum. One who can turn his hand to any¬ 
thing ; a man of all work. 

Failure. A lack of means; insolvency; misfor¬ 
tune in business. 

Fall. A decline or depreciation in price or value. 

False pretences. Any untrue statements made 
with the intent to obtain money, chattels, or 
valuable security. 

Fee. An estate of inheritance, or the interest 
which one has in land or some other immovable: 
things called a fee simple when it is uncondi¬ 
tional, and a fee tail, when limited to certain 
heirs according to the will of the first donor. 

Felony. In common law, any crime which incurs 
the forfeiture of lands or goods, and to which 
capital or other punishment is superadded, 
according to the degree of guilt. 

Feme coverte. A married woman. “Feme 
sole,’ ’ a single woman. 

Ferae naturae. A term applied in law to wild 
animals. 

Fiat. A decree; an effective command. 

Fiction of Law. Is a supposition of law that a 
thing is true, without inquiring whether it be 
so or not, that it may have the eff ect of truth so 
far as is consistent with equity. “ These fictions 
of law,” says Blackstone, “ though at first they 
may startle the student, he will find, uponfur- 
tlier consideration, to be highly beneficial and 
useful; especially as this maxim is ever invaria¬ 
bly observed, that no fiction shall extend to 
work an injury; its proper operation being to 
prevent a mischief, or remedy an inconvenience 
that might result from the general rule of law.” 


Finance. Treasure or revenue of the country. 
“ Financier,” an officer who manages the finances 
of the country. 

Fine. A penalty or amends made in money for 
an offense. 

Firm. The persons who compose a company for 
the transaction of business. 

Firman. A passport granted in Turkey and India 
for the liberty of trade. 

Fiscal. Pertaining to the public treasury or 
revenue. 

Foreclose. Is the process by which a mortgager 
is deprived, or foreclosed, of his right of redeem¬ 
ing the mortgaged estate. 

Foreign Attachment. An attachment of for¬ 
eigners’ goods. 

Forfeiture. The loss of goods, lands, or employ¬ 
ments, etc., for neglecting to do one’s duty, or 
for some crime committed. 

Folio. A sheet folded once, or two pages to a 
form. 

Forgery. The fraudulent making or altering any 
record, deed, or writing, etc., to the prejudice of 
another person’s rights, particularly the counter¬ 
feiting the signature of another with intent to 
defraud. 

Freehold. That land or tenement which a man 
holds in fee simple, fee tail, or for term of life. 

Free Trade. Freeand unrestricted trade between 
the people of different countries, without gov¬ 
ernment duties. 

Freight. The sum agreed to be paid for the bur¬ 
den of a ship or load of a car; also the cargo 
itself. 

Fund. The capital or stock of a public company. 
“ Funds,” “ Public Funds,” or “ Stocks,” are the 
different capitals into which the national debt 
is formed, and upon which interest is payable. 

Gaging. The method of measuring the number 
of gallons contained in vessels intended to hold 
goods; chiefly casks, barrels, vats, etc. 

Garnishment. A warning or notice given to a 
party not to pay money, etc., to a defendant, but 
to appear and answer to a plaintiff-creditor’s 
suit. 

Gift. A conveyance which passeth either lands 
or goods; a transfer of anything without a val¬ 
uable consideration. 

Goods. The valuables of which one is possessed; 
merchandise. 

Government. The power in a state by which the 
whole is governed; if this power be in the hands 
of one it is a monarchy; if in the hands of the 
nobility, an aristocracy; and if in the hands of 
the people, or those chosen by them, a democ¬ 
racy. The executive government is the power 
of administering public affairs. 

Grand Jury. The jury which finds bills of indict¬ 
ment against offenders, who are afterward tried 
before a petit jury, in case the former find a true 
bill against the party accused. The grand jury 
is composed of twenty-four persons. 

Grant. A gift in writing of such things as cannot 
conveniently be passed, or conveyed by word of 
mouth. 

Gross Weight. The weight of goods together 
with the cask or vessel. 

Guaranty. A promise or undertaking to be 
responsible for the debts or duties of a third 
party, in the event of his failing to fulfil liis 
engagement. 

Guardian. One who has charge of a person com¬ 
mitted to him; as the guardian of an infant, 
who sees to his education and manages his 
affairs. 

Habeas Corpus. A writ for delivering a person 
from imprisonment, and by which, in the United 
States, a man in prison may claim an immediate 
trial, or examination. 

Handwriting. In law, is, in general, proved by a 
witness who has seen the person write; the 
mark of a person who cannot write is proved by 
a person who has seen him make his mark and is 
acquainted with it. 

Hawker. A person going from place to place 
selling goods and merchandise. 






























286 


DICTIONARY OF MERCANTILE AND LEGAL TERMS. 


Heir. One who succeeds by descent to lands and 
tenements. 

Hereditaments. Are immovables, which one 
may have to him and his heirs. 

Highway. A public or free passage for the people. 

Homicide. The killing of any human being; 
homicide is of three kinds, justifiable, excusa¬ 
ble, and felonious,—the first has no stain of 
guilt, tlie second very little, but the third is the 
highest crime that one is capable of committing 
against a fellow-creature. 

Hotel. A large inn for the reception of strangers. 

House. A business establishment. 

Hypothecate. To pledge property as security. 

Ibidem. In the same place; contracted ibid. 

Imitation. To make a copy or counterfeit of 
something. 

Impanel. To'make a list of names of jurors. 

Impeachment. A calling to account of a public 
officer for misdemeanor or maladministration. 

Implements. Instruments, tools, vessels, etc. 

Implication. Something inferred, without being 
expressed directly in words. 

Import. To bring goods from a foreign state or 
country. 

Impost. A tax or duty imposed on goods im¬ 
ported from abroad. 

Income. The gains of labor or investments. 

Indemnity. The making good, or compensating 
for any loss. 

Indenture. A writing containing a contract, 
originally so called front the two copies being 
indented to show their connecting correspond¬ 
ence with each other. 

Indictment. A written accusation of one or more 
persons, of a crime or misdemeanor, preferred 
to, and presented upon oath by, a grand jury. 

Indorse. To write on the hack of a bill of 
exchange or check. 

Infant. A person under twenty-one years of age. 

Information. An accusation, or complaint, 
against a defendant for some criminal offense. 
“Informer,” one who gives information, par¬ 
ticularly private information, to a magistrate. 

Inheritance. A perpetual or continuing right to 
an estate invested in a person and his heirs. 

Injunction. A writ which issues under the seal 
of a court of equity, in order to restrain pro¬ 
ceedings in other courts, etc. 

Injury. Denotes something done contrary to law 
to the hurt of another person or his property. 

Inquest. An inquiry into any cause, civil or 
criminal, by jurors impaneled for that purpose. 

Inquiry, Writ of. Is a judicial process addressed 
to the sheriff of the comity in which the venue 
is laid, to summon a jury, in order to inquire 
what damages a plaintiff has sustained in an 
action upon the case where judgment goes by 
default. 

Insolvency. The state of a person who has not 
sufficient property for the full payment of his 
debts. 

Instrument. A deed or writing drawn up 
between two parties, and containing several 
covenants agreed between them. 

Insurance, or Assurance. Is a contract between 
two parties, in which one of them, the insurer, 
undertakes, in consideration of a certain sum 
received or promised, called the premium, to 
indemnify, or assure, the other against a certain 
amount of loss from the occurrence of a speci¬ 
fied contingency, as the burning of certain 
premises, the loss of a certain ship, or the death 
of a certain person. 

Interest. Money paid for the use or loan of 
money; the sum lent is called the principal, the 
sum paid by the borrower the interest, the inter¬ 
est paid upon that is called compound interest, 
or interest upon interest. 

Interpleader. A proceeding in a suit where a 
person owes a debt or rent to one of the parties, 
hut, till the determination of it, he does not 
know to which. 

Interrogatories. Questions in writing demanded 
of witnesses in a cause, particularly in the court 
of chancery. 


Intestacy. Denotes the dying without having 
made a will. 

Intrusion. A violent or unlawful seizing upon 
lands or tenements. 

Issue. Children begotten between a man and his 
wife; profits arising from lands, tenements, 
fines, etc.; the point of matter at issue between 
contending parties in a suit. 

Investment. The use of money in the purchase 
of property, generally of a durable kind. 

Invoice. A list or account of goods or merchan¬ 
dise sent by merchants to their correspondents, 
giving the quantity, value, etc., of the several 
articles. 

Invoice Book. In book-keeping, called, some¬ 
times, the credit day book, contains an account 
of all goods bought on credit, with the name of 
the seller and the amount. See Ledger. 

Jetsam. Anything thrown out of a ship being in 
danger of a wreck and cast on shore. 

Joint Stock. A stock or fund, formed by the 
union of several shares from different persons. 
“Joint stock companies ” are a kind of partner¬ 
ship entered into by a number of individuals 
for the purpose of carrying on some trade or 
business with a view to individual profit. 

Joint Tenancy. Signifies the joint ownership of 
two or more persons in land or other property. 

Jointure. A settlement of lands and tenements 
made over by the husband to the wife, to he 
enjoyed'after his decease. 

Journal. In book-keeping, an intermediate book 
to facilitate the posting of the ledger. 

Judge. Is one invested with authority to try any 
cause or question in a court of judicature, and 
to pronounce sentence or judgment thereon. 

Judgment. Is the sentence pronounced by a 
court of law upon the matter contained in the 
record. 

Judicial. An epithet for what pertains to a court, 
as judicial decisions, etc. 

Jurisdiction. Power or authority invested in any 
individual or court, of doing j ustice in the causes 
brought before them. 

Jurisprudence. Science of right, or of positive 
law; general jurisprudence is the science or phi- 
losopliy of positive law, and investigates the 
principles which are common to all positive 
systems, apart from the local, partial, and acci¬ 
dental circumstances and peculiarities by which 
these systems respectively are distinguished 
from one another. Particular jurisprudence 
treats of the laws of particular states; winch 
laws are, or at least profess to be, the rules and 
principles of universal jurisprudence itself spe¬ 
cifically developed and applied. 

Jury, A number of men duly authorized to 
inquire into or determine certain facts, and 
bound by oath to a faithful discharge of their 
duty. Juries are of different kinds, as the 
grand jury (which see); petit jury, consisting 
of twelve men, chosen to try all causes, civil 
and criminal—in the latter causes they give a 
verdict of guilty, or not guilty; in civil causes 
they bring in a verdict either for the plaintiff 
or the defendant; and in real actions, either for 
the demandant or tenant. A jury is called 
special, when it is returned for a particular 
cause, and common when it is returned by the 
sheriff in the same panel, to try every cause at 
the same court. See Coroner. 

Justice of the Peace, An officer elected to keep 
the peace within a certain district. 

Justification, Denotes a judicial act, the declar¬ 
ing or pronouncing a person just or righteous 
according to law; it is used either in a legal or 
theological sense. 

Kidnapping. The forcible taking away a man, 
woman, or child, in order to carry them abroad, 
—an offense at common law, and punishable by 
fine, imprisonment, etc. 

Kindred. Persons of file same blood or descent. 

Label. A printed slip for indicating the contents 
of anything to which it is affixed; also, a slip 
fastened to deeds or writings, or any paper 
joined by way of addition to a will. 


Landlord and Tenant. One of the common 
relationships of social life, out of which arise 
many rights, duties, liabilities, and remedies. 

Landmark. An object to ascertain the bound¬ 
aries of an estate or property. 

Lapse. A slip or omission of a patron to present 
a clergyman to a benefice in his gift within six 
months after its vacancy, in which case the 
benefice lapses to the bishop. A lapsed legacy, 
is where the legatee dies before the testator, or 
where a legacy is given upon a future contin¬ 
gency, and the legatee dies before the contin¬ 
gency happens. 

Larceny. Another term for theft, which is 
divided into two kinds —simple larceny, or 
plain theft, when it is unaccompanied with any 
aggravating circumstances; and mixed, or com¬ 
pound larceny, when accompanied by circum¬ 
stances which are considered as aggravating the 
offense. 

Law. In its broad signification, denotes a rule of 
action, and is applied indiscriminately to all 
kinds of action, whether animate or inanimate, 
rational or irrational. Thus we speak of the 
laws of motion or of gravitation, as well as that 
of nature and of nations. In a more restricted 
sense, it is applied, not to rules of action in gen¬ 
eral, but of human action or conduct. Laws are 
of various kinds, as the law of nations, civil 
law, municipal law, etc. See Fiction of Law, 
and Municipal Law. 

Law of England. Is divided into written or 
statute law, and unwritten or common law. 

Law of Exception. In political affairs, is applied 
to those extraordinary measures that are some¬ 
times necessary to be adoptedwhen tliesituation 
of a state is so critical that the ordinary powers 
and laws are no longer considered sufficient. 

Law of Nations, or International Law. Is 
defined “as consisting of those rules of con- 
duct which reason deduces as consonant to 
j ustice from the nature of society existing among 
independent nations, with such modifications 
and deviations as may be established by gen- 
eral consent.” 

Lease. A conveyance of lands, generally in con¬ 
sideration of rent or other annual recompense, 
for term of years, for life, or at will, provided it 
be for a shorter term than the lessor lias in the 
premises. 

Ledger. The principal book of accounts in a 
business. It contains an abstract of file entries 
scattered through the various subsidiary books, 
all arranged methodically under the names of 
the different persons standing in the relation of 
debtors or creditors to the merchant. Two sets 
of columns are assigned to each account, one 
for Dr., the other for Cr. See Accounts, Double 
Entry, Day Book, Invoice Book, Bill Book, Bal¬ 
ance and Balance Sheet. 

Legacy. A bequest or gift by testament of any 
personal effects; the pex-son bequeathing is 
called tlie testator, and lie to whom it is 
bequeathed the legatee. 

Legislation. Is the making of law. 

Legitimacy. A child born in lawful wedlock. 

Letter. Any writing sent from one person to 
another. “ Letter of advice,” a writing by a 
merchant to his correspondent, advising or giv¬ 
ing him notice of what bills he has drawn upon 
him. “ Letter of attorney,” a writing whereby 
a person constitutes another to do a lawful act 
in his stead, as to receive debts, etc. “ Letter of 
credit,” a writing by one merchant to another, 
desiring him to credit the hearer with a certain 
sum of money. 

Liabilities. The debts which a person or com¬ 
pany owes, as distinguished from resources. 

Libel. Is a malicious defamation of any person, 
made public by either printing, writing, signs, 
or pictures, in order to provoke him to wrath or 
expose him to public hatred, contempt, and 
ridicule. See Slander. 

License. A power or authority given to one to 
do a lawful act, as to carry on certain trades or 
professions, to marry, etc. 

































287 


DICTIONARY OF MERCANTILE AND LEGAL TERMS. 


Lien. A legal claim; the right by which the pos¬ 
sessor of property holds it against the owner in 
satisfaction of a demand. 

Life Estate. An estate that a possessor holds 
during life. 

Life Rent. A rent tliat a man receives for a term 
of life, or for the sustentation of it. 

Ligan. A wreck consisting of goods sunk in the 
sea, but tied to a cork or buoy in order to be 
found again. 

Limitation. A certain time prescribed by stat¬ 
ute, within which an action must be brought. 

Liquidation. Paying up debts. 

Loan. A contract by which the use of anything 
is given under condition of its being returned 
to the owner. 

Magistrate. A public civil officer vested with the 
executive government, or some branch of it. 
Subordinate magistrates are principally sheriffs, 
coroners, justices of the peace, constables, sur¬ 
veyors of highways, and guardians and over¬ 
seers of the poor. 

Mainprize. The taking or receiving of a person 
into friendly custody, who might otherwise be 
committed to prison, upon security given that 
he shall be forthcoming at a time and place 
assigned. 

Maintenance. The wrongful upholding another 
in a cause. 

Malice. A formed design of doing mischief to 
another. In murder, it is malice makes the 
crime. Malice prepense is either express or 
implied; express, when the design is evidenced 
by external circumstances, or even if, upon a 
sudden provocation, one beats another in a cruel 
and unusual manner, so that he dies, even 
though he did not intend his death; implied, as 
where a man wilfully poisons another, or a man 
kills another suddenly without any, or without 
a considerable provocation. In general, all 
homicide is malicious, and thus murder; unless 
justified by command or permission of the law, 
excused on account of accident or self-preserva¬ 
tion, or alleviated into manslaughter by exten¬ 
uating circumstances, the burden of proving 
any of these to the satisfaction of the court and 
jury being incumbent upon the prisoner. 

Mandamus. A writ originally granted by the 
king, so-called from the first word, mandamus, 
we command, commanding corporations and 
inferior courts, or other persons, to do some 
particular thing, as to admit any one to an office, 
and the like. 

Manifest. The draught of the cargo of a ship. 

Manslaughter. The killing a man by misadven¬ 
ture without malice prepense. See Malice. 

Manual, Sign. The signing of a deed or writing, 
under hand and seal. 

Manufacture. Any commodity made by the 
hand, or anything formed from the raw mate¬ 
rials or natural productions of a country, as 
cloths from wool, and cotton or silk goods from 
the cotton and silk, etc. 

Manumission. The act of enfranchising, or set¬ 
ting a slave or bondman free. 

Marine Law. As a branch of international law, 
is tliat collection of principles and usages that 
pertains to the rights, duties, and obligations of 
nations with respect to the sea. 

Marshal. A person who regulates theceremonies 
on certain occasions. 

Martial Law. Sometimes called drum-head law, 
is often confounded with military law, but the 
terms are by no means synonymous. Martial 
law is the just but arbitrary power and pleasure 
of the king, or those in authority, and who are 
bound to guard against dangers in time of 
extreme peril to the state; the adoption and 
execution of extraordinary measures when the 
general safety cannot be trusted to the ordinary 
administration. 

Master. One who is intrusted with the care and 
navigation of a ship. “ Mate ” is an assistant 
officer on board a vessel. 

Matron. A married woman of experience, who 
is in certain cases empaneled upon juries. 


Maxima and Minima. Terms employed not to 
signify the absolute greatest and least (as the 
words imply) values of a variable quantity, but 
the values it has on the instant when it ceases 
to increase and begins to decrease, or vice versa. 
A variable quantity may, therefore, have sev¬ 
eral maxima and minima. 

Mayor. The chief officer in the government of a 
town corporation or city. In some cities in the 
United States where there is a city court, the 
mayor presides as chief judge. 

Medical Jurisprudence. That department of 
science in which medical knowledge is called in 
to the aid of legislation, and consists in the 
application of the principles of medical science 
to the administration of justice and the preser¬ 
vation of the public health. 

Mercantile Law, or Law Merchant, A system 
of laws which applies to mercantile contracts, 
and is based upon the custom of merchants. 
The principal subjects embraced within it are 
the law of shipping, including that of marine 
insurance; the law of negotiable bills of exchange 
and promissory notes, and the law of sales. 
Merchandise. Goods and wares of common 
traffic. 

Merchant. In England, one that exports and 
imports merchandise. In the United States, the 
term is applied to large dealers generally. 
Merchantman. A vessel employed in the trans¬ 
port of articles of commerce. 

Military Law. Is the code of regulations, con¬ 
sisting chiefly of the articles of war, which are 
used for the government of the army and navy. 
It does not supercede the general municipal 
law, but is rather a branch of it. The special 
tribunals employed for the administration of 
this law are termed courts martial. 

Minimum. Least quantity—opposed to maxi¬ 
mum. See Maxima and Minima, 

Minor. An heir, male or female, under the age of 
twenty-one. 

Mint. The place where coin is made. 
Misadventure. Homicide by misadventure is 
where a man, doing a lawful act, without any 
intention of hurt, unfortunately kills another; 
as where a man is at work with a hatchet, and 
the head thereof flies oil' and kills a bystander, 
or where a person is shooting at a mark and 
undesignedly kills a man. The homicide, in 
such cases, is excusable. 

Money. The common medium of exchange by 
which the value of commodities is estimated. 
“ Monetary,” relating to money. 

Monopoly. An exclusive right to carry on some 
branch of trade or manufacture, in contradis¬ 
tinction to a freedom of trade or manufacture 
enjoyed by all the world, or by all the subjects 
of a particular country. 

Mortgage. A pawn or conveyance of property, 
on condition, as security for a debt. 

Municipal, or Positive Law. Is the rale by 
which particular districts, communities, or 
nations, are governed: distinguished from inter¬ 
national law, commercial law, etc. 

Murder. See Malice. 

Mute. One who stands dumb or speechless when 
he ought to answer or plead. 

Mutiny. Resistance to superiors in the military 
or naval service. 

Naturalization. Is an act of investing an alien 
with the rights and privileges of a native-born 
citizen or subject. 

Navigation. The art of conducting a ship from 
from one port to another on the sea. 

Ne exeat (let him not depart). A writ issued 
against a person who owes an actually due 
equitable debt and is meditating a departure 
from the state or country, to prevent his flight 
without leave. 

Negotiable Paper. Any document that is freely 
assignable from one to another. 

Net. Clear of all charges. 

Neutrality. In international law, is the impar¬ 
tial position maintained by one nation with 
regard to others which are at war. 


Nolle prosequi. Is a proceeding by which a 
plaintiff withdraws from the further prosecu¬ 
tion of his suit, when he has either miscon¬ 
ceived the nature of the action or mistaken the 
proper party to be sued. 

Non-assumpsit. A plea by way of traverse in 
the action of assumpsit or promises, whereby a 
man denies the existence of any promise to the 
effect alleged in the declaration, etc. 

Non compos mentis. Said about one of unsound 
mind. 

Non est inventus. The term applied to a sheriff’s 
return to a writ of capias, when the defendant 
is not to be found in his bailiwick, or within the 
limits of his authority. See Capias, etc. 

Nonsuit. The renunciation of a suit by the plain¬ 
tiff or demandant, most commonly upon the 
discovery of some error or defect, when the 
matter is so far proceeded in as that the jury is 
ready at the bar to deliver their verdict. 

Notary. A public officer who attests deeds and 
writings of a mercantile kind, for making them 
authentic in other countries, and protesting 
bills of exchange, etc. 

Note. Any short writing or memorandum. “Note 
of hand,” a writing by which one person prom¬ 
ises to pay another a sum of money on a certain 
day, or on demand: this may either be in the 
form of a bill or of a promissory note. 

Notice. The making something known that a 
man was or might be ignorant of, and which it 
was proper he should be made acquainted with. 

Not Guilty. A plea by way of traverse, occurring 
in actions ex delicto (from the crime) and 
amounts to a denial only of the breach of duty, 
or wrongful act, alleged to have been committed 
by the defendant. 

Nude Contract. A bare, naked contract, without 
a consideration, which is void in law. 

Nuisance. Any annoyance which tends to the 
hurt or inconvenience of another. 

Oath. A solemn affirmation or denial of a thing, 
accompanied with an appeal to God. 

Obligation. A bond containing a penalty with a 
condition annexed for payment of money, the 
performance of a covenant, or the like; differs 
from a bill, which is generally without a penalty 
or condition, though a bill may be made oblig¬ 
atory. 

Occupancy. The taking possession of things 
which before did not belong to anybody. 

Offense. The violation of any law; this is capi¬ 
tal, if punished with death. 

Officer. One who fills an office or post under 
government. 

Official. A deputy appointed by the archdeacon 
for the execution of his office. 

Ordinance. A law, rale, or precept; a command 
of a sovereign or superior. 

Ordinary. In English law, one who has ordinary 
or immediate jurisdiction, in matters ecclesias¬ 
tical, in any place. 

Original, or Original Writ. Is the beginning or 
foundation of a real action at common law. 

Outlawry, Is being excluded from the benefits 
and protection of the law. 

Overt Act. A plain and open matter of fact, 
serving to prove a design. 

Oyer and Terminer. Is a commission directed 
to the j udges and other gentlemen of the county 
to which it is issued, by virtue whereof they 
have power to hear and determine treasons 
and all manner of felonies and trespasses. 

Panel. A schedule or roll of parchment on which 
are written the names of the jurors returned by 
the sheriff; the jury. 

Paper. A name given to money of credit by 
means of any written paper, as bills of exchange, 
promissory notes, etc. 

Par. An equality between the exchanges of dif¬ 
ferent countries; equal or nominal value. 

Pardon. The remitting the punishment for any 
felony committed against the law. 

Parol. By word of mouth, as parol evidence. 

Partition. Dividing lands or tenements among 
coheirs or partners. 



















































288 


DICTIONARY OF MERCANTILE AND LEGAL TERMS. 


Partnership. A contract voluntarily entered 
into by two or more individuals to unite their 
capital, labor, and skill, all or any of them, for 
carrying on some business or undertaking in 
common, each deriving a certain share of the 
profits, and generally bearing a corresponding 
share of the loss arising therefrom. 

Passport. A license to export or import goods. 
Patent, or Letters Patent. Are certificates 
issued from the patent office, which give to the 
inventor of any useful machine the exclusive 
advantage of his invention. 

Patrimony. A right descended from ancestors. 
Pawn. A pledge given by way of security for the 
payment of a sum of money. 

Payment. The discharge of a debt, also the time 
and measure of paying. “ Prompt payment,” 
the payment of a bill or debt before it becomes 
due. 

Peace. A quiet and inoffensive behavior toward 
the government and the people. 

Peer. An equal, or one of the same rank or con- 
dition; thus, it is the law, that those who are 
tried for any crime shall be tried by their peers, 
or equals. 

Penal Laws. Are those laws which prohibit an 
- act, and impose a penalty for the commission 
of it. 

Penalty. Punishment due for an offense. 
Perjury. The offense of swearing falsely to facts 
in a judicial proceeding. 

Per Cent. Rate of interest, so much for each 
hundred; as five per cent, i. e., five dollars for 
every hundred dollars. 

Peremptory. Absolute, or determinate, as per- 
emptory writ, etc. 

Permit. A license or warrant for persons to pass 
with or sell goods. 

Personal. Pertaining to the person and not the 
thing, as personal goods, as opposed to real 
property or estates; “Personal action,” an 
action against the person. 

Petition. An application in writing addressed 
to some authority, as a court of chancery, nar¬ 
rating certain facts, and praying for t he order 
and direction of the court. 

Piracy. Consists in committing those acts of 
robbery and depredation upon the high seas, 01- 
other places where the admiralty has jurisdic¬ 
tion, which, if committed upon land, would 
have amounted to felony there. In the United 
States, cases of piracy come under the jurisdic¬ 
tion of federal district courts. 

Plea. That which either party alleges in support 
of his own cause. “ Pleader,” a counselor, or 
one who argues in a court of justice. “ Plead¬ 
ing,” putting in a plea in law; also the form of 
the pleading. 

Pledges. Sureties which the plaintiff finds, that 
he shall prosecute liis^suit. See also Pawn. 

Poaching. Stealing game. 

Police. The internal government of a town as 
far as regards the preservation of peace. 

Policy. An instrument or deed by which a con¬ 
tract of insurance is effected. 

Poll, or Deed Poll. A deed that is polled or 
shaved even. “ Poll,” in elections, the register 
of those who give their vote, containing their 
name, place of residence, etc. 

Posse Comitatus. Is the power of the county 
which the sheriff is empowered to raise in case 
of invasion, rebellion, riot, etc., and comprising 
all able-bodied males within the county. 

Post. A conveyance for letters and dispatches. 
“ Postman,” one who delivers the letters from 
the post-office to the persons to whom they are 
addressed. 

Posting. The copying of the items from the sub- 
sidiary books into the ledger. See Ledger. 

Post-obit. A bond given for the purpose of 
securing a sum of money after the death of some 
\ particular person. 

j Power. An authority which one man gives to an- 
y other to act for him, and is commonly applied to 
k a reservation made in a conveyance for persons 
\ to do certain acts; as to make leases, or the like. 


Practice of the Courts. Is the form and manner 
of conducting and carrying on suits at law ox- 
in equity. 

Preamble. The introductory part of a statute, 
which states the reasons and intent of the law. 

Precedents. Authorities to follow in determina¬ 
tions in courts of justice. 

Precept. A command in writing, sent out by a 
magistrate for the bringing a person or a recoi-d 
before him. 

Premises. Things spoken of or rehearsed before, 
as hinds, tenements, etc., before mentioned in a 
lease. 

Premium. A consideration, something given to 
invite a loan or bargain, to encourage some art 
or manufacture, to cover the risk upon insur¬ 
ances, etc. 

Prescription. A title acquii-ed by use and time, 
and allowed by law. 

Presentment. A declaration or l-eport made by 
jurors or others, of any offense to be inquired 
of in the court to which it is presented. 

Presumptive Evidence. That which amounts 
almost to full proof. “ Presumptive heir,” one 
who, if the ancestor should die immediately, 
would, under present circumstances, be his 
heir as distinguished from the heir apparent. 

Price Current. A list or enumeration of the 
various articles of merchandise, with their 
prices, the duties (if any) payable thereon, 
drawbacks, etc. 

Primogeniture. Is priority of birth, in virtue 
of which the firstborn son in a family is among 
most nations entitled to a certain superiority or 
preference among his brethren. 

Principal. A capital sum; a leader in a crime, or 
one who takes active part in it; a chief man. 

Privy. One who is partaker of, or has an interest 
in, any action, as privies in blood, i. e., heirs to 
the ancestor; privies in representation, as exec¬ 
utors or administrators of the deceased. 

Probate, Court of. In England, a court that is 
charged with proving wills, etc.; in the United 
States, settling of estates. 

Process. The whole of the proceedings in any 
action, civil or criminal, real or personal, from 
the beginning to the end; in a limited sense, the 
writs which issue out of any coui-t to compel the 
pax-ties to a suit, or others, to do some act con¬ 
nected with the progi-ess of the suit. 

Proctor. One who manages the affaii-s of another. 
“ Pi-ocui-ation,” a writing by which one is 
authorized to attend to the affairs of another. 

Profit and Loss. The gain or loss arising from 
goods bought and sold; the former of which, in 
book-keeping, is placed on the creditor’s side, 
the latter on the debtor’s side. 

Pro forma. By way of form. 

Prohibited Goods. Such as are prohibited to be 
can-ied out of or bi-ought into any country. 

Promissory Note. A note of hand, promising 
the payment of a certain sum at a certain time. 

Property. In law, the highest right one has to 
anything. 

Prorata. In proportion. 

Prosecution. The commencing a suit against any 
one in a court of law. 

Pi-otest. The declaration made by the holder of 
a bill of exchange, that the same is dishonored. 

Punishment. The penalty due for an offense. 

Quarantine. A regulation by which every ship, 
suspected of infection, is obliged to i-emain, for 
forty days, at a distance without holding any 
intercourse with the shore. 

Quorum. A certain number of members of an 
assembly who are required to be present before 
any business can be transacted. 

Quotation. The naming of the current price of 
marketable merchandise. 

Quo warranto. A writ to inquiie by what 
authority, right, or title, any pei-son or coi-pora- 
tion holds a franchise, exercises an office, and 
the like. 

Rate. A valuation of every man’s estate, for 
detex-mining the proportion that each is to pay 
of any tax; price. 


Real Property. Is property in lands, tenements, 
or hei-editaments. 

Rebate. Discount on account of prompt pay¬ 
ment. 

Receipt. An acknowledgment in wx-iting of 
money received. 

Receiver. The nanxe of an officer appointed to 
i-eceive money, as the receiver of rents, or 
i-eceiver of fines; to receive and hold funds in 
trust for others. 

Recognizance. An obligation of record, with 
condition to do some particular act, as to 
keep the peace, to pay a debt, or the like, 
upon the performance of which the obliga¬ 
tion becomes null and void; but upon failure, 
the amount of the recognizance is forfeited. It 
diff'ei-s from a bond, in that the latter is the 
ci-eation of a new debt, while a recognizance 
is an acknowledgmeixt upon record of a former 
debt. 

Recorder. An officer associated with the mayor 
of a town for the administration of justice 
accoixling to the forms of law. 

Recovery. The obtaining of anything by judg¬ 
ment or trial at law. 

Register. A book of public records. 

Rejoinder. The defendant’s answer to the plaiix- 
tiff’s reply. 

Release. An instrument in writing by which 
estates, rights, etc., are extinguished. 

Remainder. An estate in lands, tenements, etc., 
limited to be enjoyed after the expiration of 
another estate. 

Remittance. A sum of money sent from a dis¬ 
tance. 

Rent. A pi-ofit issuing periodically out of lands 
or tenements, etc. 

Replevin. A release of cattle or goods that are 
distrained. 

Replication. The plaintiff’s reply to the defend¬ 
ant’s answer. 

Report. A i-elation of cases judicially debated 
and decided upon. 

Representation. The pex- 3 onating another, as in 
the case of an heir by representation. 

Representative. One who represents a district 
or corporation, as a member of parliament, a 
member of congress. 

Reprieve. A warrant for suspending the execu¬ 
tion of a malefactor. 

Reprisals. The seizing the vessel or goods of 
merchant strangers, as an eqxxivalent for some 
loss sustained fx-oxn the nation of which they are 
subjects. 

Rejnignance. A contradiction of what has been 
said befoi-e, as in deeds, grants, etc., which 
makes them void. 

Resiant. Oxxe l-esiding in a certain place. 

Resources. Money, property, or supplies. 

Residue. Is what l-emains of a testatoi-’s estate 
after payment of the debts and legacies; and 
the person to whom this is bequeathed is called 
the residuary legatee. 

Restitution. The restoring to him lands or tene- 
ments, who had been unlawfully disseized of 
them. 

Return. A certificate from sheriffs and bailiffs 
of what is done in the execution of a writ. 

Return Days. Certain days in term time for the 
return of writs. 

Returns. That which is retm-ned, whether in 
goods or specie, for mex-chandise sent abroad; 
also the return of money laid out in the way of 
trade. 

Revenue. The income or annxxal profit received 
from land or other funds, but is more par- 
ticulai-ly applied to the income of a state 
derived from the customs, excise taxes, etc., 
and devoted to the payment of the national 
expenses. 

Reversion. A right of property, the enjoyment 
of which is to commence at some future time, 
either fixed or depending upon some contin¬ 
gency. 

Right. Any title or claim by virtue of a condi¬ 
tion, mortgage, etc. 















































DICTIONARY OF MERCANTILE AND LEGAL TERMS 


289 


Riot. The forcible doing an unlawful thing by 
three or more persons assembled together for 
that purpose. “ Riot act,” a legislative act, pro- 
hibiting riotous or tumultuous assemblies, 
which, being read by a magistrate or peace 
officer to the mob, obliges all persons to dis¬ 
perse within an hour, on pain of being appre¬ 
hended as rioters. 

Robbery. Unlawful taking away of money or 
goods of any value from the person of another, 
or in his presence, either by violence or by put¬ 
ting him in fear. 

Salvage. A recompense allowed to such persons 
as have assisted in saving merchandise, ships, 
etc., from wreck. 

Sample. A piece or portion of some commodity, 
or specimen of merchandise, to show the quality 
of the whole. 

Scandal. Is defined to be “a disadvantageous 
rumor or report, or an action whereby one is 
affronted in public.” 

Scire facias. A judicial writ, directing the sheriff 
to give notice to a party to show cause to the 
court whence it issues, why execution of a judg¬ 
ment passed should not be made out. 

Scrip. That part of any loan which remains 
unpaid for by the subscribers. 

Seal. An impression made on paper, clay, wax, 
or other substance, by means of a die of metal 
or other material; to confirm or establish, as to 
seal a deed. 

Search, Right of. In law of nations, is the right 
of belligerents, during war, to visit and search 
the vessels of neutrals for contraband of war. 

Search Warrant. A document, legally obtained, 
to search for stolen goods. 

Securities. Bonds or other documents as evi¬ 
dence of debt. 

Seize. To take possession of a thing. 

Seizure. An arrest of merchandise, that is pro¬ 
hibited or otherwise forfeited. 

Sequestration. The setting aside of a thing in 
controversy from both parties that contend for 
it, to be delivered to the one who the law decides 
is entitled to it. 

Set-off. The amount of a debt due by the plaintiff 
to the defendant in a cause which the defendant 
is entitled to set off, in answer either to the 
whole or part, as the case may be, of the plain¬ 
tiff’s claim. 

Share. A part of something belonging to one. 

Sheriff. An officer who attends upon court, has 
charge of the prisoners, sees to the execution of 
writs, etc. 

Sight Draft. A draft drawn payable at sight, 
i. e., as soon as it is seen by the drawee. 

Signature. The signing any paper, or putting 
any mark under a writing. 

Sinking Fund. The fund created for sinking 
or paying the public debt, or purchasing the 
stock for the government. It is made up 
principally from obligations which have been 
redeemed by the government, the interest on 
which is continued and turned into the sinking 
fund. 

Slander. Is the malicious defamation of a man’s 
character by spoken words, as libel is by written 
words. 

Solicitor. The designation of persons admitted 
to conduct suits, etc., in the court of chancery, 
as attorneys in the courts of common law. 

Solvent. Able to pay or meet all debts. 

Sounding. Trying the depth of the water, and 
the quality of the bottom, by a line with a 
plummet at the end. 

Special Jury. A jury of a higher order of per¬ 
sons, sworn to try a particular case. 

Specialty. A bond, bill, or similar instrument. 

Specie. Any kind of money coined from the 
precious metals. 


Specification. A written document, containing 
details, as particular charges and specifications 
against a public officer, etc. 

Standard. That which is established by authority 
or by general consent. 

Staple. The principal products or manufactures 
of a country or town. 

Stealing. The fraudulent taking away of another 
man’s goods with an intent to steal them. 

Steward. One who manages the affairs of 
another, particularly in the management of 
estates. 

Stock. Any fund consisting of money or goods 
employed by a person in trade, particularly the 
sum of money raised by a company for carrying 
on any trading concern. 

Stoppage in Transitu. The right of a seller to 
stop goods on the route if he learns that the 
buyer is insolvent. 

Subpoena. A writ for summoning witnesses. 

Sufferance. One who continues as tenant after 
his estate is ended, and wrongfully holds as 
against another. 

Suit. An action at law. 

Summons. A citation by virtue of which any 
man is called to appear before a magistrate or 
judge. 

Sumptuary Laws. Are laws regulating dress and 
domestic diet. 

Suspension of Payment. The acknowledgment 
by a mercantile firm that it cannot pay its 
debts. 

Surety. One who undertakes to be answerable 
for the acts or non-actsof another, who is called 
the principal. 

Tare. An abatement or deduction made from the 
weight of a parcel of goods, on account of the 
.chest, cask, bag, etc., in which they are con¬ 
tained. 

Tariff'. Is a table giving the various duties, draw¬ 
backs, bounties, etc., charged or allowed on the 
importation or exportation of various articles. 

Taxation. The taking a portion, or the value of 
a portion of the property or labor of individuals, 
and disposing of it by government. “ Direct 
tax,” is one which is demanded fi’om the very 
persons who it is intended or desii-ed should 
pay it. “ Indirect tax,” one which is demanded 
from one person in the expectation and inten¬ 
tion that he shall indemnify himself at the 
expense of another, as in the excise or customs. 

Tenant. One who holds lands or tenements of 
another. Tenants are of various kinds, accord¬ 
ing to the nature of tlleir estates; as in fee 
simple, in fee tail, for life, for years, at will, and 
at sufferance. 

Tender. An offer to pay a debt, or to make 
pecuniary compensation to a party injured. 

Tenement. Anything that may be holden in the 
legal sense; as, all corporeal hereditaments, and 
incorporeal hereditaments of a permanent 
nature, issuing out of the same, as lands, houses, 
right of common, franchises, offices, etc. In its 
more narrow and popular signification, it is 
applied only to houses and other buildings. 

Tenure. The conditions on which lands and 
tenements are held. 

Term. A fixed and limited time within which 
courts of judicature are open. 

Testament. The solemn act whereby a man 
declares his last will as to the disposal of his 
estate after his death. “ Testator," a man who 
makes his will. “ Testatrix,” a woman who 
makes her will. 

Tonnage. A duty paid at a certain rate for every 
ton of goods exported or imported; the capacity 
of burden possessed by a vessel. 

Tontine. A sort of increasing annuity, or a loan 
given by a number of persons with the benefit 
of survivorship. 


Transfer. The making over stock, etc., from the 
seller to the buyer. 

Transportation. The carrying of goods by land 
or sea to a distance. 

Traverse. The name given to a plea contradict¬ 
ing some matter of fact alleged by the opposite 
party. 

Treason. Overtacts, manifestingadesign against 
the government. 

Treasurer. An officer to whose care the treasury 
of the country or of any company is committed. 
“ Treasury,” the place where the public money 
is deposited. 

Trespass. Any wrong done by one private man 
to another, either to his person or his property. 

Trust. A charge or estate held for the use of 
another. “ Trustee,” the person in whom a 
trust is vested. 

Usance. The time, according to the usage or 
custom of different countries, which is allowed 
to elapse between the date of a bill and the time 
of its payment. 

Usufruct. The right of using and reaping the 
fruits of things belonging to others, without 
destroying or wasting the subject over which 
such right extends. 

Usury. The taking more interest for the loan of 
money than is allowed by law. 

Vacancy. A position without an incumbent; 
abandoned, as a vacant estate. 

Vagrant. A beggar; a strolling and idle person, 
who wanders from place to place. 

Vend. To dispose of or sell, as small articles for 
money. “Vendor,” the seller. “Vendee,” the 
buyer. 

Venire facias. A writ addressed to the sheriff or 
other officer, to cause the pai-ties set forth in the 
writ to come to the place named. 

Venue. The county in which an action is to be 
tried. 

Verdict. The answer of a jury given to the court 
concerning the matter of fact in any cause com¬ 
mitted to their trial. 

Voucher. A writing, document, or book which 
tends to establish the truth of accounts, etc. 

Wages. The reward or compensation paid to 
laborers, by those who employ them, in return 
for their services. 

Ward. One who is under the care of a guardian. 

Warrant. A writ commanding an officer of jus- 
tice to arrest any offender. 

Warrant of Attorney. An authority given to an 
attorney by his client to appear and plead for 
him. 

Warranty. A promise or covenant by deed, 
made by the bargainer for himself and his heirs, 
to warrant and secure the bargainee and his 
heirs against all men for enjoying the thing 
agreed on or granted between them. 

Warehouse. A place where merchandises are 
kept. 

Waste. Is whatever tends to the destruction or 
depreciating the value of an inheritance. 

Way. Denotes either the right which one or 
more persons have of passing over the land of 
another, or the space over which such light is 
exercisable; a road, as the highway. 

Wharfage. The money or valuable equivalent 
paid for hire or use of a wharf or quay. 

Will. The act by which a man declares his will 
as to the disposal of his estate after his death. 
A nuncupative will is one made by word of 
mouth. See Testament. 

Witness. A person who gives evidence in judi¬ 
cial proceedings. 

Wreck. The ruins of a ship at sea that has been 
dashed to pieces. 

Writ. A writing issuing out of some court of law, 
conferring some right or privilege, or command¬ 
ing something to be done. 









































ATLAS OF THE WORLD. 


ATLAS OF THE WORLD. 


<f 00 




EUROPE. 

Europe is a peninsula, projecting from Asia. It is sit¬ 
uated in the same latitude as the United States and the 
Dominion of Canada. 

The extreme length of Europe from northeast to south¬ 
west is about 3,500 miles. The population is about five 
times that of the United States. 

Its water boundary, if a continuous line, would reach 
four-fifths of the way around the world. 

The British Isles are separated from the continent by 
the North Sea, which has an average depth of about 600 
feet. There is much evidence to show that they were for¬ 
merly a part of the main land. 

In relative extent of coast, Europe surpasses all other 
countries. It is partly to the great number of indenta¬ 
tions of the coast that Europe owes its commercial 
supremacy. 

The islands of Europe constitute about one-twentieth 
of its area. 

The greater part of the continent is low and level. 
Russia and all the territory bordering on the North and 
and Baltic Seas constitute a vast plain, called Low Europe. 

The basin of the Caspian Sea and much of the Nether¬ 
lands are below the sea level. 

A high plateau, extending along the southern part of 
the continent, is known as High Europe. This plateau is 
surrounded by the irregular and broken mountain ranges 
which constitute the Alpine System, the main axis of the 
continent. 

The Alps are the highest range. The other principal 
ranges are the Pyrenees, Apennines, Balkan, Carpathian 
and Caucasus mountains. 

The Alps have long been celebrated for the number and 
extent of their glaciers, among which are the sources of 
the Rhine, Rhone, Po and several tributaries of the 
Danube. 

The chief lake region of Europe is in Northwestern 
Russia. Lake Ladoga is the largest lake. 

The lakes in Switzerland, especially Geneva and Con¬ 
stance, are celebrated for their beautiful scenery. There 
are many salt lakes in Russia, most of which are situated 
in the basin of the Caspian Sea. 

Most of the rivers of Western Europe are connected 
with one another by canals, and are navigable. 

Climate.—Europe enjoys a more equable climate than 
any other country situated in corresponding latitudes. Its 
mildness is due chiefly to the southwesterly winds, which 
are warmed by the waters of the Gulf Stream. 

Rain is most abundant on the western coasts. 

The tundras, or frozen marshes of the Arctic slope, are 
covered with mosses and willows. South of this region is 
a belt of dense forest, chiefly of pine, oak, elm and ash. 

Grains, hemp, flax and tobacco are cultivated in the cen¬ 
tral regions. The cultivation of the grape, olive, orange, 
lemon, fig, mulberry and cotton is confined chie flyto the 
Mediterranean Coast. 

Most of the wild animals have disappeared. The rein¬ 
deer, white bear and other animals valuable for their furs 






are, however, found in the more thinly settled regions; 
the wolf and wild boar are common in the forests, and the 
chamois and ibex inhabit the Alpine heights. 

Water-fowl are numerous. The sardine, herring, pil¬ 
chard, anchovy and other fish suitable for food, abound in 
the surrounding waters. 

Minerals.—Coal, iron and copper are very widely dis¬ 
tributed. Silver, zinc and lead are plentiful in the central 
highlands. Quicksilver, niter, sulphur and salt in volcanic 
regions. Coral of great beauty and value is obtained in 
the Mediterranean Sea. 

People.—The inhabitants of Europe, numbering about 
330,000,000, belong to the Caucasian and Mongolian races. 

ASIA. 

Asia, the largest country in the world, occupies the 
eastern part of the Eastern Continent. 

It contains about one-third of the land surface of the 
earth; is twice as large as North America, and nearly five 
times the size of the United States. Its greatest length is 
7,500 miles, nearly one-third the circumference of the 
earth. 

The islands of Asia are a partly submerged mountain 
chain. All of them volcanic. 

The northwestern Asia is a continuous plain; the south¬ 
eastern, an elevated plateau traversed by high mountains. 
The line of greatest length is also the line which separates 
the highlands from the lowlands. From the Hindoo 
Koosh, the mountain ranges of Asia radiate toward the 
east. 

The Himalaya mountains are the highest in the world. 
The summit of Mt. Everest is over 29,000 feet above the 
sea level, being more than 6,000 feet higher than the high¬ 
est peak of the American continent. 

The Caspian Sea and the Sea of Aral are thought to 
have been formerly arms of the ocean. Both are salt 
lakes. The former is below the sea level. 

Lake Baikal is the largest body of fresh water in Asia, 
and is about as large as Lake Erie. 

The rivers of Asia, though of great length, are distin¬ 
guished by narrow valleys, rather than large basins. Most 
of them rise in the central highlands, from which they 
radiate in three directions—north, east and south, and 
mingle their waters with those of three oceans. 

The Yang-tse and Hoang rivers are subject to great 
changes, brought about by the shifting of their channels. 
In 1851 the Hoang Ho burst through its banks and poured 
its waters into the Gulf of Pecheelee, and within two 
years its lower course had so changed that the mouth of the 
river had shifted 250 miles from its former position. 

Central Hindoostan is often called the plateau of the 
Deccan. 

The Obi is the only river navigable to any considerable 
distance. 

The river valleys and the plains which are well watered 
are extremely fertile. The high, central region and the 
western plateaus are dry, sandy and barren. 



o 



































ATLAS OF THE WORLD. 


291 



Every degree of temperature and moisture may be 
found in Asia, from that of the frozen tundras of Siberia, 
to that of the hot, pestilential jungles of India. The 
deserts of Arabia, Persia, Turkestan and Gobi receive 
little or no rain, while the southern slope of the Himalaya 
is annually inundated. 

Siberia is swept by icy winds from the Arctic Ocean; 
Arabia, by the hot and fatal simoon. India is traversed 
by winds which scorch the entire surface for half the 
year, and flood itwithrain the remaining part. 

Destructive cyclones often visit the coast, frequently 
piling up the waters of the Bay of Bengal until the low¬ 
lands of the Ganges are submerged. 

Southern Asia is covered with a dense tropical vegeta¬ 
tion. The palm, bamboo, and banyan tree are abundant. 
Rice, cotton, sugar-cane, flax, jute, hemp, poppy, and the 
spices, are the principal plants cultivated m the plains 
and valleys of Southern Asia. 

Central Asia produces the plants which thrive best in 
the temperate zones. Vast forests of pine, larch, teak, 
maple and birch are on the upland terraces of Siberia. 
The chief cultivated plants of Central, Eastern and South¬ 
eastern Asia are wheat, tea and rice. 

Western Asia produces the famous Mocha coflee, to¬ 
bacco, the fig, date and olive. 

Nearly all the domestic animals of the earth are found 
in Asia, and most of them are native to it. The camel 
and elephant are used as beasts of burden. 

Southern Asia abounds in fierce animals and dangerous 
reptiles. The largest animals are the elephant, rhinoc- 
erous, tapir, lion, tiger, hyena, and jackal. The reptiles 
include the crocodile, python and cobra de capello. Mon¬ 
keys and beautiful birds are numerous. 

In the colder regions the bear,wolf,fox,buflalo and several 
species of wild cattle are common. Also many kinds of 
deer. 

Gold and platinum are widely diffused throughout the 
Ural Mountains and the central plateaus. 

Silver is mined in Siberia. Copper and iron are abund¬ 
ant and widely distributed. 

Tin is abundant in the Malay Peninsula and the island 
of Banca, near Sumatra. 

Petroleum is found in the basin of the Caspian Sea. 

Asia has always been famous for precious stones. Most 
of the large and valuable diamonds, sapphires, rubies and 
emeralds are from the mines of India. 

The finest pearls are obtained in the Persian Gulf and 
in the water along the coasts of Ceylon. 

Asia is probably the birthplace of the human race. The 
strongest evidences of history and science point to the 
highlands of Asia as the birthplace of man. Somewhere 
in the valleys of Persia, the old name of which was Ayra, 
there lived a people who built houses, cultivated the soil and 
had forms of government. They believed in an Omnipo¬ 
tent Being and also a spirit of evil. Fully one-half the 
inhabitants of the earth live in China and India. 

Siberia, Russian, Turkestan and Trancaucasia are sub¬ 
ject to Russian whose capital is St. Petersburgh. 

Siberia may be divided into three belts ; agricultural and 
grazing land in the South; forests in the middle, and 
frozen marshes in the North. 

Gold, silver, copper and other metals are mined in the 
mountains; and numerous wild animals are hunted for 
their furs. 

Trade is carried on by means of caravans and camel 
trains. In summer boats navigate the rivers, and in the 
winter sledges are drawn on the ice and snow by dogs, 
horses and reindeer. 

The chief cities are Tiflis in Transcaucasia, west of the 
Caspian Sea ; Tashkend, in Russian Turkestan ; Omsk, 




in Western Siberia; and Irkootsk, in Eastern Siberia. 
Yakootsk, on the Lena River is supposed to be the cold¬ 
est city in the world. 

The Chinese Empire is larger by one-half than the 
United States and contains about six times as many in¬ 
habitants. 

China contains the greater part of the population. The 
land is fertile and well cultivated, agriculture being the 
chief occupation of the people. Rivers and canals are 
numerous ; much traveling is done in boats. Thousands 
of the inhabitants of China have their houses and gar¬ 
dens on rafts and boats which float on the rivers. These 
people live by gardening and fishing. In their floating 
houses their children are born, are married and die. A 
young child falling overboard there is kept from drown¬ 
ing by means of an empty gourd which its mother had 
tied between its shoulders. 

The food of the Chinese consists, principally, of rice 
and fish. 

The leading exports from China are tea, silk, porcelain 
and pottery. 

Its trade is carried on, mainly, with Great Britain, 
Australia and the United States, by meane of ships, and 
with Russia by means of caravans. 

Many of the inhabitants of the other divisions of the 
empire are wandering tribes, whose occupation is the 
raising of horses, sheep and goats. 

Pekin, the capital of the Chinese Empire, is noted for 
its surrounding walls, magnificent gates and heathen 
temples. Its houses are only one or two stories high. Its 
population is greater than that of New York City. 

Thibet is situated on a high plateau, surrounded by the 
highest mountains in the world. 

Corea is a kingdom. It was, until recently, under the 
control of the Chinese government. 

The Empire of Japan consists of islands, which contain 
mountains, streams, forests, and a well cultivated soil. 
Japan contains beautiful lakes, rivers, waterfalls, trees, 
and flowers of great variety ; bears, deer, wolves and foxes ; 
pheasants and other birds. The celebrated mountain in 
Japan is Fujiyama, whose summit is covered with snow 
nearly all the year. In summer, bands of pilgrims, dressed 
in white,travel to its summit to worship idol sthere. 

The principal occupation of the Japanese are agriculture, 
manufacturing and mining. 

It exports comprise tea, rice, silks, porcelain, fans and 
lacquered ware. 

Tokio, the capital, is the residence of the emperor, called 
the mikado. Its chief port is Yokahama. 

India is larger than all the Pacific States and Territories, 
and contains about four times as many inhabitants as the 
United States. 

The Empire of India is ruled by the Governor-General, 
who is appointed by Victoria, Queen of Great Britain and 
Ireland and Empress of India. Next to the Chinese Empire 
it is the most populous in the w'orld. India was settled by 
the Aryans, about 1400 B. C. They were Brahmins, but 
unlike the Brahmins of the present time in their religious 
teaching and practices. Their language was the Sanskrit. 
The people are divided into castes. They believe in the 
transmigration of souls. Gautama or Buddha, about 500 
B. C., introduced a form of religion which, after a long- 
struggle with Brahmanism, was overcome in India and trans¬ 
planted in China,where it has degenerated into a debasing 
form of idolatry. Queen Elizabeth chartered the East 
India Company in 1600 A. D. The vast empire, which 
had grown by its conquests, was transferred to the British 
Crown in 1858. 

Nearly the whole of India is subject to Great Britain, 
either absolutely or as tributary States. 












































292 


ATLAS OF THE WORLD. 


India is remarkable for its high, snow-covered peaks, hot 
climate and large population. 

Its low plains in the north are the most fertile in the 
world. The west and south contain desert tracts. 

Agriculture and stock raising are the principal indus¬ 
tries. 

The exports are cotton, opium, rice, wheat and jute. 
Cattle, camels, buffaloes, sheep and goats are numerous. 
The inhabitants subsist, principally, upon rice, fish and 
tea. 

Calcutta is the capital and the largest city in India, and 
the most important city in Asia. Bombay, on the western 
coast, and Madras, on the eastern, are important cities. 

Ceylon is a mountainous island, belonging to Great 
Britain. It is famous for coffee and spices. Pearl oysters 
abound on the southern coast, and the fishery is often very 
profitable. 

Farther India or Indo-China, forming the southeastern 
peninsula of Asia, comprises the kingdoms'of Burmah, 
Siam and Anam, Lower Cochin China, Cambodia and the 
Malay Peninsula. 

This division of Asia is remarkable for its long mountain 
ranges and fertile valleys, its hot, moist climate, and its 
dense forests and jungles. 

It contains large, savage animals, and many tribes of 
people scarcely removed from barbarism. 

The chief occupation of the inhabitants is the cultiva¬ 
tion of rice, which is their principal article of food. 

Bangkok, the capital of Siam, is the largest city in 
Farther India. It contains royal palaces and many pa¬ 
godas. These are surrounded by bamboo houses built on 
piles. 

Mandalay is the capital of Burmah. 

Saigon is a seaport of French Cochin China. 

Singapore, on "the Island of Singapore, is a seaport be¬ 
longing to Great Britain. 

Persia, Afghanistan, Beloochistan and Bokhara are re¬ 
markable for their desert tracts, forest-covered mountains 
and fertile river valleys. 

The principal products are grain, fruits, sugar indigo 
and dates. 

Many of the inhabitants own large flocks of goats and 
sheep, while others are engaged in the manufacture of 
silk goods, shawls, rugs and perfumery, or in the caravan 
trade. There are, also, many roving, warlike tribes. 
Nearly all are Mohammedans. 

Persia is remarkable for extensive salt deserts. Near 
the Caspian Sea, however, vegetation is luxuriant. Here, 
as in other Mohammedan countries, education is confined 
to learning portions of the Koran and scraps of poetry. 
The Persians are a slow, easy-going people, hospitable, 
generous, but procrastinating. 

These countries are important because of their situation 
between Russia and the Indian Ocean. Afghanistan has 
been called the “gateway to India.” 

Teheran, the capital of Persia, and Tabriz, are the chief 
cities. 

Cabul, Herat and Candahar are the principal cities in 
Afghanistan. 

Arabia is chiefly a hot, desert plateau, with oases of 
different sizes, in which dates, grapes, tamarinds and 
other fruits grow. 

It has no general government, the inhabitants being 
ruled by sheiks or chiefs. The rulers are called Sul¬ 
tans. 

Arabia is celebrated for fine dromedaries and horses, 
and excellent coffee. 

Muscat, the capital of Oman, is the largest city in 
Arabia, and the chief seaport. 

Aden is a fortified seaport belonging to Great Britain. 


Mecca, the birthplace of Mohammed, is visited by many 
Mohammedan pilgrims every year. It is said to be the 
hottest city in the world. 

Turkey in Asia is a part of the Ottoman, or Turkish 
Empire, whose capital is Constantinople. 

Its northern part is remarkable for forests, mountains 
and fertile valleys. Its eastern part for the fertile plains 
of the Tigris and Euphrates, and its southern for a desert 
region. 

Tropical fruits, cotton, grain and tobacco grow abun¬ 
dantly. 

The people are chiefly Turks and Arabs, professing the 
Mohammedan religion. 

Smyrna, an important commercial port and steamer 
station, is the largest city. 

Damascus is the oldest city in the world. It contains 
grand old mosques, and is the center of the caravan trade. 
Its manufactures comprise saddles and silk goods. 

Palestine, or the Holy Land, is mentioned in Scripture 
as the Promised Land of the Ancient Hebrews, and the 
birthplace of Christianity. It contains the cities of Jeru¬ 
salem and Bethlehem, the Valley of the Jordan, the Dead 
Sea and the Sea of Galilee. 


AFRICA. 

Africa, the southwestern continent of the Old World, is 
the only country stretching entirely across the Torrid 
Zone. 

It is a peninsula, joined to Asia by the Isthmus of Suez. 
The ship-canal, constructed across the isthmus, makes it, 
artificially, an island. The shortest distance across the 
Isthmus of Suez is about seventy-two miles; the line of the 
canal is one hundred miles. The average height of the 
isthmus above sea level is scarcely ten feet. 

The Suez Canal was completed in 1869. It has a depth 
of twenty-four feet, and a clear channel seventy-two feet 
in width. By connecting the Red sea with the Mediter¬ 
ranean, this canal furnishes a shorter route between Eu¬ 
ropean ports and India, than that around the Cape of Good 
Hope. It extends from Port Said, on the Mediterranean, 
to Suez, a sea-port town near the head of the Gulf of 
Suez. 

Africa is the second country in size. Its length and 
breadth are each about 5,000 miles. 

The coast is unbroken by bays and inlets such as make 
secure harbors for vessels. In proportion to its size, it has 
the shortest coast line. 

There are many continental islands lying along the coast 
of Africa. Madagascar, the largest, is separated from the 
continent by a very shallow channel. 

The interior of Africa is a plateau, which is highest in 
the south and southeast. This, in most parts, is bordered 
by mountains, between which and the sea is a low and 
narrow strip of coast. 

The average elevation of the high plateau is about 5,000 
feet, and of the northern region, about 1,500 feet. 

The principal mountain system extends along the eastern 
side of the continent. Mount Kenia, the highest peak, is 
about 20,000 feet above the level of the sea. 

The great Sahara Desert has an undulating surface, and 
is covered mostly with shifting sand and gravel. A small 
portion, south of Barca, is below the sea level. 

Oases, watered by springs and covered with groves of 
date-palm trees, are met with in different parts of the 
desert. 

Soudan, situated south of the Great Desert, is a region 
remarkable for its extreme heat and excessive rains and 
droughts. 





































ATLAS OF THE WORLD. 


Central Africa, or the region crossed by the Equator, is 
remarkable for its fertility; and, owing to its great height 
above the sea-level, its climate is mild and healthful. This 
region is drained by many large rivers. 

Southern Africa is mountainous, but it contains many 
fertile valleys and plains well adapted to agriculture and 
stock-raising. The Kalahari Desert, though destitute of 
streams, is covered during a great part of the year with 
grass. The lakes of Africa are confined chiefly to the 
high, equatorial region, and are remarkable for their num¬ 
ber and size. Lake Victoria is the largest lake in the world. 
Its outlet is the Nile river. 

The River Nile flows through the most important part 
of Africa. Its lower course is in a region almost rainless, 
and for more than 1,500 miles it does not receive a single 
tributary. It is fed by the annual rains and the melting 
snows of the high mountains. 

The water of the Nile is highest from May till Septem¬ 
ber, when the lower valley is covered with a fine, rich soil, 
brought down by the flood; and the seeds which are scat¬ 
tered over the water, as it sudsides, bring forth abundant 
crops of grain. Cotton, also, is an important product of 
the Nile valley. 

The Congo, first explored by Livingston, and afterward 
by Stanley, drains the most fertile part of the continent. 
Its source is in the region of heavy rains. 

The region of the greatest heat is in the Egyptian Sou¬ 
dan. There the midway temperature during the summer 
months is often 140 deg. Fahr., while the nights are some¬ 
times so cold that ice forms. In the desert, hot winds, 
known as simoons, are prevalent, and sand storms are often 
destructive. The coast, generally, is very unhealthy. 

Southern Africa possesses a mild and genial climate. 
Here are the principal settlements formed by Europeans in 
Africa. This is the home of the Caffre. 

Northern Africa yields grain, cotton, dates, almonds 
and olive oil. Rice is a leading product of the Guinea 
coast. The date-palm flourishes along the shores of the 
Mediterranean and in the oases of the desert. The famous 
boabab tree is found in Central Africa. It is famous for 
its great size and age. Groves of teak, mangrove, ebony, 
and India rubber abound on the western coast. Gum 
arabic, myrrh, cotton, coffee, suger-cane, and spices are 
products of Eastern Africa. The islands produce tropical 
fruits, wine and amber. 

Africa is noted for large and ferocious animals, and 
venomous serpents. The lion is found in all parts of the 
continent. The hippopotamus inhabits the upper Nile, 
while the marshes and streams of the low coast contain 
many crocodiles, lizards, and other reptiles. 

The gorilla, the largest and fiercest of apes, and the 
chimpanzee, are met in the west. The elephant, giraffe, 
and the two-horned rhinoceros, belong in Central and 
Southern Africa. There are many species of deer and an¬ 
telope. The zebra and the gnu or horned horse, are 
numerous in the grassy plains of Southern Africa. The 
ostrich is hunted in various parts of the continent; but in 
Southern Africa, the rearing of those birds for their 
plumes is an important occupation. 

The most useful animal in crossing desert regions is the 
camel. Travelers and merchants, with their camels car¬ 
rying merchandise, cross the desert in companies, called 
caravans. For more than four thousand years camels have 
been almost the sole means employed to carry merchandise 
across the deserts. The camel will carry a load of four or 
five hundred pounds weight fifty miles a day for five or 
six days, although he may not be supplied with food or 
water during that time. 

The coasts of Guinea and Senegambia have long been 
celebrated for gold. Copper, lead, salt and saltpeter are 
obtained in some places. 




Important diamond fields are in South Africa. 

Africans comprise three races—the Caucasian, Negro 
and Malay. 

The Moors, Arabs, Berbers, Egyptians, and various 
tribes of the north are Caucasians; the tribes of Central 
and Southern Africa, and the east and Avest coasts, Ne¬ 
groes; and those of Madagascar, Malays. 

Excepting the European colonists who have settled 
along the coast, nearly all the Caucasian inhabitants are 
Mohammedans, and are in a low state of civilization. 

Most of the Negro tribes of Africa are savages, in a 
degraded condition. There are, however, several tribes 
which cultivate the soil, raise cattle and observe laws. 

The Barbary States, situated on the Mediterranean 
coast, extend from the Atlantic Ocean to Egypt. 

The climate is mild and healthful. South of the Atlas 
Mountains it is extremely hot and arid. There are two 
seasons, a rainy and a dry. 

The highlands are covered with forests of cedar, pine, 
cork trees and other valuable timber. The lowlands are 
finely adapted to agriculture. 

The most important productions are dates, oranges, 
bananas, pomegranates and figs. 

The natives consist of Moors, Arabs and Berbers. Al¬ 
though descended from a very enlightened people, they 
are extremely ignorant, degraded and treacherous. The 
foreigners are mainly French and Jewish colonists. Wher¬ 
ever they settled, agriculture, manufactures and com¬ 
merce quickly followed. 

Morocco is under the absolute government of a sultan, 
who is subject to Turkey. The country is sparsely set¬ 
tled. Cattle, sheep and goats are reared extensively. 

In tanning and dyeing leather the people exhibit great 
skill, and the leather manufactured there is exported to 
all parts of the world. 

Morocco and Fez are the most important cities. The 
sultan holds court at one and the other, alternately. 

Algeria is a French possession, and contains a large 
European population. It is one of the most prosperous 
of the Barbary States. 

Several lines of railway are in operation, and caravans, 
trading in ivory, gums and ostrich feathers, penetrate the 
interior of Soudan. 

Algiers is the capital and commercial center. It is 
connected with Marseilles by a submarine telegraph cable. 

Tunis, also, is a French possession. It was formerly 
subject to Turkey. It is noted for its olive groves, date 
plantations, coral fisheries, and the manufacture of red 
caps, soap and leather. 

Tunis, near the site of ancient Carthage, is the capital 
and seaport. It is a very old city. 

Tripoli, though nominally a Turkish province, is a 
despotic monarchy, governed by a bey. 

It contains no rivers, and rain seldom falls; yet, on 
account of heavy dews, the soil is productive. 

The leading exports are wool, hides and ivory. 

Tripoli is the capital and seaport. Mourzouk, the cap¬ 
ital of Fezzan, is the center of a large caravan trade. 

The Nile countries comprise Egypt proper, Nubia and 
the Egyptian Soudan, or Kingdom of the Mahdi. They 
are governed by a hereditary monarch called the khedive; 
and are subject to Turkey. 

The greater part of Egypt is a desert. Along the lower 
course of the Nile, only the narrow valley, which is an¬ 
nually inundated, is capable of producing crops. 

Since the completion of the Suez canal, rapid progress 
has been made in developing the agricultural and commer¬ 
cial interests of Egypt. 

Railways have been built, and by means of irrigating 
canals extensive tracts of desert land have been made pro¬ 
ductive. 






















































294 


ATLAS OF THE WORLD. 


Most of the wealthier classes have been educated in 
Europe, and foreign customs are being introduced through¬ 
out the country. The laboring classes are greatly op¬ 
pressed, and are practically in a state of slavery. 

The principal products of Egypt are cotton, grain, 
sugar and rice. Gum arabic, ivory, indigo and ostrich 
feathers are obtained in the Soudan. Manufactories have 
been established in the larger cities and towns. 

Cairo, the capital of Egypt, is the largest city in Africa. 
Alexandria is the principal seaport. Railways connect 
both cities with Suez, the southern seaport of the Suez 
canal. The northern, or Mediterranean, seaport of the 
canal is Port Said. 

The other seaports of Egypt are Rosetta and Damietta. 

Nubia and the Egyptian Soudan are inhabited by war¬ 
like tribes of Arab and Negro descent. 

Khartoum, at the junction of the Blue and the White 
Nile, is the center of a large caravan trade. 

Abyssinia is the high and rugged plateau, containing a 
number of fertile valleys. The climate, owing to the high 
altitude of the surface, is mild and healthful. The peo¬ 
ple, though of a dark, or swarthy complexion, belong to 
the Caucasian race, and consist, chiefly, of Copts and 
Berbers, who are ignorant and degraded. 

Abyssinia consists of several independent states, having 
no general government. 

Gondar is the capital. Massowah, an Egyptian posses¬ 
sion, is the only seaport. 

South Africa comprises several prosperous colonies. 
Some of these belong to Great Britain, others are inde¬ 
pendent states founded by Dutch settlers,while others still 
are the homes of native tribes. 

Cape Colony and Natal are British colonies. The surface 
of the land is high, undulating and well adapted to graz¬ 
ing. 

The leading occupations are the raising of cattle and 
sheep and the rearing of ostriches. Wool and ostrich feath¬ 
ers are among the most valuable exports. 

Cape Town, the capital of Cape Colony, is the chief 
seaport of South Africa. 

Pietermaritzburg is the capital of Natal. 

West Griqualand, also a possession of Great Britain, 
contains the most productive diamond mines in the 
world. 

Kimberly, its capital, is situated in the diamond fields, 
and is the chief market for rough diamonds. 

Caffraria and Zululand are inhabited by natives who are 
noted for tlieir intelligence, fine physical appearance and 
great bravery. Both countries are governed by native 
chiefs, although subject to Great Britain. 

The Orange Free State and the South African Republic 
(formerly Transvaal) are inhabited by Dutch farmers, 
called Boers. The Boers are noted for their bravery and 
love of independence. 

Bloemfontein is the capital of the Orange Free State, 
and Pretoria of the South African Republic. Wool, 
cattle and grain are the exports. 

Central Africa includes the regions comprised in Sahara 
or the Great Desert, Soudan, the Congo Free State and the 
territory southward to the Boer republics. 

Sahara contains about twenty oases, inhabited by wan¬ 
dering tribes, who live chiefly by plundering the caravans. 

Soudan is inhabited by semi-barbarous tribes, each of 
which is governed by a chief, whose will is law. 

Their occupation is herding cattle, but they are con¬ 
stantly at war with one another. 

Timbuctoo, Sackatoo and Kouka are centers of a large 
caravan trade. 

The Congo Free State embraces the basin of the Congo 
river. It is subject to the King of Belgium. 


Zanzibar is a strip of coast nearly 1,000 miles long, in¬ 
cluding a number of small islands. It is an absolute mon¬ 
archy, governed by a sultan. 

Zanzibar, on an island of the same name, is the capital. 
It is the center of a large trade in ivory, gum copal and 
spices. Trade is almost exclusively in the hands of Hindoo 
and Arab merchants. 

Mozambique includes a number of Portuguese colonies, 
extending from Zululand to Zanzibar. The city of Mozam¬ 
bique, the chief center of trade, is the residence of the 
Governor-General. 

The West coast is covered with forests of valuable tim¬ 
ber. The Highlands contain gold and silver. 

Senegambia includes most of the basins of the Senegal 
and Gambia rivers. English and French traders have 
settled along the coast. 

Sierra Leone is a prosperous English colony. It is inhab¬ 
ited by Negroes, many of whom were rescued from slave- 
ships. Freetown is the capital. 

Liberia is a small republic, originally established as a 
colony for freed slaves from the United States. Monrovia 
is the capital. 

Dahomey and Ashantee are absolute despotisms. 

The natives are superstitious, warlike and ferocious. In 
Dahomey wholesale murders, or human sacrifices, form 
part of certain celebrations. Here the king has an army of 
women, whose weapons are muskets, swords and clubs. 
Ashantee, also, is ruled by a native king, who is independent. 

Madagascar, a kingdom, contains a civilized population, 
whose principal industries are agriculture and herding. 

St. Helena belongs to Great Britain; the Canary Islands 
to Spain; the Madeira, the Azores and the Cape Yerd 
Islands to Portugal. 

NORTH AMERICA. 















































ATLAS OF THE WORLD. 


295 


North America is the northern division of the western 
continent. It extends almost from the North Pole to the 
Equator. 

The shape of North America is nearly that of a triangle, 
broad at the north and tapering almost to a point at the 
south. Its length is nearly 5,000 miles. Its area is equal 
to one-half that of Asia, or two and a half times that of 
Europe. Its northern and eastern coasts are remarkable 
for numerous indentations and good harbors, while the west¬ 
ern coast has but few. 

The western part of the continent is a high plateau, on 
which are many nearly parallel ranges of mountains. The 
direction of these ranges is from northwest to southeast. 
They constitute the Rocky Mountain system, and form the 
main axis of the continent. The culminating ranges of this 
system inclose a large, oval-shaped plateau, called the 
Great Basin. 

The Appalachian system, in the eastern part, is com¬ 
posed of several parallel ranges, extending from northeast 
to southwest. Their average height is about 3,000 feet or 
about one-third that of the Western Highlands. 

Volcanoes are numerous in the Western Highlands, and 
some of them are constantly active. . 

The highest peak of the Rocky Mountain system is Mt. 
St. Elias, 19,500 feet; and of the Appalachian system, Mt. 
Mitchell, 6,707 feet. 

The great central plain, extending from Hudson Bay to 
the Gulf of Mexico, lies between the two mountain systems. 
The Height of Land, an almost imperceptible divide, 
crosses the plain, separating the Arctic Slope from the 
Gulf Slope. 

The lakes of North America are remarkable for their 
number and size. If a straight line were drawn from 
Chesapeake Bay to the mouth of the Mackenzie river, it 
would pass through nearly every large lake in North 
America. 

The great lakes contain about one-half the fresh water 
on the globe. Lake Superior, the largest, however, is ex¬ 
ceeded in size by Lake Victoria in Africa. 

Salt and alkaline lakes are numerous in the Pacific high¬ 
lands. Great Salt Lake, in Utah, has an area twice that 
of Rhode Island. With the exception of the Caspian sea, 
it is the largest salt lake on the globe. 

The Mississippi basin is the largest basin in the world, 
excepting that of the Amazon river. Its chief stream, the 
Mississippi and Missouri, exceeds every other river in 
length. 

The Yukon river, second in size, is, in many respects, 
unlike any other river on the continent. Its upper course 
is remarkable for falls and rapids. Its lower part contains 
many islands, and is often five and six miles wide. 

The Columbia, Colorado, and many of their tributaries 
which rise in the interior of the continent, flow, in some 
places, through deep canons. 

The soil is very productive. The Mississippi basin and 
the slopes of the Atlantic ocean and the Gulf of Mexico 
contain soil of great fertility. On the Pacific coast the 
climate is much milder than in corresponding latitudes on 
the Atlantic coast. The northern part of the continent 
is extremely cold ; the central portion is characterized by 
hot summers and cold winters ; the southern part has a 
tropical climate. The rainfall is greatest in the north¬ 
west and southeast. The rains of the Pacific coast fall 
mostly in winter. In northern regions vegetation is lim¬ 
ited to mosses, lichens and a few shrubs. A belt of cone¬ 
bearing and deciduous trees extends through the middle 
of the Temperate zone. In the south, these are replaced 
by palms, tree-ferns, bananas, and agaves. Grasses are 




abundant throughout the Temperate zone. Indian corn 
and tobacco are native to North America. 

The fur seal, whale, walrus, polar bear and musk-ox 
are the most important animals of the northern regions. 
The bison, deer, bear, wolf and panther, are common in 
the north central part. The grizzly bear is found in 
North America only. The monkey in the tropical regions. 

Reptiles are numerous in the south. Nearly 500 species 
of birds are known. Fish are abundant; the cod, salmon, 
herring and mackerel are valuable as food. 

The mineral resources of North America surpass those 
of any other continent. Iron and coal, minerals on which 
civilization and commerce so greatly depend, are abundant 
and widely distributed. Petroleum and natural illuminat¬ 
ing gas are found in the Alleghany mountains and the 
Coast range. Gold, silver and quicksilver are found 
chiefly in the Western highlands ; copper and lead, in 
the vicinity of the great lakes ; and zinc, in the Eastern 
highlands. 

American Indians inhabited North America at the time 
of the explorations in the 15th and 16th centuries. A 
civilized people preceding these had disappeared from the 
region which now constitutes the United States, as the 
ruins of their habitation bear witness. 

Civilized people were found by the Spanish explorers of 
Mexico. They were conquered by the Spaniards, and 
gradually disappeared. 

The Esquimaux, who are found in the Arctic regions 
only, are thought by many to be of Mongolian origin. 
The Indians, also, are said to be of Mongolian descent, 
and to have come, originally, from Asia. 

The white race, the ruling element of the population, 
are the descendants of Europeans. The inhabitants of 
Mexico and Central America are the descendants, in part, 
of Spaniards and native Indians. 

The Negroes, originally brought to America as slaves, 
are fast becoming educated. 

Industries—The geographical distribution of the various 
industies is more noticeable in North America than in 
the other continents. Foreign commerce, manufactures 
and fisheries are confined chiefly to the coasts and navigable 
streams. 

Agriculture is carried on, principally, throughout the 
fertile prairies and river valleys of the interior. Stock- 
raising is most profitable where there are mild winters and 
an abundance of grass. 

Mining is a leading industry in the highlands. 

North America includes Danish America, British Ameri¬ 
ca, the United States of America, Mexico, Central 
America and the West Indies. 

Danish America belongs to the Kingdom of Denmark. 
It comprises Greenland, Iceland and a few smaller 
islands. 

Greenland extends farther north than any other country, 
or to within about 400 miles of the North Pole. Its area 
is nearly one-third that of the United States. 

The surface of Greenland is covered with ice and snow. 
The coasts are scored by numerous glaciers. The products 
are fish, oil and reindeer skins. 

The people comprise a few Danes and a number of 
Esquimaux tribes. 

Iceland, which is about half the size of Kansas, is noted 
for volcanoes, geysers, glaciers and lava fields. Its south¬ 
ern part has a milder climate than its northern, and con¬ 
tains all the settlements. 

The Icelanders are generally educated. Their trade is 
carried on with Copenhagen, the capital of Denmark. 
Their capital, Reikiavik, contains a college. 









































ATLAS OF THE WORLD. 


UNITED STATES. 


A Republic, it is the middle division of North America. 
Alaska, a territory occuping the northwest part of North 
America, is partly in the North Temperate Zoneand partly 
in the North Frigid Zone. It was purchased from Rus¬ 
sia by the United States. Extends from the Atlantic 
Ocean on the east to the Pacific Ocean on the west, from 
the Dominion of Canada on the north to the republic of 
Mexico and the Gulf of Mexico on the south. The dis¬ 
tance across the United States from east to west through 
the center, is about 2,600 miles, and from north to south 
about 1,600 miles. The shortest distance between the 
Dominion of Canada and the Gulf of Mexico is about 800 
miles. 

The high mountains and plateaus of the United States 
are in the western part. There the mining of gold and 
silver, and the raising of cattle and sheep constitute the 
leading occupations of the people. 

The plains, prairies, slopes and lowlands extending from 
the great highland region eastward to the Atlantic Ocean, 
are remarkable for their fertile soil, which produces 
immense crops of grain, cotton, fruit and vegetables. 

The valleys of the Pacific Slope are noted for their mild, 
genial climate and their great yield of wheat, fruits and 
vegetables. 

Coal and iron are mined extensively in various parts of 
the United States. 

The variety and importance of the products and indus¬ 
tries of this country are due principally to its vast extent 
of territory and its great diversity" of soil, elevation and 
climate. 

Its increase in population, wealth and power is unsur¬ 
passed. A century ago there were but thirteen States, con¬ 
taining less than 4,000,000 inhabitants. Now there are 
forty-two States, seven territories and the District of 
Columbia, with a total population of more than 60,000,000. 
A territory is under the control of the General Govern¬ 
ment of the United States, until it is admitted into the 
Union as a State by Congress. The orignal thirteen States 
were New Hampshire, Massachusette, Rhode Island, Con¬ 
necticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, 
Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina and 
Georgia. The first States admitted after them were Ken¬ 
tucky, Vermont, Tennessee, Ohio, Louisiana, Indiana, 
and Mississippi. 

The first colonies in the region now called the United 
States were established by the English, in Virginiain, 1607; 
by the Dutch, in New York, in 1613; and by the Pilgrims, 
in Massachusetts, in 1620. 

All were subject to Great Britain from 1664 to ] 776, 
when the thirteen colonies declared themselves free and 
independent States. 

Each State has its own constitution, laws, legislature, 
and governor, while all the States are united under the 
constitution and laws of the United States. A State is 
entitled to be represented in the United States Senate by 
two senators, and in the House of Representatives by one 
member for every 154,325 inhabitants. 

Every state is entitled to, at least, one member. A terri¬ 
tory may send a delegate to the House but he has no vote. 
There are at present 84 senators and 325 members of the 
House of Representatives. The states which have the 
largest representation in the House are New York 34 
members, Pennsylvania 28, Ohio 21, and Illinois 20. The 
states and territories of the United States have legislatures 
consisting of two houses similar to those of Congress, 
elected by the people. They are divided into counties, 
which are, in some cases, subdivided into townships. The 
divisions of Louisiana corresponding to counties are called 
parishes. The highest officials in a state are the Governor, 



Lieutenant-Governor, Secretary of State, Attorney Gen¬ 
eral, and Superintendent of Schools. Towns and villages 
are collections of houses and inhabitants. Cities have 
certain rights and privileges not possessed by towns and 
villages. The affairs of a city are usually controlled by its 
mayor and aldermen. A county seat is the chief town in 
which the official business of the county is conducted. 

The general government comprises three departments, 
the legislative, the judicial and the executive. It has 
control of all matters pertaining to commerce and treaties 
with foreign countries, the army and navy, the declaration 
of war, the postoffices and the coining of money. 

The legislative power is vested in Congress, which con¬ 
sists of the Senate, (composed of two senators from each 
State, chosen by the state legislature, for six years. The 
Vice-president of the United States is the president of the 
Senate) and House of Representatives. Congress holds 
its sessions in Washington. The session of Congress 
begins on the first Monday in December of each year. A 
law cannot take effect unless passed by both the Senate 
and the House of Representatives, and approved by the 
President. If, however, he disapprove a measure which 
has been passed by both houses of Congress, it may become 
a laAV on being repassed by two-thirds of each house. 

The judicial power is vested in the Supreme Court, 
which interprets the laws. The Supreme Court consists 
of a chief justice and eight associate justices, all appointed 
for life by the president with the consent of the Senate. 

The executive power is vested in the President, whose 
duty is to execute or enforce the laws. He is elected for 
four years. The President and Vice-President are elected 
by a number of electors, called the electoral college, 
chosen by the people of the States, or their legislatures. 
Each State is entitled to a number of electors, equal to 
the whole number of senators and representatives to which 
it is entitled in Congress. In case of a vacancy in the 
office of President, it shall be filled by the Vice-president. 
If there be no Vice-President, the law of 1886 vests the 
succession in those members of the cabinet who are 
constitutionally eligible, in the following order: Secretary 
of State, Secretary of the Treasury, Secretary of War, 
Attorney-General, Postmaster-General, Secretary of the 
Navy, and Secretary of the Interior. 


MEXICO. 

Mexico is a republic, composed of twenty-seven States, 
a federal district and the Territory of Lower California. 
It is situated in the North Temperate and the Torrid 
Zones, and is about one-fourth the size of the United 
States. 

The surface is a high plateau, fringed by a belt of low, 
narrow coast. Several ranges of the Rocky Mountain 
System, of which the Sierra Madre is the highest, extend 
through the country from northwest to southeast. 

A chain of volcanoes crosses the highest part of the 
plateau. The summits of several of these are above the 
limit of perpetual snow. Vol. Popocatepetl is the highest 
mountain in Mexico, and, next to Mt. St. Elias, the high¬ 
est in North America. 

The lakes are small and unimportant. Most of them 
are situated in the Valley of Mexico. 

The rivers are short, and, excepting the Rio Colorado 
and Rio Grande, not navigable above tide-water. 

The climate is hot and pestilential along the narrow 
coast, but mild and healthful in the high interior. In 
going from Vera Cruz to the City of Mexico, one may, 
within a few hours, experience nearly every gradation of 
climate, and find the productions peculiar to each zone. 
There are but two seasons; the rainy, and the dry. 


































ATLAS OF THE WORLD. 


297 


The vegetable productions comprise mahogany, rose¬ 
wood, mesquite, various dye-woods, the agave, and cactus. 
Oranges, lemons, pineapples, olives and bananas are 
extensively cultivated. Tobacco, corn, sugar-cane, cocoa, 
beans, coffee, vanilla and the indigo-plant are also grown. 



The wild animals of Mexico comprise the grizzly bear, 
puma or Mexican lion, and coyote. Venomous reptiles 
and insects are numerous. Cattle, horses and donkeys, in 
vast numbers, are the principal domestic animals. 

The minerals include gold, silver, tin, quicksilver and 
marble. 

The leading industries are agriculture, stock-raising, 
and mining. Coffee, sugar, cotton, cochineal, vanilla, 
metals, hides, and ornamental woods are exported. Great 
progress has been recently made in the building of rail¬ 
roads; but the unsettled condition of the government 
depresses every kind of industry. 

The people consist chiefly of mixed races. About one- 
tenth are Creoles, or descendants of Spanish colonists. 
Spanish is the language of the country. 

Mexico, the federal capital, is the metropolis. It is in 
the Valley of Mexico, elevation about 7,400 feet above 
sea level. 

Guadalaxara and Puebla are manufacturing centers. 

Vera Cruz is the chief Atlantic seaport. 

Acapulco and Guaymas are the principal ports on the 
Pacific Coast of Mexico. 

CENTRAL AMERICA. 

Central America forms the most southern part of North 
America. It comprises five republics, and the British 
colony of Balize. 

The surface resembles that of Mexico, being a high 
plateau situated between low coasts. The climate, how¬ 


ever, is hotter and more moist, and its vegetation more 
luxuriant. 

It contains several volcanoes. Destructive earthquakes 
are of frequent occurrence. 

The principle products are coffee, dye-woods and sugar. 
Gold, silver and coal are found in the highlands. 

The inhabitants are chiefly meztizos and Indians. The 
white people are mainly of Spanish descent. There are 
many European merchants and planters in Balize and 
Costa Rica. The language of the country is Spanish. 

Guatemala, the largest city of Central America, is the 
chief commercial port. 

The West Indies comprise two chains of islands, extend¬ 
ing southeast from the coast of North America. 

The Bahama Islands, about 600 in number, are low, 
coral formations. Their climate is warm and healthful. 

The sponge fisheries constitute the chief industry. 

Oranges, lemons and pine-apples are the principal fruits. 
Salt is obtained from the lagoons of Turk's Island, by 
evaporation. 

Nassau, the capital and commercial port, is situated on 
Providence Island. 

The Greater Antilles comprise the islands of Cuba, 
Hayti, Jamaica and Porto Rico. Their surface is mount¬ 
ainous; their climate and productions are those of tropical 
regions. The population is made up of Spaniards, Creoles 
and Negroes. 


«t DS o d 



•x ca o o lu 


Cuba exports sugar, molasses, coffee, fruits, tobacco 
and cigars. Its forests contain ebony, mahogany and 
rosewood. 

Havana, the capital, is the center of a vast commerce. 
It is an important sugar market. 

Matanzas also is an important city in Cuba. 






1 9 























































298 


ATLAS OF THE WORLD. 


The Island of Hayti comprises two independent repub¬ 
lics, Hayti and Santo Domingo. The people and their 
rulers are Negroes. 

Port au Prince is the capital of Hayti; and Santo Do¬ 
mingo of Santo Domingo. 

Jamaica yields allspice, in addition to the products 
which are similar to those of the other islands. Rum is 
the principal export. Turtle-fishing is important. 

Kingston is the capital. 

Porto Rico contains many large and fertile plains. 

The Lesser Antilles extend from Porto Rico to the mouth 
of the Orinoco River. 

SOUTH AMERICA. 

South America was discovered by Columbus in 1498, 
near the mouth of the Orinoco. The early Spanish dis¬ 
coverers found an Indian village near Lake Maracaybo, 
built over the water on piles. As it reminded them of 
Venice, they called it Venezuela, which means Little 
Venice. 

Balboa, in 1513, crossed the Isthmus, and was the first 
man who saw the Pacific Ocean from the coast of the 
Western Continent; but long years before this, the ancient 
Peruvians had lived there. They had built strong cities, 
fine temples, great aqueducts, and splendid roads and 
bridges, ruins of which still remain. Peru was invaded 
by the Spaniards, under Pizarro, who cruelly treated the na¬ 
tives, destroying their cities and plundering their temples. 

South America was thus conquered and settled by Span¬ 
iards, except Brazil, which was settled by Portuguese, and 
Guiana, which was settled by British, Dutch and French. 

About 300 years afterward the people of the countries of 
South America (except Guiana) declared themselves inde¬ 
pendent of Spain and Portugal. 

Simon Bolivar was the most distinguished general and 
patriot of South America. He was called the,“Libera¬ 
tor,” also the “ Washington of South America.” 

South America is the Southern part of the Western 
Continent. 

Its area is nearly twice that of the United States. In 
shape it is a triangle, which tapers to a point toward the 
south. The coast line has but few indentations. 

Like North America it has mountain ranges in the west 
and east and avast pl^in in the center. 

The Andean Plateau, the main axis of the continent, 
extends along the entire western coast. It supports par¬ 
allel ranges, which constitute the Andean System. Its 
high peaks are always covered with snow. The highest 
measured peak is Mount Aconcagua, which is about 24,- 
000 feet in height. The most celebrated volcano is 
Cotapaxi. 

The plains of South America cover about half its area. 
The llanos of the Orinoco are treeless plains. During the 
rainy season they become a vast inland sea. With the dis¬ 
appearance of the water comes a profusion of tropical veg¬ 
etation, which quickly withers under the intense heat of 
the sun. 

The largest lakes in South America are Maracaybo and 
Titicaca. The latter is 12,000 feet above the sea level. 

The Amazon is the largest and one of the longest rivers 
in the world. Its course is nearly along the Equator. Its 
highest source is within 70 miles of the Pacific Ocean. 
At its mouth the river is nearly 200 miles wide. Its cur¬ 
rent and the freshness of its water are perceptible 200 
miles out at sea. 

The soil is fertile in nearly all parts of the continent. 
The southern part, however, is barren, rocky and desolate. 

The climate along the seacoast is generally warm, ex¬ 
cept in the south. In the interior of the lowland plains, 
the heat is almost intolerable. 


The banks of the Amazon produce a wonderful variety 
of ornamental woods, such as mahogany, rosewood, vege¬ 
table-ivory and tortoise-shell wood. The India rubber, 
cacao, and cocoa-palm trees are abundant. 

The lowlands abound in wild grasses, and on the mount¬ 
ain slopes are found the cinchona tree and many kinds of 
medicinal plants. 

The chief cultivated plants are coffee, sugar-cane, cot¬ 
ton, tobacco, indigo, manioc and spices. 

Minerals.—South America is rich in minerals. A large 
part of the silver now in use in the world was obtained from 
the Andes Mountains. Gold is mined in Columbia and 
Brazil. 

Industries.—The chief industries of the inhabitants of 
South America are herding, agriculture and mining. 

BRAZIL 

The Empire of Brazil, the largest country of South 
America, is the only monarchy in the New World. 

It comprises the eastern plateau and the basins of the 
Amazon and the La Plata. The northern and western 
parts are low, swampy, and, during the rainy season, com¬ 
pletely inundated. 

Near the coast, the valleys are rich and well cultivated. 

The greater part of the country has a tropical climate. 

Coffee, cotton, sugar,tobacco, rice, grain, tropical fruits, 
nuts and spices are raised in abundance. 

The leading industries are cattle-raising and agriculture. 

The natives live in the interior. The ruling people are 
the Portuguese, or their descendants. 

Rio Janeiro, the capital, is the largest city in South 
America. Its chief exports are coffee and India rubber. 

Bahia Is the center of the diamond trade. 

The Andes Republics comprise the United States of Co¬ 
lumbia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and Chili, occupying the 
mountainous region along the coast of the Pacific Ocean. 

The coast is very steep, affording few harbors. 

The surface is rugged. The high plateaus are barren, 
but the mountain sides and the valleys afford pasturage, 
and yield grain and other products. 

This region is subject to earthquakes, and it contains 
some of the most celebrated volcanoes in the world. 

The governments are republican in form, modeled after 
our own, but they are subject to frequent revolutions. 

Bogota, although within four and a half degrees of the 
Equator, has a climate of perpetual spring, due to its alti¬ 
tude of nearly 9,000 feet. Its wet seasons are our spring 
and autumn; its dry seasons, our summer and winter. It 
is warmest in February, and coldest in December. Grain 
is sown twice a year. Most of the houses are built but one 
story high, owing to the frequency of earthquakes. There 
are, however, many large, splendid buildings. 

Panama, on the isthmus, is the largest and most import¬ 
ant city. It is connected by railroad with Colon, or As- 
pinwall. Its climate is tropical and unhealthy. 

Quito, the capital of Ecuador, is situated on a very high 
plateau, surrounded by volcanoes. 

Guayaquil is the chief commercial city. 

Lima, a few miles from the coast, is the capital of Peru. 
Its port is Callao. 

Arequipa was several times destroyed by earthquakes. 

La Paz is the capital and largest city of Bolivia. 

CHILI. 

Chili is the most powerful and enterprising of the Span- 
ish-American republics. 

It is the same in extent from north to south as the 
United States from east to west—about 2,600 miles. 

It is situated on the western slope of the Andes and ex¬ 
tends from the Bay of Africa to Cape Horn. 

































ATLAS OF THE WORLD. 


299 


Along the coast are numerous islands, which are rich in 
guano and niter. 

Its climate is temperate and moist. 

The people are chiefly of Spanish origin. They are act¬ 
ive, industrious and intelligent. 

Santiago is the capital. Valparaiso is the largest com¬ 
mercial city on the west coast of South America. 

The Argentine Republic is a broad and level country, 
comprising most of the pampas. 

The people are engaged in herding and in preparing 
dried beef, hides, tallow and horns, for export. 

Buenos Ayres, the capital and largest city, has an exten¬ 
sive commerce. 

Paraguay and Uraguay resemble the Argentine Republic 
in surface, products and the occupations of the people. 

Montevideo, the capital of Uruguay, is an important 
commercial city. 

Asuncion is the capital of Paraguay. 

Venezuela lies almost entirely within the basin of the 
Orinoco. Its climate is tropical. 

The people are engaged in cattle-raising and agriculture. 
Hides, meat, tallow, coffee, cocoa, cotton, sugar and dye- 
woods are exported. 

Caracas is the capital. It has frequently suffered from 
earthquakes. 

Guiana embraces three colonies—British, French and 
Dutch. Its products are like those of Venezuela. 

Cayenne is the capital of French Guiana, Georgetown of 
British Guiana, and Paramaribo of Dutch Guiana. 

DOMINION OF CANADA. 



The Dominion of Canada embraces the provices of Brit¬ 
ish Columbia, Manitoba, Ontario, Quebec, New. Bruns¬ 
wick, Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island, besides sev¬ 


eral territories and districts. Its area about equal to 
that of the United States. 

The surface is mostly a vast plain, bordered by a high 
plateau in the west, on which stand the Rocky mountains 
and the Cascade range. 



A chain of lakes extends from the mouth of the Macken¬ 
zie river to the Great Lakes. The St. Lawrence, Nelson 
and Mackenzie rivers drain the principal basins. 

The climate of the Pacific Slope is mild, but elsewhere 
the winters are of great severity. The summers are short 
and in the southern provinces hot. 

A belt of timber, mostly pine, extends from the Rocky 
mountains to the Atlantic ocean. The Pacific Slope is 
covered with forests of fir, the valley of the St. Lawrence 
contains growths of maple, oak and elm. 

The central prairie regions are covered with luxuriant 
crops of wild grasses, and, where cultivated, yield large 
crops of grain. 

The wild animals comprise the bison, bear, moose, wolf, 
beaver, otter, ermine, mink and marten, most of which are 
hunted for their skins. The coast waters abound in seal, 
cod and salmon. 

The minerals comprise gold, silver and coal, which are 
mined in the west. Copper and iron are found near Lake 
Superior. Coal is mined in Nova Scotia also. 

The chief industries in the eastern provinces are lum¬ 
bering and fishing. The central regions are agricultural. 
The uninhabited regions of the north yield valuable furs in 
great quantities. 

Most of the inhabitants are of English descent. In the 
eastern provinces, however, their are many descendants of 
the early French settlers. 

The government of the dominion is vested in the Gov¬ 
ernor-General and Parliament. The Governor-General is 






























































300 


ATLAS OF THE WORLD. 


appointed by the sovereign of Great Britain. Parliament 
consists of a Senate and a House of Commons. The mem¬ 
bers of the Senate are appointed by the Governor-General. 
The members of the House are elected by the people. Each 
province has a Lieutenant-Governor and a legislature. 

Ottawa is the capital of the Dominion of Canada. It 
contains magnificent public buildings. 

British Columbia, including Vancouver and other 
islands, is the largest and most mountainous province of 
the dominion. Its mines of gold and coal are valuable. 
Lumber, fish and wool are exported. 

Victoria, on Vancouver Island, is the capital and me¬ 
tropolis. 

Manitoba is noted for wheat and furs. Steamers ply on 
the Red River of the North, and on Manitoba and Winni¬ 
peg lakes. 

Winnipeg, the capital, is the agricultural and commer¬ 
cial center. 

Ontario, the most important province/contains nearly 
one-third the population of the dominion. Grain, fruit and 
lumber are the principal products. Petroleum, copper 
and iron are obtained near Lake Superior. 

Toronto, the capital of the province, is noted for its 
manufactures and educational institutions. It is an im¬ 
portant railway center and lake port. 

Hamilton, situated near the western extremity of Lake 
Ontario, is an important lake port and manufacturing 
center. 



Quebec is hilly. Its winters are extremely cold; its 
summers warm, short and foggy. 

Its agricultural region is south of the St. Lawrence, and 
produces good crops of oats, potates and hay. The most 
valuable export is lumber. 

The people of this province, are, chiefly, descendants of 
early French settlers. 


Quebec, the capital, is the oldest city in the dominion. 
The heights, on which the upper portion of the city is 
built, are strongly fortified. The fortress of Quebec, next 
to that of Gibraltar, is considered the strongest in the 
world. It was, however, captured by General Wolfe dur¬ 
ing the French and Indian war. The principal business 
part of the city occupies the low ground. 

Montreal, the metropolis, is noted for its magnificent 
cathedrals, and the tubular bridge across the St. Lawrence 
river. 

New Brunswick is noted for lumber and ship-building. 

Fredericton is the capital of New Brunswick. 

St. John is the metropolis and largest port. 

Nova Scotia has more seacoast than any other province. 
Ship-building and the fisheries constitute the chief indus¬ 
tries. Its coal-fields are extensive. Gold and gypsum are 
also mined. 

Halifax, the capital, has an excellent harbor, and is the 
chief British naval station in North America. 

Prince Edward Island, the smallest province, is the 
most densely populated. Agriculture and fishing are the 
chief occupations. Fish and eggs the principal exports. 

Charlottetown is the capital. 

Newfoundland is noted for its barren soil, cold climate 
and dense fogs. 

The dense fogs which prevail in this latitude are due to 
the meeting of the cold Arctic Current with the warm 
waters of the Gulf Stream. During the spring and sum¬ 
mer, icebergs and pack-ice are brought down by the Arctic 
Current, and drift about until melted. It is for this 
reason that the steamship route between America and 
Great Britain is one of the most dangerous in the world. 

Its cod, salmon and seal fisheries give employment to 
about nine-tenths of the inhabitants. 

St. John's, the capital, is the most easterly city in North 
America, south of Greenland. 

The Territories were formerly owned by the Hudson 
Bay Company. 

NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

One of the thirteen original States. Named for Hamp¬ 
shire county, England, called the “ Granite State." Rati¬ 
fied United States Constitution June 21, 1788. Union 
soldiers 33,937. Number counties 10. All elections 
Tuesday after first Monday in November; number sen- 
tors 24; representatives, 321; sessions of legislature bien¬ 
nial; in odd-numbered years, meeting first Wednesday in 
June. Terms of senators and representatives 2 years 
each. Number electoral votes 4, congressmen 2; number 
voters 105,138. Paupers excluded from voting. Dart¬ 
mouth College, at Hanover, founded 1769. Compulsory 
education law, common schools excellent, school age 5-15. 
Legal interest 5 per cent., usury forfeits 3 times the excess. 
Extreme length N. and S., 181 miles, extreme width 92 
miles, area 9,005 sq. miles—5,763,200 acres. Coast line 
18 miles. Highest peak Mt. Washington. Largest lake, 
Winnipiseogee, 74 sq. miles. General elevation 1,200 feet. 
Isles of Shoals form part of State. The White Mountains 
occupy the northern portion of the State with unsur¬ 
passed scenery. Soil rocky, with small fertile districts. 
Hay best crop; corn, wheat, oats and ordinary vegetables 
do fairly with close cultivation. Forests largely exhausted, 
except at the north. Cleared lands average $16f and 
woodland 125 per acre. Mica quarried at Grafton, soap¬ 
stone at Haverhill, Keene and Francestown, granite at 
Plymouth, Troy, Roxbury, Concord. State ranks high in 
cotton manufacturing. Climate.—Winter average 24, 
summer 69 deg. Extremes great in White Mountains. 
Summer short and hot, with violent storms. Rainfall 41 
inches. Frost late in spring and early in fall. Winter 












































ATLAS OF THE WORLD. 


301 



begins in November, cold till May. Snow lies two-thirds 
of year in mountains, elsewhere 70 to 130 days. Health 
good. Principal Industries.—Agriculture, manufacture 
of cotton, woolens, lumber, leather, boots and shoes, etc. 
Quarrying mica, granite and soapstone. Principal Cities. 
—Manchester, Nashua, Concord (the capital), Dover, 
Portsmouth (chief harbor). The harbor of the latter 
place, Great Bay, never freezes over. 



VERMONT. 


First State to join original 13. Called the “ Green 
Mountain State/’ Active in war of 1812. Union soldiers 
furnished, 33,288. Number counties 14. First railroad 
built from Bellows Falls to Burlington 1849. State elec¬ 
tions biennial, first Tuesday in Sept.; number senators 30, 
representatives 240. Sessions of legislature biennial, in 
even-numbered years, meeting first Wednesday in Oct. 
Terms of senators and representatives, 2 years each. 
Number electoral votes 4, congressmen 2. Number vot¬ 
ers 95,651. Bribers excluded from voting. Colleges 2. 
School age 5-20. Legal interest rate 6$, usury forfeits 
excessive interest. N. and S. 149 miles, width 34 to 52 
miles, area 9,136 sq. miles, 5,847,040 acres. Highest 
Point (Green Mountains) about 4,600 ft. Green Mount¬ 
ains run N. and S. through the State and are 3,000 to 
4,600 feet high. The surface is generally hilly. All east 
of mountains drained by the Connecticut, the only navi¬ 
gable river. Small streams abundant. Soil rocky but 
good in narrow strips on streams. Potatoes best crop. 
Corn, wheat, oats, hay, hops and buckwheat yield moder¬ 
ately if well attended. Forests remain to considerable 
extent, but are cut over or culled. Cleared land averages 
$17.50, and forest land $18 per acre. Dairying profitable. 
Manganese, copper, iron, gold, black, white, red and 
variegated marble and slate are found, the marbles in 


great abundance. State ranks 1st in quarries, 4th in cop¬ 
per. Temperature ranges from 15 deg. below to 95 deg. 
above, but changes not sudden; winter averages 18 deg. 
to 33 deg. Summer averages 66 deg. to 75 deg. Summer 
short. Rainfall greatest at south and east, where it aver¬ 
ages 43 inches; in other sections the average is 35 inches. 
Snows heavy. Frosts early in fall and late in spring. 
Snow lies 80 to 140 days. Health excellent. Death rate 
very low, less then If in the 100. Industries very varied, 
numbering 2,900. Principal ones, agriculture, dairying, 
manufacture of flour, furniture, leather, tin, iron and 
copper ware; and lumber, mining, quarrying and finish¬ 
ing marbles and stones, and maple sugar making. 

Principal Cities.— Burlington, Montpelier (capital); 
Rutland, Brattleboro and Bellows Falls are important and 
thriving towns and seats of large industries. 

KENTUCKY. 

Name Indian. Signifies dark and bloody ground, be¬ 
cause the state was the hunting and battle ground of the 
tribes. Called “ Corn Cracker State.” Louisville founded 
1780. Admitted as a State June 1, 1792. State furnished 
7,000 troops in war of 1812, and 13,700 in Mexican war. 
Won great credit in latter. Neutral at beginning of civil 
war. State the scene of continuous cavalry raids during 
the war, and some sharp battles at Perryville, Richmond, 
etc. Put under martial law 1864. Civil government 
restored 1865. Union soldiers furnished, 75,760. Num¬ 
ber counties 118. State elections biennial, first Monday 
in August, in odd-numbered years. Number senators 38, 
representatives 100, sessions of legislature biennial in even- 
numbered years, meeting last day of December, holds 60 
days. Term of senators 4 years, of representatives 2 years. 
Number electoral votes 13, number congressmen 11, num¬ 
ber voters 376,221. Bribers, robbers and forgers excluded 
from voting. Number colleges 15, public school system 
framed 1838, good schools, school age 6-20 years. Legal 
interest 6 per cent, by contract 10 per cent, usury forfeits 
excess over 10 per cent. Extreme length E. and W. 350, 
width 179 miles, area 40,000 sq. miles, 25,600,000 acres. 
River frontage 832 miles, navigable water ways 4,120 
miles. Soil fair, except in the famous “ Bluegrass region,” 
extending for 40 or 50 miles around Lexington, and one 
of the most beautiful sections on the globe. Natural won¬ 
der, Mammoth Cave, greatest in the world. Kentucky 
ranks high as an agricultural and stock state. Staple 
crops, corn, wheat, tobacco, oats, barley, hemp, rye and 
vegetables, fruits do fairly. Famous for thoroughbred 
horses and cattle. Mules and hogs largely raised. At the 
east in the mountains are immense forests of virgin oak, 
poplar, ash, chestnut, elm, walnut, cucumber and other 
valuable timber trees. Coal, marbles, minerals, oil, stone, 
etc., also abound. Iron deposits of immense magnitude 
are known to exist. Cleared land averages $20 anti wood¬ 
land $5 per acre. The average of the former is raised 
materially by the high prices, often $100 or more per acre 
in the bluegrass section. Mountain lands rich in timber 
and minerals and not without agricultural value rate $2 
to $5 per acre. The state ranks first in tobacco, and fourth 
in malt and distilled liquors. Climate variable, favorable 
to health and agriculture, healthfulness not surpassed. 
Thermometer ranges from 5 deg. below zero to 98 above, 
rarely greater extremes are known. Temperature averages, 
summer 75 deg., winter 38 deg., rainfall 50 inches. 
Snows fall, but disappear in a few days. Sleighing only 
for a day or so. Winters moderately long. Malaria very 
rare, except on the Ohio and Mississippi rivers. Chief 
Cities—Louisville, Frankfort (capital), Covington. Lex¬ 
ington, former capital, founded 1776. Newport connected 
with Covington by bridge. 
























































✓ 



ATLAS OF THE WORLD. 


TENNESSEE. 


“Big Bend State.” First settled 1754. Became a part 
of North Carolina 1777. Organized as the State of Frank¬ 
lin 1785, but again became part of North Carolina 1788. 
Ceded to United States by North Carolina 1789. Admit¬ 
ted as State June 1, 1796. Capital, Nashville. First 
railroad, part of N. & C., 1853, Nashville to Bridgeport. 
Seceded June 8,1861. Re-entered Union 1866. Number 
counties 96. State, congressional and presidential elec¬ 
tions, Tuesday after first Monday in November, number 
senators 33, representatives 99, sessions biennial, in odd- 
numbered years, meeting first Monday in January; holds 
75 days. Terms of senators and representatives 2 years 
each. Number electoral votes 12, number congressmen 10, 
number voters 571,244, native white 240,939, foreign 
white 250,055, colored 80,250, non-payers of poll-tax 
excluded from voting. Legal interest 6 per cent., by con¬ 
tract any rate, usury forfeits excess of interest and $100 
fine. Schools fair. Miles railroad 2,166. Slaves 1860, 
275,519. Extreme length E. and W. 430 miles, width 110 
miles. Area 41,750 sq. miles, 26,720,000 acres. Mount¬ 
ainous at E. where Apalachians separate State from North 
Carolina. Soil fair, except in central basin, where it is 
very productive. State abounds in coal, iron, fine marbles 
and building stones, copper and other minerals. Possesses 
one of the finest areas of forest in the Union. Principal 
timbers, walnut, oak, poplar, ash, hickory, etc. Staple 
products, mules, hogs, peanuts, corn, wheat, cotton, vege¬ 
tables of all kinds, potatoes, tobacco, hemp, flax, broom- 
corn, iron, copper, coal, marbles, etc. Ranks second in 
peanuts and third in mules. Resources but little devel¬ 
oped, 5,000 sq. miles of coal field, with 3 to 7 workable 
veins. Cleared land averages $12.50, forest $5 per acre. 
Grape growing pays. Climate one of healthiest in world. 
Mild and pleasant, and owing to varying elevation very 



diverse. Snow light and lays briefly. Ice rarely more 
than a mere film in thickness. Average temperature win¬ 
ter 38 deg., summer 75 deg. Extremes seldom occur. 
Rainfall 45 to 47 inches. Air bracing. Chief Cities— 
Nashville (capital,) Memphis, Chattanooga, Jackson, 
Knoxville. Industries chiefly agricultural, mining, lum¬ 
bering and iron making. 


NORTH CAROLINA. 

One of the thirteen original States. Called “Old North 
State,” “Fur State,” and “State of Turpentine.” Dis¬ 
covered by Lord Raleigh, 1584. Settled by English, 1650. 
State seceded May 21, 1861. Forts, etc., seized by state 
troops. Coast section scene of sharp fighting during 
civil war. State re-entered Union June, 1868. Number 
of counties, 96. All elections Tuesday after first Monday 
in November. Number of senators 56, representatives 
120, sessions biennial, in odd-numbered years, meeting 
Wednesday after first Monday in January, hold 60 days. 
Terms of senators and representatives 2 years each. 
Number electoral votes 11, number congressmen 9. Con¬ 
victs are excluded from voting. Public school system 
adopted, 1840, at present over 2,000 public schools in 
operation; school age 6-21; separate schools for whites 
and blacks. Legal interest rate 6 per cent., by contract 
8, usury forfeits interest. Rate of tax less than 50c. on 
$100. Greatest length E. and W. 453 miles; greatest 
width, 185 miles, area, 52,240 square miles, or 33,433,600 
acres, less area water surface. Coast line 423 miles with 
many harbors. Much forest yet remains. Swamps exten¬ 
sive, most noted of them, the Great Dismal, north of 
Albemarle sound, contains 148,000 acres. Small streams 
abundant, water powers numerous; corn best crop, tobacco 
largest product, other staples are orchard products, sweet 






























































ATLAS OF THE WOULD. 


303 


potatoes, rice, wheat, oats, peanuts, cotton, hay and vege¬ 
tables in the order named. North Carolina ranks first in 
tar and turpentine, second in copper, third in peanuts and 
tobacco, and fourth in rice. Has rich deposits of gold and 
the baser minerals, stone, slate, coal, marble, mica. Ex¬ 
cellent fisheries. Natural resources but slightly developed. 
Ample opportunities for homes, enterprise and capital. 
Cleared land averages $10 and woodland $5 per acre, and 
much of excellent quality in the market below this aver¬ 
age. Stock thrives. Scenery varied, ordinary, picturesque 
and grand. Wheat harvested June. Corn ripe in Sep¬ 
tember. Climate is varied, warm and moist in low sec¬ 
tions; cool and dry in mountains, with all intermediate 
conditions. Average winter temperature, 49 deg., sum¬ 
mer 78 deg. to 79 deg. Frosts light and seldom come till 
the end of fall. Rainfall, including some snow in mount¬ 
ains, 45 deg. Health good. Chief Cities.—Wilming¬ 
ton, Raleigh (capital), Charlotte contains assay office, 
New Berne. Industries.—Agriculture principal occupa¬ 
tion. Fishing, manufacture of turpentine and lumber, 
mining, etc. Number of different industries, 3,800. 
Number boats engaged in fisheries, about 3,000. Copper 
mined, 1,640,000 lbs. 


SOUTH CAROLINA. 

One of the thirteen original States, “ Palmetto State.” 
Revolutionary record, brilliant. English seized the terri¬ 
tory, but were thrashed at Cowpens and Utah Springs and 
penned up in Charleston. First railroad in United States 
using American locomotive, 1830. First State to secede, 
November, 1860. Sumter bombarded April 12-13, 1861. 
Ordinance of secession repealed September, 1865, and 
slavery abolished. Re-entered the Union June, 1868. 
Number counties, 34. State, congressional and presiden¬ 
tial elections, Tuesday after first Monday in November. 
State senators 35, representatives 124, sessions annual, 
meeting fourth Tuesday in November. Term of senators 
4 years, of representatives 2 years. Number electoral 
votes 9, number congressmen 7. Insane, inmates of asy¬ 
lums, alms-houses and prisons. United States army and 
duelists excluded from voting. Number colleges 9, school 
age 6-16, school system fair. Legal interest 7 per cent., by 
contract, any rate. Slaves, 1860, 402,406. Greatest 
length 280 miles, greatest width 210 miles. Area 30,170 
square miles, or 19,308,800 acres. Coast line 212 miles. 
Principal river Savannah, navigable 130 miles. Magnifi¬ 
cent water power, undeveloped. Soil from medium to 
very rich. Forests extensive and valuable. Land, cleared 
or uncleared, averages $7 per acre. Rice and cotton best 
crops. All other cereals, as well as vegetables, fruits, 
grasses and fiber crops grow well. Phosphate beds enor¬ 
mous. Gold, mica, marbles of all colors, building stones 
found in large quantities. Turpentine, tar, lumber and 
oysters largely produced. Stock thrives. Gold mines in 
Abbeville, Edgefield and Union counties. First mint 
deposits, $3,500, in 1827. White and variegated marbles 
found in Spartenburgh and Laurens counties. Climate: 
Temperature ranges 15 to 96 degrees F. Averages, sum¬ 
mer 82 degrees, winter 51 degrees. Average rainfall 48 
inches, decreasing to the south. Health good. Epi¬ 
demics rare and confined to seaports. Resort for consump¬ 
tives. Changes slight and infrequent, frosts rare. Chief 
cities: Charleston, port of entry, seat of a Catholic 

bishop. United States customs districts at Beaufort, 
Charleston and Georgetown. Capital Columbia. Princi¬ 
pal industries: Agriculture, mining, fishing, quarrying, 
lumbering, turpentine and tar making, and phosphate 
digging. 



VIRGINIA. 

One of the thirteen original states. Called the “Old 
Dominion,” and “The Mother of Presidents.” First 
English settlement in America, 1607. Active in Revolu¬ 
tion and subsequent steps toward founding the Union, 
Virginia won the title of “First of the States.” British 
burnt Norfolk 1779, and Richmond 1781. Yorktown sur¬ 
rendered October, 1781, practically vanquishing England. 
State seceded May 7, 1861, and capital of Confederacy 
moved to Richmond, Scene of gigantic energies of the 
war. Bull Run, the Wilderness, Cold Harbor, Fredericks¬ 
burg, Port Republic and many other famous battles were 
fought on Virginia soil. Lee surrendered at Appomattox 
April 9, 1865, endingthe war. State returned to the Union 
Jan. 26, 1870. Number of counties, 100. Sessions of leg¬ 
islature biennial, in odd-numbered years, meeting first 
Wednesday in December; holds 90 days. Term of sena¬ 
tors 90 days, representatives 2 years. Number electoral 
votes 12, Congressmen 10. Lunatics, idiots, convicts, 
duelists, United States army and non-taxpayers of capita¬ 



tion tax excluded from voting. Number colleges 7, schools 
4,502, school age 5-21, school system fair. Legal interest 
6 per cent, by contract 3 per cent, usury forfeits all over 
6 per cent. Slaves, 1860, 490,865. Greatest length east 
and west, 445 miles, greatest width, 190 miles, area 40,125 
square miles, 25,680,000 acres. Coast line, 130 miles, tidal 
frontage, 1,556 miles. The state is rich in iron, gold, salt, 
coal, marble, slate, zinc, lead, stone, timber and other nat¬ 
ural resources as yet little developed. Much good farming 
land is untilled. Cleared land averages $L0 and woodland / ^ 
$6 to $7 per acre. The opportunities for homes and enter- 
prise are inviting. All cereals, tobacco, peanuts (state 
ranks first in this crop and second in tobacco), fruits 












































304 


ATLAS OF THE WORLD. 


grapes and vegetables are extensively raised. Stock 
thrives. Climate varies, is genial and healthful, cool in 
mountains and warm in lowlands in summer. Winters are 
seldom severe. Winter averages 44, summer 78 degrees. 
Rainfall, including snow, averages 44 inches, being heavi¬ 
est on the coast. Chief Cities.—Richmond (capital), Nor¬ 
folk, Petersburg. Hampton Roads one of best harbors on 
coast. Seven ports of entry. Industries.—Half popula¬ 
tion engaged in agriculture, balance in quarrying, ship¬ 
building, lumbering, the trades, iron working, meat pack¬ 
ing, tanning. 

WEST VIRGINIA. 

Originally part of Virginia. Called “Pan Handle State.” 
History up to 18G1 same as that of Virginia. Refused to 
secede April 22, 1861. F. H. Pierrepont elected governor 
June 20, 1861. Admitted as state June 20, 1863, and 
Wheeling made the capital. Capital changed to Charles¬ 
ton, 1870. Moved again to Wheeling, 1875, and to 
Charleston again in 1884. Union soldiers furnished 32,- 
068. State advanced rapidly in wealth. Number coun¬ 
ties 54. Governor and state officers elected quadriennially, 
and legislature every two years, on second Tuesday in Octo¬ 
ber, number senators 26, representatives 65. Sessions bien¬ 
nial, in odd-numbered years, holding 45 days. Terms of 
senators 4 years, of representatives 2 years. Number elec¬ 
toral votes 6, congressmen 4, number voters, 169,161, na¬ 
tive white 123,569, colored 6,384. Insane, paupers, and 
convicts not voting. Flourishing free school system, 
school age 6-21. Legal interest 6 per cent, by contract 6, 
usury forfeits excess of interest. Slaves, 1860, 18,371. 
Topography, Area, Soil, Products, Etc. — Length N. 
and S., 241 miles, greatest width 158 miles, area 24,645 
sq. miles, 15,772,800 acres. Surface mountainous with fer¬ 
tile valleys, the Alleghanies principal range. Some high 
peaks. Scenery fine and much visited by tourists. Western 
part hilly, but gradually descends from 2,500 feet above 
the sea toward the Ohio river, where the is elevation 800 to 
900 feet. Much of the state is virgin forest densely 
clothed with oak, walnut, poplar, ash, and other timber 
trees. Mineral springs abound. The soil, where not 
mountainous, is excellent. Mineral wealth, including 
coal, oil, iron, salt, is prodigal. Staple products include 
the minerals named, sheep, hogs, tobacco, wheat, corn, 
dairy products, fruit, wine, lumber. Petroleum exten¬ 
sively produced. The state ranks fifth in salt and coal, 
seventh in buckwheat, iron and steel. Cleared land aver¬ 
ages $22.50. Climate—Moderate, average temperature, 
winter 30 deg., summer, 70 deg. Elevation reduces heat, 
which in the valleys averages 76 to 78 deg. Average rainfall 
42 to 45 inches. Health is excellent. Chief Cities.—Charles¬ 
ton (capital), Wheeling, Parkersburg,Martinsburg. Chief 
Industries—Sixty per cent, of laborers engaged in agricul¬ 
ture, balance in mining, iron making, lumbering, manu¬ 
facturing, etc. 

ALASKA. 

Discovered by Vitus Behring, 1741, and became Russian 
territory by right of discovery. Purchased by United 
States for $7,000,000, 1867, as a deed of gratitude to Rus¬ 
sia for her course in civil war. Has paid five per cent on 
investment ever since, and promises to become the source 
of enormous mineral, fur, agricultural and timber wealth. 
Governor appointed by the president of the United States. 

Extreme length north and south 1,200 miles, width 800 
miles, area (estimated) 531,409 sq. miles. Yukon, chief 
river, 80 miles wide at mouth, navigable 840 miles, length 
about 1,300 miles; coast line 5,000 miles. Fertile land. 
Good oats, barley and root crops are raised without dif¬ 


ficulty. Rich grass land in the valley of the Yukon. 
Timber abundant. Yellow cedar best, being of great value 
for boat-building. Berries plentiful. Fine quality of 
white marble is on Lynn channel. Coal, amber and lig¬ 
nite on Aleutian Islands, the best coal being on Cook’s 
inlet. Gold, silver, copper, cinnabar and iron are found; 
sulphur abundant. Noted for fur-bearing animals, the 



chief of which are beaver, ermine, fox, marten, otter, 
squirrel and wolf. The main revenue is the fur seal, tak¬ 
ing of which is regulated by law. The walrus is of value 
in furnishing ivory and oil. Whales, cod, herring and 
halibut and salmon are abundant. 

Climate.—Pacific coast modified by Pacific Gulf Stream 
and long summer days. Temperature at Sitka averages 
winter about that of Washington, D. C. Rainfall copious 
and foggy weather common on coasts and islands. Sitka, 
one of the rainiest places in the world outside the tropics : 
annual precipitation 65 to 90 inches ; rainy days 200 to 285 
in year. 

Chief Cities.—Sitka, seat of Bishop of Greek church, 
and headquarters of governor. Fort St. Nicholas, Cook’s 
inlet. Fort St. Michael and Norton’s sound are other main 
settlements. Harbors at Port Clarence, Michaelooski and 
Captain’s harbor. 

Industries.—Fishing, canning, trapping and mining. 

ALABAMA. 

Name Indian, means “We rest here.” Mobile founded 
by French 1702. Admitted to Union Dec. 14, 1819. 
Seceded Jan. 11, 1861. Montgomery made capital of 
confederacy Feb. 4, 1861. Subsequently removed to Rich¬ 
mond, Va. State re-entered Union July 14. Number 
counties 66. State elections biennial first Monday 'in 
















































ATLAS OF THE WORLD. 


305 


Aug., number senators 33, representatives 100, sessions of 
legislature biennial in even-numberecl years, meeting 
Tuesday after second Monday in Nov. and holding 50 
days, term of senators 4 years, of representatives 2 years. 


Number of electoral votes 10, congressmen 8. Indians, 
idiots, convicts of crime excluded from voting. Number 
colleges 4, school age 7-21, schools good. Legal interest 
8 per cent, usury forfeits entire interest. Slaves, 1860, 
435,080. Length N. and S. 332 miles, width average 155 
miles, area 51,540 sq. miles, 32,985,600 acres. Surface at 
N. E. rugged, extending into Alleghany mountains, 
gradually descends, forming rolling prairies at center of 
state and flat low stretches at the south. Sea coast 68 
miles. Mobile bay best harbor on the gulf, 1,600 miles 
of navigable waterways. Has fair soil and is enormously 
rich in coal, iron, lime and sandstone, timber and various 
minerals. Middle section soil fertile and varied. Coast 
region sandy, but by proper cultivation prolific. Vegeta¬ 
ble farming near Mobile very successful. Cotton, mules, 
iron, coal, sugar, rice, tobacco, hay, corn, oats, staple 
products. Fruits are a good crop. Much forest remains. 
Cleared land averages $7, and woodland $4 per acre. 
State ranks fourth in cotton, fifth in mules and molasses, 
sixth in iron ore and sugar, seventh in rice. Climate.— 
Temperature mild, cold at north, warm at south, average 
winter 47 deg., summer 81 deg., July hottest month, 
range of thermometer 20 to 95 deg., sometimes for a day 
reaching 102 deg. Rainfall 50 inches. Snow or ice very 
rare. Trees bloom in Feb. Chief Cities.—Montgom¬ 
ery (capital), Huntsville, Selma, Mobile. Leading In¬ 
dustries.— Agricultural and kindred pursuits, mining, 
iron making, lumbering, etc. Number of industries 
2,070. 


ARKANSAS. 

“ Bear State.” Settled 1685. Arkansas Territory or¬ 
ganized, 1819. Admitted as a state June 15, 1836. Slavery 
acknowledged. Seceded May 6, 1861. Considerable fight¬ 
ing during war, but no great battles. Re-entered Union 
1868. Number counties, 75. Miles railroad, 1,764. State 
elections biennial, in even-numbered years, first Monday in 
Sept.; number senators 31, representatives 94, sessions of 
legislature biennial, in odd-numbered years, meeting sec¬ 
ond Monday in Jan., holding 60 days; term of senators 4 
years, of representatives 2 years. Number of electoral 
votes 7, congressmen 5, voters 182,977, native white, 129,- 
675, foreign white 6,475, colored 46,827. Idiots, Indians, 
convicts not voting. Number colleges 5, school system 
progressive; school age 6-21. Legal interest rate 6 per 
cent, by contract 10 per cent, usury forfeits principal and 
interest. 

Length N. and S. 240 miles, average breadth 212 miles, 
area 53,845 sq. miles, 44,460,800 acres. The scenery varied 
and charming. Hot Springs (temperature 140 deg.) great 
natural wonder and famous for medicinal properties. Soil 
varies, but greater portion exceptionally rich and suited 
to all crops, especially fruits,berries and gardening. State 
especially favorable to agriculture. Magnificently tim¬ 
bered. Pine, oak, cypress, cedar, hickory, walnut, linn, 
locust chief growths. Cleared land averages $10 and 
woodland, $3 per acre. Coal exists on the Ashe river, iron 
in the Ozarks, salt near Ouachita. Oilstone near Hot 



Springs, kaolin in Pulaski county. Staple products, corn, 
wheat, cotton, tobacco, oats, sweet potatoes, mules, tar, 
turpentine, lumber, etc. 

Climate.—Genial. Temperature ranges 15 deg. to 95 
deg., on rare occasions going to 100 deg. Averages win- 


Corift 


E ttr N \ EV x s/ \s 


Menlo 




iscumbia 


y_Bel Green ^ Moulton 

o Pebble , i 
f Thorn Hill.-- LF-alkl©* 


bomerv! 

o 

Jartsells 


ottsbdrg 

Rock / | 


1 W 


'roasT'laina, 


Fayette C.i 




Fort \ 

i Guntcrsville / Payne* 

, cuuA 1 Comi ' sT,i y 

-.all s Ws.olHouaton \ ^ ADiiia >/ v~o 

■p. °i’ lk . e >' ne BloW Spring Blountsville^r&arbdsn, 
oyPmeSprmps Jasper J P Whitney V 

VernonLatwri o York.ySprifn-w,, ^iAslivine-^ 0 '" , 

grille 

. _ , __- r^CTlCarrollton 

I Millport! BlriBlngha^^V StUVralladceal 1 

North ubrt*A/"$y 1 

. / Tus^lo^T^-^ 

* Ben A f‘*M[ontev£llo \ \idxandef 

• Carth T/Centrevill^& \ 'meaf Creek 

Cincinnati Jp/ Cllanto^v \ Rockford ^\p a devSle >^ ett0 

GreenX„uyh/ M ^V\ , wSver^C ^“>“1 

Uyln&ton jb \_.Clarion LPlantersvilte \ Loa <?M tpo , ->C 2 pelika 

^W P/attvi Ue l r V \g° 

ork Sta. MartiU^—Lively^ 
v vl>ayton 0 ^ J Y^n^<\ rT-n^/ U^> v ^'l'uskeegce Seale 
tley CiyO „ Unden v Gulf,{jrV^VintlalaHurts boro^ 


rz)j / r Alpine Wedowee 0 
Zfclumbiana ^ Asnland \ 


\ Ashland 1 l y 
1 water > „ y \ / [ 

AlLande/ Bu ? al0 \ f A 


'hompBon* 
Union Spr’s] 
Thomas Sta. 


I U nory^ urll3 ( Fat j _ 

I ° Aquilla Grove |li 11 ^jlrnbulL 




James 


Linwood' 


layton ^- faui aS 


. - terce ° Rutledge / / 

“W'lst.stephk, °J D ,oLle% er } ldse ’ /? 7 To>irley w _. ( 

^ AbheVieo I 

ammocka* /^° Andalusia . , otl Cpwarta j 

jBrew^in^LewiJSta. 0 \^ S 

*—dnrd LalryView GeneyaJP rwi = k Lynno 


\Lumbertoi> 
r-Deer PirE 


Leouaj I & f 

Citronellej’ ^ >er y^o,o^° e * **° 

Lus^a 

Jt.hmy'/ Daphne 

mm 


Columbia o) 

liJwarta j * 


,MAP OF 
ALABAMA 


ngr'B.,Chicago 


6 






































































306 


ATLAS OF THE WORLD. 


ter, 45 deg.; summer 80 deg. Rainfall44 inches, heaviest 
in S. E.; lightest in N. W. Health unsurpassed, especially 
in N. W. 

Chief Cities.—Little Rock (capital). Hot Springs. 

Industries—2,100 in number. Chiefly agricultural. 

ARIZONA. 

Explored 1526. Mineral wealth found; no important 
settlements effected because of hostile natives. Organized 
as territory, Feb. 24, 1863. Number counties, 11. All 



elections Tuesday after first Monday in November; num¬ 
ber senators, 12; representatives, 24; sessions of legislature 
biennial, in even-numbered years, meeting first Monday in 
January,.holds 60 days; terms of senators and representa¬ 
tives, 2 years each; voters, 20,398; native white, 9,790; 
foreign white, 8,256; colored, 2,352. School age, 6-21. 
Legal interest rate, 10 percent.; by contract, any rate; no 
penalty for usury. School endowment in lands reserved 
very large. 

Extreme length, north and south, 378 miles; width, 339 
miles; area, 113,929 square miles; 72,914,560 acres. Vol¬ 
canic peaks reach an altitude of 10,500 feet. Southern 
portion a plain, dipping occasionally below sea level, and 
rising only to a very moderate elevation (200 to 600 feet 
usually), mountains numerous, highest point San Fran¬ 
cisco, 11,056 feet. Colorado river navigable 620 miles. 
Flows between perpendicular walls cut in solid rock, in 
places 7,000 feet high. Agriculture possible only in the 
valleys or where irrigation is practicable. Soil in valleys 
and bottoms very rich and prolific. Wheat, barley, pota¬ 
toes, hay, corn, onions are staple field crops; corn follows 
wheat or barley, giving two crops yearly. Oranges and all 
semi-tropical fruits do well where water is obtainable. 
Cattle-raising extremely profitable. Desert tracts of con¬ 


siderable area are found. Timber grows on the mountains, 
foot-hills and along the streams. The varieties include 
pine and cedar on mountains, cottonwood, walnut and 
cherry on streams. Size of trees fair, and quantity large. 
Abundant mineral wealth exists, which can be developed 
with profit, owing to completion of railways. Nearly all 
mountain ranges contain gold, silver, copper and lead. 
Superior quality of lime found near Prescott and Tuscon, 
beds of gypsum in San Pedro valley, remarkable deposits 
of pure, transparent salt near Callville. Territory ranks 
second in production of silver. 

Climate exceptionally healthful, and generally mild, ex¬ 
cept in mountains; temperature averages 38 deg. winter, 
73 deg. summer; much warmer at south, the thermometer 
reaching occasionally 115, and rarely falling below 35 deg. 
in winter. In central portion heat seldom exceeds 88 deg. 
to 90 deg.; snow in mountains, but melts soon. Rainfall 
on Gila 6 inches, in foothills 28 inches. Heaviest in July 
and August. 

Chief Cities.—Tucson; Prescott, the capital. 

Leading Industries.—Mining, grazing, agriculture, lum¬ 
bering, smelting, etc. 

CALIFORNIA. 

“Golden State.” First settled at San Diego, 1768. 
Gold discovered 1848. Rush of immigration set in 1849. 
State constitution, without the preliminary of a territorial 
organization, framed Sept. 1849. Admitted as a state 



Sept. 9, 1850. Number counties, 52. Miles railroad, 
2,911. Governor and state officers elected quadrennially, 
and legislature every two years, number senators 40, repre¬ 
sentatives 80, sessions of legislature biennial, in odd- 
I numbered years, meeting first Monday after Jan. 1, holds 
60 days, term of senators 4 years, of representatives 2 





























































ATLAS OF THE WORLD. 


307 


/ years. Number electoral votes 8. congressmen 6, white 
voters 262,583. Idiots, Indians, convicts and Chinese ex¬ 
cluded from voting. School system very fair, school age 
5-17. Legal interest 7 per cent., by contract any rate. 

Extreme length N. and S., 725 miles, width 330 miles, 
area 155,980 sq. miles, 99,827,200 acres. Coast line over 
800 miles. San Francisco Bay (40 miles long, 9 wide), 
magnificent harbor. Yosemite in the Sierras, one of the 
greatest natural wonders of the world and the greatest 
marvel of the state, where scenery is always grand. Mt. 
Whitney 15,000, highest peak. Very rich agriculturally 
and in minerals. Soil warm, genial and rich. Two crops 
may be raised in season. Irrigation neccessary in parts 
and almost always desirable. Wheat most valuable crop, 
all cereals, root crops and grasses do well, corn, barley, 
grapes, fruit, nuts, silk, hops and oats staples. Mineral 
deposits include gold, silver, iron, copper, mercury, coal, 
stones, salt, soda, etc. Ranks high as a fruit-growing 
state, fruits of temperate climates, sub-tropical fruits and 
nuts, grapes, north to 41 deg., olives, etc., grow to great 
perfection. Fine sheep-raising country. Ranks first in 
barley, grape culture, sheep, gold and quicksilver, third 
in hops, fifth in wheat and salt. Noble forests of red¬ 
wood and other valuable growths. Land runs from $1.25 
to several hundred dollars per acre. Improved land aver¬ 
ages $30, unimproved $7.50 per acre. It is the paradise 
of the small farmer. Plenty of room for men with a little 
something to begin on. 

Climate varies with elevation and latitude. Mild and 
pleasant on coast. Average temperature at San Francisco 
in summer 62 deg., winter 50 deg. Warmer in interior, 
reaching at times 100 deg. Rainfall variable, from 7 to 
50 inches at San Francisco. Average at S. 10 inches. 
Melting snow from mountains replaces rainfall. Frosts 
rare. 

Chief Cities.—San Francisco port of entry, regular 
line of steamers to Australia, Panama, Mexico, China and 
Japan, Sacramento (capital), Oakland, San Jose, Stock- 
ton, Los Angeles, U.S. navy yard at San Pablo Bay. 

Leading Industries. — Agriculture, stock-raising, fruit 
culture, mining, lumbering, etc. 

CONNECTICUT. 

“Wooden Nutmeg State.” One of the original 13 

States explored by the Dutch settlers of Manhattan Island, 
1615, by whom settlement was made, 1633, at Hartford. 
The State furnished a very large quota of men to the Rev¬ 
olutionary armies. Yale college founded 1701. Union 
soldiers furnished, 55,864. Number counties, 8. State 
elections yearly on same date as presidential election. 
Elects 24 senators, 249 representatives, 4 congressmen and 
6 presidential electors. State senators hold 2 and repre¬ 
sentatives 1 year. Legislature meets yearly on 
Wednesday after first Monday in January. Convicts and 
persons unable to read not permitted to vote. School 
system superior, includes 3 colleges with 160,000 books in 
libraries. School age 4 to 16 years. Legal interest 6 per 
cent. No penalty for usury. Area, 4,845 sq. miles, aver¬ 
age length 86 miles, average breadth 55 miles; seacoast 
110 miles. Surface less rugged than the other New Eng¬ 
land States. Mountain range terminates in this State in 
a series of hills. The coast is indented by numerous bays 
and harbors. Soil, except in valley, light and stony. 
Corn, oats, hay, wheat, tobacco and vegetables are the 
staple crops. Cleared land averages $40 and woodland 
"\ $30 per acre. No valuable timber remains. Stone ex- 
J tensively quarried. Valuable iron mines exist. Climate 
gf moderate and healthy, average temperature, summer 72 
hb deg. and winter 28 deg. Occasionally the thermometer 


sinks below zero, considerable snow falls, summers warm. 
Rain fall,including snow,about 47 inches, Chief Industries. 
—Manufacture of hardware, clocks, silks, cotton, rubber, 
carpets, woolens, arms, sewing machines and attachments. 



dairying, quarrying, agriculture, etc. Total number of 
different industries, 4,488. Principal cities.—Hartford, 
capital and noted for banking and insurance business. 
New Haven, “City of Elms,” seat of Yale College. 
Bridgeport, noted for manufacture of fire-arms and sew¬ 
ing machines. Waterbury, important manufacturing city. 
Fairfield, Middleton, New Haven, New London and Ston- 
ington are ports of entry. 

COLORADO. 

“Centennial State.” John C. Fremont, “The Path¬ 
finder,” crossed Rockies 1842-44. First American settle¬ 
ment near Denver, 1859. Mining begun. Organized as 
territory Feb. 1861. Indian troubles 1863-4. Union 
soldiers furnished 4,903. Admitted as a State Aug. 1, 
1876. Number counties 39. All elections Tuesday after 
first Monday in Nov., number senators 26, representatives 
49, sessions biennial in odd-numbered years, meeting first 
Monday in Jan., limit of session 40 days, term of senators 
4 years, of representatives 2 years. Number electoral 
votes 3, congressmen 1, voters 93,608, native white 65,215, 
foreign white 26,873, colored 1,520. Convicts excluded 
from voting. Number colleges 3, school system fair en¬ 
dowment, school age 6-21 years. Legal interest 10 per 
cent., by contract any rate. 

Length E. and W. 380 miles, width 280 miles, area 103,- 
845 sq. miles, 66,460,800 acres, three-fifths unsurveyed. 
Rocky mountains traverse state N. and S. with 3 ranges 
having many peaks more than 13,000 feet high. Fine 























































308 


ATLAS OF THE WORLD. 


grazing grounds. Scenery grand beyond words. Much 
rich soil along streams and wherever irrigation is possible. 
Cereals do very well. Corn, wheat, oats, hay, staple crops. 
Cattle, sheep and hog raising safe and profitable. Dairy¬ 
ing pays, as does gardening. Timber resources moderate. 




Mountains fairly clothed with pine and other trees. Min¬ 
eral wealth inexhaustible. State ranks first in silver, 
fourth ingold. Iron, soda, coal, copper, lead, stone, mica, 
etc., exist in large deposits. 

Climate.—Dry and range of temperature comparatively 
small. Winters mild, summers cool. Average tempera¬ 
ture winter 31 deg., summer 73 deg. Rainfall, mainly in 
May, June and July, averages 18 inches. On mountains 
winters severe, accompanied by heavy snowfall; violent 
winds common; fogs unknown. Health unsurpassed. 

Chief Cities. — Denver, capital and metropolis, and 
contains assay office; Leadville, Silver Cliffs, Colorado 
Springs, State University at Boulder; Agricultural Col¬ 
lege at Fort Collins; School of mines at Golden City. 

Leading Industries.—Mining, smelting ores, agricult¬ 
ure, grazing, etc. 

DAKOTA. 

Named for Dakota Indians. First settled at Pembina 
1812. Organized as territory March, 1861. First legis¬ 
lature met, 1862, at Yankton. Immigration became active 
1866. Railroad building active and systems mammoth 
in their scale. All elections Tuesday after first Monday 
in Nov. Number senators 12, representatives 24, sessions 
biennial, in odd-numbered years, meeting second Tuesday 
in Jan. and holding 60 days. Terms of senators and 
representatives 2 years each. Legal interest rate 7$, by 
contract 12$, usury forfeits excess. School endowments, 
when the territory shall become a State, magnificent. 


Average length N. and S. 451 miles, width 348 miles, 
area 149,112 sq. miles, 95,431,680 acres. Indian reserva¬ 
tions principally west of Missouri river, 42,000,000 acres, 
one-seventh good farming land. Surface high, level plain, 
950 to 2,600 feet above the sea, traversed by ranges of 
lofty hills, which at the S. W. reach an elevation of 7,000 
feet in the Black Hills. The Missouri river traverses the 
territory diagonally from N. W. to S. E., and is navigable. 
Lakes are numerous, especially in the north and east. 
Devil’s Lake is semi-salt. Other large lakes. Soil is very 
rich and peculiarly suited to wheat, which is the staple 
crop. Corn, oats, grasses and potatoes do well. Fruits 
not a good crop. Cattle, and especially sheep-raising, 
favored and growing industries. Timber scarce, except 
along the streams and in some of the hills. Gold and sil¬ 
ver extensively mined. Black Hills very rich in precious 
minerals. Ranks fourth in gold output. Good coal west of 
the Missouri. Not much developed as yet. Deposits of 
tin of enormous value exist in Black Hills. Price of land 
$1.25 to $20 per acre (latter improved). 

Climate.—Temperature ranges from 32 deg. below zero 
to 100 deg. above. Averages, winter 4 to 20 deg., summer 
65 to 75 deg. Winters at north severe, with heavy snow. 
Moderate at the south. Air clear, dry and free from 
malaria. Cold not so penetrating as in moister climates. 
Springs late and summers of medium length. Rainfall 
19 in., chiefly in spring and summer. 

Chief Cities—Fargo, northern metropolis; Pierre, Bis¬ 
marck, Yankton and Sioux Falls important centers. 

Industries—Almost entire laboring population engaged 
in agriculture and mining. 

The Territory of Dakota has been (1889) admitted as 
two States—North and South Dakota. A line drawn east 
and west, about half way between the north and south 
lines, is the dividing line. 


MAP OF s. 

DAKOTA 


_Fort Ellice 

o Brule 


r VY 






ugh Blu 


Penza 






White i 




Gpnnel 


' (~i/iiliTary 

-'RESERVATLC 


Mr, 


FtS 


T 

Boyne 

■y * Otterbprpe 
'Turtle '*"®'ystal CityV J—A e fb 

// Q Garfield I 7 (jfiaijon 

L 1 Minnijakan 

~ Devil's LakcLdrif. 

Villard Fojt TotteS 5 ^AR^~-^. L 0, e\ «*\ jMai\vel 


A, 


' 3- ' 4 ‘- - ) Durbin'S 

! La MoureiY— 

i f .* Yales Ellendale Hudson 

I *?**}'* \ » Frederick f /I 

J r reuerieii i QWtou^ \ INDIAN 

l°/ Stella 0 Westport . Columbia \ reS> 
Grand River AgencyT^^T Aberdeen 1/5 Groton m* st< 

^ _ _ _Mollette / }P <J , / Milbairh; 

7' ^ V f-f ' 

•-•..'"L i -S/, _ 

B ^l<r^Fort Sully % 


I A, ' 

Redfield lit 


,, 'eadwooil 
w^yw-Rapid City O Smithyl 
^rcOclerville 


Pierr^ 




Gixry 


| Custei-^N-(L , ~ 

®Tiuffalopap 


lOjiL 


VW 

Rcsseati Hurontt 

^Corvallis siVWft&l 
---^ctForestburghfta7~~Jr-rT -f, , 

^r_C^berIainH^ al _‘ ! 

^J'^PlfeinEingiojfr^—* ^ - 11 ■ 

, , Bijoudlilia° -A „ V : NA 

IVa o jS S / ^Grand View MarVlon^^Parkb 

I A^Tjjm,ekata -T -j&S 

( Pifle Ridge / _ WhIhVSwdW TT*- >CS. Paris, 

| - 

\ --a ^BCTmeJJo 

H 57 JE It— A-B K^/A EikPoTS 

Blomgren+Bro». Engr'9., Chicago _^ 

0 t 



















































































ATLAS OF THE WORLD. 


309 


DELAWARE. 

One of the thirteen original states. “The Diamond 
State.” Settled by Swedes 1658, who bought from the 
Indians. Took vigorous part in the Revolution. Was a 
slave state. Slaves 1860, 2,000. Union soldiers furnished 
12,284, the biggest percentage of any state. Contains 
three counties. All elections Tuesday after first Monday 




in November; number senators 9, representatives 21, leg¬ 
islature meets in odd-numbered years first Tuesday in 
January, holds 21 days; term of senators 4 years, of rep¬ 
resentatives 2 years; number of electoral votes 3, number 
congressmen 1. Idiots, insane, paupers and criminals 
excluded from voting. Colleges at Newark and Wilming¬ 
ton; school age 6-21, schools fair; legal interest rate 6, 
usury forfeits the principal. Length north and south 
nearly 100 miles, width 10 miles at north, 36 at south. 
Area 1,950 square miles, or 1,248,000 acres. Available 
area large. Northern portion rolling, but free from large 
hills. Scenery beautiful. Southern portion level and 
sandy, with frequent cypress marshes. Coast low and 
swampy with lagoons separated from sea by sand-beaches. 
Streams flow into Chesapeake and Delaware bays and are 
small. Tide reaches to Wilmington. The soil is good and 
the state of cultivation superior. Cleared land averages 
$45 per acre, and wood-land $40. Staple crops, corn, 
wheat, peaches, berries, garden vegetables, sweet potatoes. 
Iron is found, but is no longer worked. Climate mild. 
Tempered by sea breezes. Average temperature, winter, 
32 deg. to 38 deg.; summer, 72 deg. to 78 deg. Rainfall 
48 to 50 inches. At north health excellent. Some mala¬ 
ria on the low lands bordering the swamps at the south. 
Chief Cities.—Wilmington, Dover (capital). Newcastle. 
Breakwater protecting Delaware Bay at Cape Henlopen, 
greatest work of its kind in America, cost the United 



States $2,127,400, and was over 40 years in course of con¬ 
struction. Industries. — Agriculture and kindred pur¬ 
suits, manufacture of flour, lumber, cotton, iron, steel, 
leather, etc., shipbuilding, fishing, canning and preserv¬ 
ing. Total number different industries, 750. 

FLORIDA. 

Named for its flowers, “Peninsula State.” Pensacola 
taken from England by Gen. Jackson during war of 1812. 
Entire province ceded to United States 1819. Organized 
as a Territory 1822. Admitted as a State March 3, 1845. 
State seceded Jan. 10, 1861, re-entered Union July 4, 
1868. Number counties 39, miles of railroad 1,324. All 
elections Tuesday after first Monday in November. Num¬ 
ber senators 32, representatives 76, Sessions of legislature 
biennial, in odd-numbered years, meeting Tuesday after 
first Monday in January, holds 60 days. Term of senators 

4, of representatives 2 years. Number electoral votes 4, 
congressmen 2. Idiots, insane, criminals, betters on elec¬ 
tions and duelists excluded from voting. Schools fair, 
school age 4-21. Legal interest 8$, by contract any rate. 
Slaves, 1860, 61,745. Four-fifths of Florida is in the 
peninsula, which is about 350 miles N. and S.,and 105 
miles E. and W. Remainder is the narrow strip along 
the Gulf, 342 miles E. and W., and 10 to 50 miles N. and 

5. Area 59,268 sq. miles, 37,931,520 acres. 21st State in 
size. State surrounded by sea except on north. Coast 
line over 1,200 miles. Good harbors rare, mostly on 



Gulf. The northern section is a limestone formation, 
affording a fair soil. In the middle section are found 
tracts of great richness. At the south the soil, when dry 
or reclaimed, is inexhaustible. Shores very low, fre¬ 
quently not two feet above tide water. Coral growth at 
south continues. Surface dotted with lakes. The staple 


U 

































































310 


ATLAS OF THE WORLD. 


products are corn jmost valuable crops), sugar, molasses, 
rice, cotton, oats, tobacco, vegetables of all kinds, peaches, 
oranges and all tropical and semi-tropical fruits, cocoa- 
nuts, lumber, fish, oysters, etc. Poultry and stock raising 
are successful. Cleared land averages $12, woodland $3, 
swamp $1, and school land $1.25 per acre. Much forest 
remains. Timber chiefly pine, of moderate size, free from 
undergrowth. Game abounds. Climate superb. No 
snow. Frosts rare at north, unknown at south. Temper¬ 
ature ranges 30 deg. to 100 deg., rarely above 90. Winter 
averages 59 deg., summer 81 deg. Breezes blow across 
from Gulf to Atlantic, and vice versa, temper the heat and 
keep air dry and clear. Average rainfall 55 inches, chiefly 
in summer. Chief Cities.— Key West, good harbor and 
naval station; Jacksonville, St. Augustine (oldest town 
in United States), Tallahassee (capital), Pensacola. 
Principal Industries. — Almost the entire laboring pop¬ 
ulation is engaged in agriculture and fruit growing. 
Fishing for fish and oysters and lumbering largely fol¬ 
lowed. 

GEORGIA. 

One of the thirteen original states, named for King 
George II. of England, called the “ Empire State of the 
South." Originally a part of South Carolina and claimed 
by Spain. Active in the Revolution, suffering badly from 
devastation by English. Severe wars with Creeks and 
Cherokees settled by treaties 1790 and 1791. State seceded 

24 



January 19, 1861. Many hard fought battles during civil 
including Atlanta, etc. Re-entered Union 1870. 


war. 


Number counties 137, state elections first Wednesday in 
October; number senators 44, representatives 175; sessions 
biennial in even-numbered years, meeting first Wednesday 
in November, hold forty days. Terms of senators and 


representatives two years each. Number electoral votes 
12, number congressmen 10. Idiots, insane, criminals, 
and non-taxpayers excluded from voting. Number col¬ 
leges 7; State University at Athens organized 1801; public 
schools excellent, school age 6-18. Legal interest 7 per 
cent, by contract 8 per cent, usury forfeits excess of inter¬ 
est. Population, 1880, 1,542,180, male 762,981, female 
779,199, native 1,531,616, white 816,906, Indians 124. 
Greatest length N. and S. 321 miles, greatest width 255 
miles, area 58,980 square miles or 37,747,200 acres, exclu¬ 
sive of water area. Surface diversified. At the north are 
the Blue Ridge, Etowah and other mountains. In the 
southeast is the Okefinokee swamp, 150 miles in circum¬ 
ference. Coast irregular and indented, shore line about 
500 miles, three seaports. Mountain streams are rapid, 
with picturesque cataracts and immense basins. The 
chief falls are the Tallulah, in Habersham county; Toccoa, 
in the Tugalo, 180 feet high; Towaliga, in Monroe county, 
and the Amicolah, which descend 400 feet in a quarter 
mile. Corn, wheat, oats, cotton, rice, sweet potatoes, 
tobacco, sugar and melons, chief agricultural staples. 
Fruit, both temperate and semi-tropical thrives. Stock 
flourishes. Wool-growing important. Gold is extensively 
mined. Coal, iron, marble exist. Cleared land averages 
$8 and woodland $5.50 per acre. One-fourth area heavily 
timbered with yellow pine of great value for lumber tur¬ 
pentine, etc. Climate.—At the north mild and extremely 
healthy, hot in the lowlands. Range of temperature 30 
deg. to 105 deg. Average, winter 49 deg., summer 82 
deg. Rainfall averages 55 inches. Chief Cities.—Savan¬ 
nah, Brunswick, and St. Mary’s ports of entry, and Colum¬ 
bus. Atlanta, capital. Principal Industries.—Three- 
fourths population engaged in agriculture. Remainder in 
various pursuits. Manufacturing important. Raw ma¬ 
terials becoming more abundant and cheap. 

IDAHO. 

Gold discovered in 1880 in Oro Fino creek. Organized 
as Territory March, 1863. Number counties, 14. All 
elections, Tuesday after first Monday in November. Num¬ 
ber senators, 12, representatives, 24. Sessions of legislature, 
biennial, in even-numbered years, meeting second Monday 
in December, holds 60 days. Terms of senators and rep¬ 
resentatives, 2 years each. Voters, 14,795, native white, 
7,332, foreign white, 4,338, colored, 3,126. School age, 
5-<5l years. Legal interest rate 10 per cent., by contract, 
18 per cent.; usury forfeits three times excess of interest. 
Miles railroad, 811. 

Topography, Area, Soil Products, Etc. — Length, 
140 to 490 miles, width 45 to 286 miles. 'Area, 84,290 
square miles, 53,944,600 acres. Surface table land and 
mountains. About one-twelfth is arable and one-tenth 
more grazing land. One-third barren, but may be re¬ 
claimed by irrigation. Many lakes are found, as well as 
numerous water powers. Forests estimated at 9,000,000 
acres. The soil, where water can be had, is fertile. 
Wheat, oats, rye, barley, potatoes and hay are good crops, 
and dairying and stock-raising profitable. Gold is found 
in quartz veins in Idaho, Boise and Alturas counties, silver 
in Owyhee county. Some of the mines very rich. Wood 
river district on southern slope of Salmon River mount¬ 
ains, at head waters of Wood or Malad river, gives prom¬ 
ise of valuable mining operations, chiefly placers. Coal in 
vicinity of Boise City. Territory ranks sixth in gold and 
silver. 

Climate severe, with heavy snows in mountains, on 
plains less severe, but cold and bracing. In the valleys it 
is milder, with moderate snowfall. Summers cool and 
pleasant. Temperature averages 20 deg. in winter, 70 















































ATLAS OF THE WORLD. 


311 


deg. in summer. Rainfall small in the Rocky and Bitter 
Root mountains, and very light at the N. and W. 

Chief Cities.—Boise City (capital), Florence, Silver 
City. 

Leading Industries. — Mining, grazing, agriculture, 
smelting and lumbering. 



• fe? f '-ai”S'E /RobtaiojBar % V 

Fayette,Store , ^' . _.*«• .Jordan Creek r«mM f!r? ° — r. 

JUref 
sid & 

M sfe, 

1/of 1 ’ 

Reynolds Cn 

ofo u 

! o .Castle 

Silver A, oBruneau Ngalmon Falls 

, S l l»-.nn |!(r 

v'J “South y | I , Q —.j3ocs<rCrcek: \"w, , — 

NffMintftbi . 1 Cwek w o Marsh 

A Basin VTWJ C 


^•Mountain . ) y " * 

iiiM.' 

° Mountain Cy 

NEVA D |a 

Bl&mgren Bxoa. r Engr'a Chicago, 



ILLINOIS. 

Name derived from Illini tribe of Indians, meaning 
Superior Men. Called “ Prairie State ” and “Sucker 
State.” Fort Dearborn (Chicago) massacre, 1812, by 
Pottawatomies. Admitted as State, 1818. Capital moved 
to Springfield, 1836. Soldiers in Mexican war, 5,000; 
Union soldiers, 259,092. Number counties, 102. All 
elections, Tuesday after first Monday in Nov.; number 
senators, 51; representatives, 153; sessions biennial, in 
odd-numbered years, meeting first Monday in Jan., term of 
senators, 4 years, representatives, 2 years. Number 
electoral votes, 22; congressmen, 20; number voters 796,- 
847; convicts excluded from voting. School system excel¬ 
lent; number colleges, 28; school age, 6-21. Legal inter¬ 
est, 6 per cent.; by contract, 8 per cent.; usury forfeits 
entire interest. Extreme length N. and S., 386 miles; 
extreme width, 218 miles. Average elevation, 482 feet; 
elevation at Cairo, 340 feet; highest point, 1,140 feet in 
northwest portion. Area, 56,000 sq. miles, 35,840,000 
acres; miles of navigable water-ways, 4,100. Frontage on 
Lake Michigan 110 miles. Among first agricultural 
States of Union. Staple crops, corn, wheat, oats, rye, 
barley, broomcorn, vegetables, hay, potatoes, etc. Fruits 
and grapes do well at south. Yield of all crops cultivated, 
large. Coal area, two-thirds State. First coal mined in 
America at Ottawa; quality moderately fair. Considerable 
forest of hardwoods at south on hills and in bottoms. 
Superior quality limestone on Fox and Desplaines rivers; 


lead, most important mineral; Galena in center of richest 
diggings in N. W. Rich salt wells in Saline and Gallatin 
counties, 75 gallons brine making 50 lbs. salt. State 
ranks first in corn, wheat, oats, meat packing, lumber 
traffic, malt and distilled liquors and miles railway; second 
in rye, coal, agricultural implements, soap and hogs; 
fourth in hay, potatoes, iron and steel, mules, milch cows 
and other cattle. Cleared land averages $28, and wood¬ 
land or raw prairie, $18 per acre. Climate healthful as a 
rule; subject to sudden and violent changes at north. 
Temperature ranges from 30 deg. below zero to 101 deg. 
above. Average temperature at Springfield, 30 deg. win¬ 
ter; 78 deg. summer. At Chicago, 25 deg. winter ; 
72 deg. summer. At Cairo, 38 deg. winter; 80 deg. 



summer. Frost comes last of September. Vegetation 
begins in April. Rainfall 37 inches. Chief Cities.—Chi¬ 
cago (pop. 1889, 1,200,000), Peoria, Quincy, Springfield 
(capital). Industries.—Agriculture, mining, stock-rais¬ 
ing and manufacturing of all kinds. 

INDIANA. 

“Iloosier State.” Settled at Fort St. Vincents, now 
Vincennes, in 1702, by French-Canadian voyagers. Ad¬ 
mitted as a state Dec. 11, 1816. Sixth state admitted. 
Soldiers furnished in Mexican war 5,000. Union soldiers 
196,363. Number counties 92. All elections Tuesday 
after first Monday in November; number senators, 50; 
representatives, 100; sessions of legislature biennial, in 
odd-numbered years, meet Thursday after first Monday, 
holds 60 days; term of senators 4 years, of representatives 
2 years; number electoral votes, 15; number congressmen, 
13; number voters, 498,437. Fraudulent voters and brib¬ 
ers excluded from voting. Number of colleges 15, State 
University at Bloomington; medical school at Indianapo¬ 
lis, university at Notre Dame, flourishing common-school 







































































y 


ATLAS OF THE WORLD. 


system; school age, 6-21. Legal interest rate, 6 per cent, 
by contract 8 per cent; usury forfeits excess of interest. 
Extreme length N. and S. 275 miles, width averages 150 
miles, area 35,910 sq. miles, 22,982,400 acres. Surface 
sometimes hilly. No mountains. Hills 200 to 400 feet 
above the surrounding country. Frontage on Lake Michi¬ 
gan 43 miles. River bottoms wide and unsurpassed in 
fertility; highlands, when level, rich, black or sandy soil. 
All crops and fruits of the temperate zone do well both in 
yield and quality. State highly favored for agriculture 
and manufacturing. Ranks second in wheat, fourth in 
corn, hogs and agricultural implements, fifth in coal. 
Cattle, hogs, sheep, horses, etc., are most successfully 
raised. Corn, wheat, oats, staple crops. Timber still 
abundant at south, but in scattered tracts. Coal fields in 
southwestern portion of state over 7,000 sq. miles, on 
much of which are 3 workable veins. Kinds of coal, 
black, cannel and ordinary bituminous, cokes well, su¬ 
perior for gas. Building stones varied and of unsurpassed 
quality, including the famous Bedford stone. Supply 
unlimited. Land is cheap, cleared averaging $18, and 
woodland $14 per acre. In rich section to southwest 
cleared land $15, woodland $10 to $12. Chances for mak¬ 
ing homes, comfort and advantages considered, not excelled 
elsewhere. Iron ore is found. 

Climate.—Changeable in winter, but seldom severe; winds 
from north and west; summers moderately long, and 
sometimes hot; temperature averages, winter 34 deg., 
summer 78 deg. Trees blossom in March. Rainfall, 40 
inches. Health excellent. Malaria rapidly disappearing 
from bottoms before proper drainage. Chief Cities.— 
Indianapolis (capital), contains deaf and dumb, blind and 
insane asylums; Terre Haute, Evansville, Fort Wayne. 
Michigan City (lake port). Industries. — Agriculture, 
mining and manufacturing. 




INDIAN TERRITORY. 

Set apart for peaceful tribes. Organized 1834, no terri¬ 
torial government. Government in hands of tribes. Also 
contains Oklahoma and public land strip. Each tribe 
elects officers, legislatures and courts, and criminals are 
punished as in the states. No laws for collections of debt. 
All land held in common, and any Indian may cultivate as 
much as he wants, but one-quarter mile must intervene 
between farms. Whites can hold land only by marrying 
an Indian. School system excellent, pupils educated and 
supported by the tribes, half entire revenue being set aside 
for the purpose. Three colleges, 200 schools. 

Two-fifths of entire population can read. Extreme length 
east and west, 470 miles, average length, 320 miles, width, 
210 miles, area, 69,991 miles, 44,154,240 acres. Surface 
vast rolling plain sloping eastward. Valleys timbered 
heavily with hard woods. South of Canadian river prairies 
very fertile, valleys rich and productive throughout terri¬ 
tory, grass rich and heavy almost everywhere. Corn, cot¬ 
ton, rice, wheat, rye, potatoes are staples. Grazing inter¬ 
ests large. Coal is found, but extent unknown. Fur¬ 
bearing animals numerous. 

Climate.—Mild in winter, warm in summer. Temper¬ 
ature averages 41 deg. winter, 80 deg. summer. Rainfall, 
at east, 50 inches, center, 36, far west, 22. Health asgood 
as anywhere in Union. 

Chief Cities.—Tahlequah, capital Cherokees; Tisho¬ 
mingo, capital of Chickasaws; Tushkahoma, of Choctaws; 
Muscogee, of Creeks; Pawhuska, of Osages; Seminole 
Agency, of Seminoles; Pawnee Agency, of Pawnees; Kiowa 
and Comanche Agency, of Kiowas and Comanches. 

Leading Industries.—Agriculture and grazing. 


























































































ATLAS OF THE WORLD. 


Indian Agencies. 


ARAPAHOE. 


OSAGE. 


Agent.. 

.$ 900 

Agent.. 

..$1,600 



Physician. 

.. 1,200 

CHEYENNE. 


OTOE. 


Agent. 

. 2,200 

Agent.. 

.. 1,500 

Physician. 

. 1,200 

Physician.. 

.. 1,000 

KAW. 


PAWNEE. 


Superintendent .... 

. 1,600 

Clerk. 

.. 1,200 

Physician. 

. 1,200 

Physician. 

.. 1,000 

KIOWA AND COMANCHE. 

PONCA. 


Agent. 

. 1,000 

Superintendent..... 

.. 1,200 

Physician. 

. 1,000 

Clerk. 

.. 720 



OAKLAND. QUAPAW. SAC AND FOX. 

Supt.$1,000 Agent.$1,500 Agent.$1,200 

3 Teachers. 600 Physician.. 1,200 2Physicians 1,000 

IOWA. 

“Hawkeye State.” Settled first by Dubuque, 1788, a 
French Canadian, for whom that city is named. First 
settlers miners of lead. Active immigration began 1833. 
Iowa territory organized July 4, 1838. Admitted as State 
1846. Union soldiers furnished 76,242. Number coun¬ 
ties 99. State elections annual, Tuesday after second 
Monday in October, excepting years of presidential elec¬ 
tions, when all elections occur together. Number senators 
50, representatives 100, sessions of legislature biennial, in 
even numbered years, meeting second Monday in January. 





Term of senators 4 years, of representatives 2 years. Num¬ 
ber of electoral votes 13, congressmen 11, number voters 
416,658. Idiots, insane and criminals excluded from vot¬ 
ing. Number colleges 19, school age 5-21. School sys¬ 
tem admirable, endowment liberal. Legal interest rate 6 per 
cent., by contract 10 per cent., usury forfeits 10 per cent, 
per year on amount. State has adopted prohibition. 




Extreme length E. and W. 208 miles, width 208 miles, 
area, 55,470 sq. miles, 35,500,800 acres. Surface al¬ 
most an unbroken prairie, without mountains and with 
very few low hills. Natural meadows everywhere and 
water abundant. Many small lakes at north. Highest 
point. Spirit Lake, 1,600 feet above the sea. Soil superior. 
Corn, wheat, oats, potatoes, hay, barley, sorghum, rye, 
staples. Apples unsurpassed in United States; pears, 
plums, cherries, grapes and berries are excellent crops. 
Cattle and other stock interests large and thrifty. Dairy¬ 
ing attractive. Forest area small—scarcely equal to home 
requirements. Coal area fair. Other minerals unimpor¬ 
tant. Manufacturing active. Improved land averages $20; 
unimproved, including railroad and government domains, 
$12.50. State ranks first in hogs, second in milch cows, 
oxen and other cattle, corn, hay and oats; third in horses; 
fifth in barley and miles of railway. 

Climate subject to extremes. Winter severe, with sharp 
north and west winds; summers pleasant. Temperature 
averages, summer 72 deg., winter 23 deg.; ranges from 10 
deg. below to 99 deg. above zero. Rainfall 42 inches. 
Wheat harvest in August. 

Chief Cities.—DesMoines (metropolis and capital). 
Dubuque, Davenport, Burlington, Council Bluffs. Keo¬ 
kuk, Burlington and Dubuque are United States ports of 
delivery. 

Leading Industries. — Agriculture, stock-raising and 
manufacturing. 

KANSAS. 

Name, Indian, means, “Smoky water.” Called the 
“ Garden State.” Kansas Territory, organized May, 1854. 
Law known as “Missouri Compromise,” forbidding slavery 
in states formed out of Louisiana purchase north of lati¬ 
tude 36 deg. 30 min. repealed, and question of slavery 



20 



















































































































314 


ATLAS CF THE WORLD. 


left to the territory. At first it was decided for slavery. 
Constitution prohibiting slavery adopted July, 1859. Ad¬ 
mitted as a state, 1861. Union soldiers furnished 20,149, 
number counties 95, miles railroad 4,205, first railroad 
built, 1864, 40 miles long. All elections Tuesday after 
first Monday in Nov. ; senators 40, representatives 125, 
sessions biennial, meeting second Tuesday in Jan. in odd- 
numbered years, limit of session 50 days; term of senators 
four years, of representatives two years. Number electo¬ 
ral votes 9, congressmen 7, voters 295,714. Idiots, in¬ 
sane, convicts and rebels excluded from voting. Number 
colleges 8, number schoolhouses over 8,000, school age 
5-21 years ; school system magnificent. Endowment im¬ 
mense. Legal interest 7 per cent., by contract 12 per cent, 
usury forfeits excess of interest. 

Extreme length E. and W. 410 miles, breadth 210 
miles, area 81,700 sq. miles, 52,288,000 acres. No mount¬ 
ains. There is little navigable water. Water powers of 
fair proportion, irrigation necessary in large sections. 
Coal area of moderate extent; veins usually thin ; quality 
fair. Soil fine. Corn, wheat, oats, hemp, flax and rye, 
staples. Castor beans and cotton grown successfully. 
Soil of prairies deep loam of dark color; bottoms sandy 
loam. Peculiarly favorable to stock raising. Prairie rich 
in grasses. Dairying favored. Fruits successful. For¬ 
ests small. Limestone and colored chalk furnish building 
materials. Value improved land averages $12 per acre, 
woodland $15. Manufacturing growing. State ranks 
fifth in cattle, corn and rye. Climate.—Salubrious ; win¬ 
ters mild, summers warm, air pure and clear. Tempera¬ 
ture averages winter 31 deg., summer 78 deg., ranges 8 
deg. below to 101 deg. above zero; such extremes excep¬ 
tional. Rainfall averages 45 inches at east, 13 inches at 
west. 

Chief Cities. — Leavenworth, Topeka (capital). State 
University at Lawrence, state asylums for insane and 
feeble-minded at Topeka and Ossawattomie ; institution 
for education of the blind at Wyandotte ; for deaf mutes, 
Olathe. 

Industries. — Agriculture, stock raising, manufactur¬ 
ing, etc. 


Mississippi flows in or on the borders of the state. Bays 
numerous on coast but harbors indifferent. Many small 
islands in Gulf. Staple products, sweet potatoes, sugar, 
molasses, rice, corn, cotton, grasses, oats, etc. All fruits 
of the semi-tropical climate thrive. State ranks first in 



LOUISIANA. 

Named for Louis XIV. of France. Called the “Pelican 
State” and the “ Creole State.” First sugar cane culti¬ 
vated in United States near New Orleans 1751. First 
sugar mill 1758. First shipment of cotton abroad 1784. 
Purchased by the United States, 1803, for $15,000,000, 
Louisiana admitted as a state under present name, April 
8, 1812. In the -war with England immediately following, 
the state made a glorious record, and at the battle of New 
Orleans, Jan. 8, 1815, humiliated the British and ended 
the war. Seceded Jan. 26, 1861. Some fighting on the 
river between boats and forts. New Orleans captured 
May 1, 1862. 1868, in June, state re-entered Union. 

Capital, Baton Rouge. Number of parishes or counties 
58. Legislature and state officers elected quadrennially, 
members congress biennially, state elections Tuesday after 
third Monday in April, number senators 36, representa¬ 
tives 98; sessions biennial,in even-numbered years,meeting 
second Monday in May, holds 60 days; terms of senators 
and representatives 4 years each. Number electoral votes 
8, congressmen 6, voters 216,787, colored 107,977, native 
white 81,777, foreign white 27,033. Idiot, insane and 
criminals excluded from voting. Legal interest 5 per 
cent., by contract 8 per cent., usury forfeits entire in¬ 
terest. Educational facilities average, slaves 1860,331,- 
726. Extreme length E. and W. 294 miles, breadth, 248 
miles, area 45,420 sq. miles, 29,068,800 acres. Coast line 
1,276 miles, very irregular navigable rivers 2,700 miles. 


sugar and molasses and third in rice. Forests almost in¬ 
exhaustible. Timber superior in kind and quality, lum¬ 
bering important industry. Salt produced on a large 
scale. Iron discovered. Cleared land averages $12.50, 
woodland $3 to $4 per acre. Reclamation of marshes very 
profitable and beginning to be done on a large scale. Moss¬ 
gathering profitable and invites more attention. Climate. 
—Temperature ranges from 40 to 100 deg., average sum- 
'mer81 deg., winter 55 deg. Rainfall 57 inches, chiefly in 
spring and summer. Summers long and occasionally hot. 
Health average. Actual death rate lower than in many 
northern sections. Occasional yellow fever in the cities. 
Chief Cities. — New Orleans (port of entry and largest 
cotton market in the world), Baton Rouge (capital),Shreve¬ 
port, Morgan City (port of entry). State institution for 
insane at Jackson; for deaf mutes and blind,Baton Rouge. 
Industries.—Three-fifths of laboring population engaged 
in agriculture. Average income of rural population among 
highest in Union. Number industries 1,600. 

MAINE. 

Called the “Pine Tree State,” or “Lumber State;” orig¬ 
inally included New Hampshire; settled by English 1607, 
by French in 1613. Number counties, 16; Union soldiers, 
70,107; miles of railroad, 1,142; State elections second 
Monday in Sept.; number senators, 31; representatives, 151; 
sessions biennial in odd-numbered years, meeting first Wed¬ 
nesday in Jan.; terms of senators and representatives, two 



















































ATLAS OF THE WORLD. 


315 



years each. Number electoral votes, 6; congressmen, 4; 
number voters, 187,323; paupers and Indians not taxed, 
excluded from voting. Number colleges, 3; system of 
common, high and normal schools excellent; school age, 
4-21 years. Legal rate interest, 6; by contract, any rate. 



Extreme length north and south 298 miles, width 210 
miles, shore line about 2,480 miles, area 33,056 sq. miles, 
land 29,885 sq. miles, 21,155,840 acres; 37th of states and 
territories in size. Surface hilly, mountainous toward cen¬ 
ter. Highest point, Katahdin, 5,400 feet; largest island, 
Mount Desert, 92 square miles. Area of lakes and 
streams, one-thirteenth entire state. The soil is medium 
only, except on some of the streams, where it is rich. Hay 
the best crop. Wheat, oats, corn, hops, potatoes, buck¬ 
wheat and the ordinary vegetables grow. Cattle do fairly, 
dairying pays. Half the state is forest of excellent timber. 
Cleared land averages $15 and forest land $14 per acre. 
Slate, copper, granite are found in large quantities. Win¬ 
ter average 29 deg., summer 67 deg., rainfall 45 inches; 
snow lies 80 to 130 days. Climate excellent, except for 
pulmonary troubles. Death rate low. Chief Industries.— 
Agriculture and kindred pursuits, lumbering, fisheries, 
$3,620,000 yearly, quarrying, shipbuilding (380establish¬ 
ments). Principal cities.—Portland (seaport), Lewiston, 
Bangor, (port of entry), Biddeford, and Augusta (the 
capital). 


MARYLAND. 

One of the thirteen original states. Baltimore laid 
1730. Federal congress met at Annapolis 1783, when 
Washington resigned command of the army. Federal 
constitution ratified April 28, 1778. Fredericktown and 
other places burned in war of 1812, and Fort McHenry 




bombarded. First blood of civil war shed at Baltimore 
April 19, 1861. Legislature opposed war April 26, 1861, 
but passed resolutions favoring the South. Battle of 
Antietam Sept. 16 and 17, 1862. Slavery abolished 1864. 
Union soldiers furnished, 46,638. Number counties, 
23. All elections Tuesday after first Monday in Nov.; 
number senators, 26, representatives, 91; sessions biennial 
in even-numbered years, meet first Wednesday in Jan. 
and hold 90 days; term of senators, 4 years; of representa- 
tatives, 2 years. Number of electoral votes, 8; congress¬ 
men, 6. Insane, convicts and bribers excluded from vot¬ 
ing. Number colleges 11, school age 5-20, school system 
fair. Legal interest 6 per cent., usury forfeits excess of 
interest. Topography, Area, Soil, Products, Etc.—Length 
east and west 196 miles, width 8 to 122 miles. Area, 
9,860 sq. miles. Acreage of state 6,310,400, water sur¬ 
face large. Western and northern sections mountainous 
and broken. Chesapeake bay almost divides the state. 
Tide-water coast nearly 500 miles. Chief navigable rivers, 
Potomac, Susquehanna, Patuxent, Patapsco, empty into 
the bay. At the west is the Youghiogheny. Soil varies 
from very poor to very good. Cleared land averages $22.50, 
and woodland $14 per acre. The average value of latter 
lowered by mountain sections. Considerable good timber 
remains. Enormous coal fields west. Copper is found in 
Frederick and Carroll counties; iron ore in Allegany, 
Anne Arundel, Carroll, Baltimore, Frederick and Prince 
George’s counties. Great oyster, fish, fruit and vegetable 
producing state. Oyster beds most valuable in Union. 



Wheat, corn, oats, buckwheat and tobacco staple crops. 
Opportunities for capital are yet excellent. Climate.— 
Mild agreeable and healthful, some little malaria in low¬ 
lands. Temperature softened by ocean. Winter averages 
37 deg., summer 78 deg. Rainfall, 42 inches. Chief 










































































































316 


ALTAS OF THE WORLD. 


Cities—Baltimore, port of entry; Annapolis, capital, con¬ 
tains United States Naval Academy; Cumberland. Chief 
Industries.—Agriculture and fruit growing, oyster and 
other fishing, canning, coal, iron and copper mining, man¬ 
ufacturers of cotton goods, etc. 

MASSACHUSETTS. 

“ Old Bay State.” One of the 13 original States. First 
settlement 1802, abandoned the same year. Explored 1614 
by Captain John Smith. First permanent settlement 1620. 
Pilgrims landed on Plymouth Rock Dec. 22. Boston settled 
1830. First American newspaper Boston, 1690. Massa¬ 
chusetts was active in bringing on Revolution. Boston 



massacre March 5,1770. Destruction of tea Dec. 16,1773. 
Boston port bill passed March, 1774. Battle of Lexington 
first blood of Revolution. Ratified U. S. constitution Feb. 
6, 1788. Union soldiers, 146,730, besides sailors. Num¬ 
ber counties 14. All elections Tuesday after first Monday 
in November. Number senators, 40; representatives, 240; 
meeting first Wednesday in January; yearly terms of sena¬ 
tors and representatives, 1 year. Number electoral votes, 
14; congressmen, 12. Paupers, persons under guardians, 
non-taxpayers, and men unable to read and write, excluded 
from voting. School system excellent; attendance com¬ 
pulsory; age 5-15 years. Seven colleges, including Har¬ 
vard. Legal interest, 6 per cent.; by contract, any rate. 
Population.—1880, 1,783,085. Females outnumber males. 
Indians, 369. Length, N. E. to S. W., 162 miles; breadth, 
47 miles in western and 100 in eastern part; area of 8,040 
square miles, 5,145,600 acres. Coast extensive and irreg¬ 
ular, with numerous good harbors. The Merrimac only 
large stream entering sea within the State. The Taconic 
and Hoosac ridges traverse the State at the west. Saddle 
mountain, 3,600 feet, the highest peak. The east and 


northeast divisions are hilly and broken, and the southeast 
low and sandy. Scenery very beautiful, especially in Berk¬ 
shire hills; soil generally light; hay best crop; wheat, oats, 
corn and vegetables grown. Forests practically exhausted. 
Cleared land averages $80, and woodland $45 per acre. 
Stone is found. No minerals mined. Elizabeth islands, 
Martha’s Vineyard, Nantucket and smaller islands to the 
south belong to the State. Winters severe and protracted; 
summers short and warm; the thermometer ranges from 10 
deg. below to 100 deg.; averages summer, 73 deg.; winter, 
24 deg. Snow falls October to April. Rainfall, including 
snow, 44 inches. Chief Industries. — Agricultural and 
kindred callings. Fishing for cod and mackerel (half the 
fishing vessels of the Union owned here). Manufacture of 
cotton, woolen, worsted, silk, iron and steel goods, soap 
and implements, quarrying. Principal Cities.—Boston, 
Lowell, Lawrence and Fall River, famous for cotton man¬ 
ufactures; Worcester, railroad and manufacturing center; 
Cambridge, seat of Harvard College; Lynn, famous for 
manufacture of boots and shoes; New Bedford, greatest 
whaling port in the world; Springfield contains greatest 
arsenal in the United States. 

MICHIGAN. 

Called “Wolverine State.” First settlement by Father 
Marquette, 1668, at Sault Ste. Marie. Admitted as State 
January 26, 1837. Thirteenth State to enter Union. 
Received upper peninsula as compensation for disputed 
territory same year. Union soldiers furnished, 87,364. 



Number counties, 79. Miles railroad, 5,233. All elec¬ 
tions Tuesday after first Monday in November. Number 
senators, 32; representatives, 100; sessions of legislature 
biennial, in odd-numbered years, meeting first Wednesday 
in January; terms of senators and representatives, two 































































































ATLAS OF THE WORLD. 


317 



years each; number electoral votes, 13; number congress¬ 
men, 11. Number voters, 467,687. Duelists excluded 
from voting. Number colleges, 9; efficient public schools, 
school age, 5-20 years. Legal interest, 7 per cent.; by 
contract, 10 per cent; usury forfeits excess of interest. 
Extreme length lower peninsula north and south, 278 
miles; breadth, 260 miles. Extreme length upper penin¬ 
sula east and west, 320 miles; width, 24 to 165 miles; area, 
57,430 square miles, or 36,755,200 acres. Length shore 
line, 2,000 miles. Lower peninsula consists of plains and 
table lands, heavily timbered with pine and hardwoods and 
small prairies. Soil generally good, but patches of sand 
occur. Fruit raising, especially apples, peaches and 
grapes, very successful. All cereals make good crops, 
except corn at north. Staples, wheat, corn, oats, buck¬ 
wheat, potatoes, barley, etc. Upper peninsula broken, 
rocky and almost mountainous, rising at west to 2,000 feet 
above the sea. Western portion mining region, eastern 

} )ortion favorable to agriculture. Rivers, inlets and small 
akes numerous. Water good and well distributed. Cop¬ 
per, valuable iron, coal and salt abundant. Timber yet in 
immense tracts of virgin pine and hardwoods. State ranks 
first in copper, lumber and salt, second in iron ore, third 
in buckwheat, fifth in sheep, hops and potatoes. Cleared 
land averages $20 per acre, forest $10. Climate.—Tem¬ 
perature averages at Detroit, winter 30 degrees; summer, 
70 degrees; at Sault Ste. Marie, winter, 23 degrees; sum¬ 
mer, 65 degrees. Rainfall at Detroit, 30 inches; at Sault 
Ste. Marie, 24 inches. Health excellent. 

Chief Cities.—Detroit, Grand Rapids, Lansing (capital). 
Bay City, East Saginaw, Jackson, Muskegon, Saginaw. 
Detroit, Marquette, Port Huron, Grand Haven ports of 
entry. 

Chief Industries.—Lumbering, mining, farming, fruit 
raising, manufacturing, fishing, etc. 

MINNESOTA. 

“ Gopher State.” Explored by Fathers Hennepin and 
La Salle, 1680, via Mississippi river to Falls St. Anthony. 
Admitted as State 1858. Foreign immigration immense. 
Number Union soldiers furnished, 25,052. Number coun¬ 
ties, 80. All elections Tuesday after first Monday in 
November; number senators, 47; representatives, 103 ; 
sessions of legislature, biennial, in odd-numbered years, 
meeting Tuesday after first Monday in January; holding 
60 days; term of senators, 4 years; representatives, 2 
years. Number electoral votes, 7; congressmen, 5; vot¬ 
ers, 213,485; idiots, insane and convicts not voting. 
Number colleges, 5; school age, 5-21; school system, first- 
class. Legal interest rate, 7$; by contract, 10$; usury 
forfeits excess over 10$. 

Length N. and S., 378 miles; average width, 261 miles; 
area, 79,205 sq. miles, 50,691,200 acres. Surface, rolling 
plain, 1,000 feet above sea level, except at N. E., where 
are a series of sand hills called “ Heights of Land,” 1,600 
feet high. It is the State of small lakes, including over 
7,000, varying from a few rods to 32 miles across. In one 
of these, Itasca, the Mississippi rises and flows 800 miles 
through the State. The other principal rivers are the 
Minnesota, Red River of the North, and the St. Louis. 
Small streams and lakes make water plentiful. The 
scenery is picturesque and beautiful. The soil is splendid, 
as a rule, and the accessibility to market and general 
attractions render the State especially favored by agricult¬ 
urists. The forests of the State are small (2,000,000 
acres), but in parts are rich in fine timbers. Two-thirds 
of the State are unoccupied. Cleared land averages 
$12.50 per acre, and woodland $8. Wheat is the great 
crop. Corn, oats, barley, hay and dairy products are also 
staples. State ranks fourth in wheat. 




Climate. — Healthful. Air, pure and dry, summers 
warm, averaging 68-70 deg.; winters cold, averaging 9- 
24 deg. Rainfall 36 inches, chiefly in summer. Snowfall 
medium. The dryness mitigates the cold in winter. 



Chief Cities. — Pembina, port of entry on Red river; 
St. Paul, capital; Minneapolis. 

Chief Industries.—Agriculture, dairying, milling, etc. 

MISSISSIPPI. 

Indian name meaning Father of Waters. “ Bayou 
State.” Visited by De Soto 1542, by La Salle 1682. Set¬ 
tled Biloxi, 1699, by M. de Iberville. Formed a part of 
the territory of Louisiana, and belonged to France. Ad¬ 
mitted as a state Dec. 10, 1817. Seventh state admitted. 
State active in war of 1814 and with Mexico. Seceded 
1861. Shiloh the most notable battle of the Rebellion in 
the state. State re-entered Union 1870. Number coun¬ 
ties 74. State officers elected quadrennially, and legisla¬ 
ture every two years; all elections Tuesday after first Mon¬ 
day in Nov.; sessions of legislature biennial, in even-num¬ 
bered years, meeting Tuesday after first Monday in Jan.; 
number senators 37, representatives 120; term of senators 
4 years, of representatives 2 years; number electoral votes 
9, congressmen 7, voters 238,532, colored 130,278, foreign 
white 5,674. Idiots, insane and criminals excluded from 
voting. Number colleges 3, school age 5-21, school system 
fair. Legal interest 6 per cent., by contract 10 per cent.; 
usury forfeits excess of interest. Slavesl860, 436,631. Great¬ 
est length N. and S.364 miles, average width 143 miles, area 
46,340, sq. miles, 29,657,600 acres. Coast line, including 
islands, 512 miles. Harbors, Biloxi, Mississippi City, Pasca¬ 
goula and Shieldsburg. Surface undulating with a gradual 
slope from elevation of 700 feet at N. E., W. and S. to the 
Mississippi and Gulf. Some hills reach 200 feet above 



















































318 


ATLAS OF THE WORLD. 


surrounding country. From Tenn. line S. to Vicksburg, 
Mississippi bottoms wide, flat, with more or less swamp, 
and covered with cypress and oak. Soil an inexhaustible 
alluvium. Soil light but productive, at south sandy with 
pine growth. Cotton prolific. Staple crops, cotton, rice, 
sugar, molasses, tobacco, corn, sweet potatoes, grapes for 
wine. Fruits and vegetables are splendid crops, but are 



neglected. Forest area large, pine, oak, chestnut, walnut 
and magnolia grow on uplands and bluffs, long-leafed 
pine on islands and in sand. Lumbering important indus¬ 
try, mules raised with great success. State ranks second 
in cotton, fifth in rice. Oyster and other fisheries val¬ 
uable. Cleared land averages $7.50 per acre, woodland 
$3. Climate mild, snow and ice unknown. Summers 
long and warm, July and August hottest months. Tem¬ 
perature averages summer 80 deg., winter 50 deg. Rain¬ 
fall 46 in. at north, 58 in. at south. Highlands very 
healthy. Malaria in bottoms. Chief Cities.—Jackson 
(capital), Natchez, Vicksburg. Leading Industries.— 
Agriculture, lumbering, fishing and canning. 

MISSOURI. 

Name Indian, means “Muddy River.” Settled first at 
St. Genevieve. Organized as territory under present name 
1812, included Arkansas, Indian Territory, etc. Admitted 
March, 1821. Eleventh State admitted. Admission 
aroused much discussion. ‘ ‘Missouri Compromise” effected 
and State permitted to retain slavery. State divided on 
secession and was scene of perpetual internal warfare. Mar¬ 
tial law declared Aug., 1862. Union soldiers furnished, 
109,111. Number connties, 115. State officers elected 
quadrennially, and legislature every two years. All elec¬ 
tions Tuesday after first Monday in November; number 
senators 34, representatives 141; sessionsof legislature bien¬ 



nial, in odd-numbered years, meeting Wednesday after- 
January 1, holds 70 days; term of senators 4 years, repre¬ 
sentatives 2 years. Number electoral votes 16, congress¬ 
men 14, number voters 541,207. United States army and 
inmates of asylums, poorhouses and prisons excluded 
from voting. Number colleges 17, school age 6-20, school 
system good, endowments large. Legal interest rate 6 
per cent., by contract 10 per cent., usury forfeits entire 
interest. 

Length N. and S. 575 miles. Average width 246 miles. 
Area 68,735 sq. miles, 43,990,400 acres. Soil generally 
good. South the surface is broken with hills, sometimes 
1,000 feet high. The most noted, Iron Mountain and the 
Ozarks. West of Ozarks is a prairie region, with wide, 
deep, fertile valleys. Entire area well watered by small 
streams, springs, etc. Chief crops, corn, wheat, oats, 
potatoes, tobacco. Fruits do splendidly. Peaches espe¬ 
cially fine. Vegetable gardening successful. Improved 
land averages $12, unimproved, $7 per acre. Coal, iron, 
marble, granite, limestone, lead and copper found in enor¬ 
mous deposits. Lead area 5,000 sq. miles. Forests mag¬ 
nificent. Growth walnut, poplar, oak and the hardwoods, 
grazing a leading business, both in extent and profit. 
Stock of all kinds raised with success. State ranks first in 
mules, third in oxen, hogs, corn and copper, fifth in iron 
ore. 

Climate variable, with sudden changes, but generally 
pleasant and healthy. Summers are long and warm, but 
not enervating. Winters moderate, with occasional severe 



days. Average temperature, summer 76 deg., winter 39 
deg. Rainfall greatest in May, averages 34 inches. 

Chief Cities.—St. Louis, largest city west of the Mis¬ 
sissippi, port of entry and great commercial and manufact¬ 
uring point; capital, Jefferson City; St. Joseph, Kan¬ 
sas City. 





































































ATLAS OF THE WORLD. 


319 



_ 




_ 




Leading Industries.—Agriculture, mining, manufact¬ 
uring, quarrying, grazing, fruit and vegetable growing, 
lumbering, etc. 

MONTANA. 



Temperature averages summer 62 deg., winter 18 deg. 
Colder in mountains. Health excellent. 

Chief Cities. — Helena, Virginia City, Deer Lodge; 
Helena capital and most important town. 

Leading Industries. — Mining, lumbering, grazing, 
agriculture, smelting, etc. 


Gold discovered 1860. Formed part of Idaho, organized 
1863. Organized as territory May, 1864. Admitted as a 
state 1889. Custer massacre June 25, 1876. 350 men of 

the 7th United States Cavalry annihilated by Sioux under 
Sitting Bull, on the Little Big Horn river. Number 
counties 14. All elections Tuesday after first Monday in 
Nov. Number senators 12, representatives 24. Sessions 
of legislature biennial, in odd-numbered years, meeting 
second Monday in Jan., holds 60 days; terms of senators 
and representatives 2 years each. Voters 21,544, native 
white 12,162, foreign white 7,474, colored 1,908. School 
age 4-21 years, graded schools in Deer Lodge City, Vir¬ 
ginia City and Helena. School lands reserved for sale 
valuable and extensive. Legal interest 10 per cent, by 
contract any rate. 

Extreme length E. and W. 540 miles, average width 
274 miles, area 145,310 sq. miles, 92,998,400 acres, two- 
fifths good farm land, of which about 4,000 acres are culti¬ 
vated. Three-fifths of territory rolling plains, rest mount¬ 
ainous. Surface fairly supplied with small streams. 
Timber supply ample. Soil good. Immense area of 



arable land. Wheat best crop, oats, potatoes, hay, also 
staples. Too cold for corn. Area grazing land, over two- 
thirds territory. Grazing interests great. Splendid graz¬ 
ing grounds yet untaken. Mineral wealth great. Ranks 
fifth in silver and in gold. Climate dry. Rainfall about 
12 inches. Warmer than same latitude farther east. 
Snows heavy in mountains, light in valleys and on plains. 


NEBRASKA. 

Name Indian, means “ Shallow Water.” Nebraska 
Territory organized May, 1854. Few settlements till 1864. 
Idaho cut off March, 1863, and present boundaries fixed. 
Bill to admit July, 1866, unsigned by President Johnson, 
and another Jan. 1867, vetoed. Bill passed over veto Feb. 



1867. Admitted that year. Lincoln capital. Union sol¬ 
diers furnished, 3,157. Number counties 74. All elec¬ 
tions Tuesday after first Monday in Nov.;number senators 
33, representatives 100, sessions biennial, in odd-numbered 
years, meeting first Tuesday in Jan., holding 40 days, 
terms of senators and representatives 2 years each, num¬ 
ber electoral votes 5, number congressmen 3, number 
voters 129,042. U. S. army, idiots and convicts excluded 
from voting. Number colleges 9, school age 5-21, school 
system superior, school endowments liberal. Legal inter¬ 
est 7 per cent., by contract 10 per cent., usury forfeits 
interest and cost. 

Topography, Area, Soil, Products, Etc. — Extreme 
length E. and W. 425 miles, width 210 miles, area 76,185 
sq. miles, 48,755,000 acres. Surface a vast plain, undu¬ 
lating gently, and principally prairie with a few low hills. 
At extreme northwest are spurs of the Rocky Mountains, 
and Black Hill country begins, general slope from W. to 
E., Missouri, Platte, Niobrara, Republican and Blue, 
principal rivers, and are fed by numerous smaller streams. 
Southern portion of State peculiarly favorable to all kinds 
















































































320 


ATLAS OF THE WORLD. 



of crops, western half magnificent series of pastures and 
best suited to grazing. Whole eastern two-fifths a great 
natural garden. Corn the great crop; wheat, oats, hay, 
rye, buckwheat, barley, flax, hemp, apples, plums, grapes, 
berries, staples and flourish. Cattle raising of vast im¬ 
portance and magnitude. Good herd laws. No important 
minerals. Manufacturing growing wonderfully. Im¬ 
proved land averages $9, unimproved $5, and woodland 
$18 per acre. 

Climate dry, salubrious and free from malaria. Tem¬ 
perature averages, summer 73 deg., winter 20 deg. Rain¬ 
fall east of 100th meridian, including snow, 25 inches, 
heaviest in May. At west, precipitation falls to 17 inches. 
Rainfall gradually increasing. 

Chief Cities.—Omaha, U. S. port of delivery, commer¬ 
cial center; Lincoln, the capital, contains State University; 
Plattsmouth, Nebraska City. 

Leading Industries.—Agriculture, cattle-raising, dairy¬ 
ing, manufacturing, etc. 


“Sage Hen State.” First settlements in Washoe and 
Carson valleys 1848. Gold discovered in 1849, silver 1859. 
Territory organized March, 1861. Admitted to state Oct., 
1864. Number counties 15. Governor and state officials 
elected quadrennially, and legislature every 2 years, on 
Tuesday after first Monday in Nov.; number senators 20, 
representatives 40; sessions of legislature biennial, in odd- 
numbered years, meeting first Monday in Jan., holding 60 
days. Term of senators 4 years, of representatives 2 



years. Voting population 31,255, native white 11,442, 
foreign white 14,191, colored 5,622. Idiots, insane and 
convicts excluded from voting. School age 6-18 years. 
Legal interest rate 10 per cent., by contract any rate. 


Extreme length N. and S. 485 miles, width 320 miles, 
area 109,740 sq. miles, 70,223,000 acres. Lake Tahoe, 
1,500 feet deep, 10x22 miles in area and 9,000 feet above 
sea, temperature year round 57 deg. Many mineral 
springs, warm and cold. Great part of surface unavailable 
for cultivation. Considerable areas of grazing land; 
many valleys, rich, easily worked and prolific soil. Corn, 
wheat, potatoes, oats and barley, staple crops; horses, 
mules, cattle, hogs and sheep do well. Forests valuable. 
Mineral resources enormous. Comstock lode supposed to 
be richest silver mine in the world; Eureka one of the 
most productive. Rich in lead and copper; zinc, plati¬ 
num, tin and nickel, plumbago, manganese, cobalt, cinne- 
bar, etc., found. Extensive deposits of borax. Coal and 
iron. Ranks second in gold, fourth in silver. Kaolin, 
building stones, slate, soda and salt are obtained. Little 
land improved. 

Climate mild in valleys; little snow except on mount¬ 
ains. At north mercury sometimes falls to 1 5 deg. below 
zero; air bracing, health good. Extremes of cold un¬ 
known. Summer heat occasionally reaches above 100 deg. 
Temperature averages, summer 71 deg., winter 36 deg. 
Rainfall slight, chiefly in spring. 

Chief Cities.—Virginia City, chief commercial center; 
Carson City, capital, and contains a branch mint. 

Leading Industries.—Mining, reducing ores, lumbering, 
agriculture, etc. 

NEW JERSEY. 

One of the thirteen original states. Battles of Trenton, 
Princeton, Monmouth and others fought within its borders 
during the Revolution. State Constitution'adopted 1776, 
revised 1844, and amended in the present decade. United 
States Constitution unanimously adopted Dec. 1787. A 
slave state till 1860, when but eighteen slaves remained, 


kO 



. A 





























































_ 



ATLAS OF THE WORLD. 






and it was counted a free state. Union soldiers furnished, 
75,814. State contains 21 counties. State elections an¬ 
nual, same date as congressional and presidential. Num¬ 
ber of senators 21, representatives 60, meeting of legisla¬ 
ture 2d Tuesday in January. Term of senators 3 years, 
representatives 1 year. Number of electoral votes 9, con¬ 
gressmen 7. Paupers, idiots, insane and convicts excluded 
from voting. Number colleges 4, schools good, school 
age 5-18. Legal interest 6 per cent, usury forfeits entire 
interest. Length north and south 158 miles, width 38 to 
70 miles, area 7,455 square miles; or 4,771,200 acres. 
Forty-third state in size. Atlantic coast 128 miles, Dela¬ 
ware Bay coast 118 miles. The famous Palisades of the 
Hudson at the northeast are 600 feet high. Toward cen¬ 
ter state slopes to a rolling plain, and at south becomes 
flat and low. Hudson river forms the eastern border. 
Delaware Water Gap and Falls of Passaic are the natural 
wonders of the state. Cleared land averages $80 and wood¬ 
land $60 per acre. Hay the best crop. Other staple crops 
are potatoes, wheat, corn, rye, buckwheat, cranberries, 
fruit and garden produce. Little woodland valuable for 
timber remains. Iron and fertilizing marls are abundant. 
Climate variable; temperature averages, summer 68 deg. 
to 75 deg., winter 31 deg. to 38 deg. Range of tempera¬ 
ture from about zero to 100 deg. Rainfall, including 
snow, 46 inches, reaching 50 inches in the highlands, and 
falling to 40 inches at the south. Highlands and seashore 
healthy. Ague and malarial fevers in the lowlands. Prin¬ 
cipal Cities—Newark, Perth Amboy, Great Egg Harbor, 
Tuckerton, Bridgeton and Lumberton are ports of entry; 
Jersey City, Trenton (capital), Paterson, Elizabeth, Ho¬ 
boken, Camden. Chief Industries—Manufacture of fab¬ 
rics, jewelry, clay wares and brick, flour, crystals, fishing, 
oyster fishing, gardening, agriculture, marl and iron ore 
digging, etc. 

NEW MEXICO. 

Name supposed to be of Aztec god. Settled earlier 
than any other part U. S. Permanent settlement, 1596. 
Santa Fe, then an Indian town, chosen as a seat of Spanish 
government. The natives were enslaved and forced to 
work in the fields and mines. Organized as Territory, 
1850. Santa Fe captured by Confederates, 1862, but soon 
abandoned. Number counties, 13. All elections, Tues¬ 
day after first Monday in November. Number senators 
12, representatives 24, sessions of legislature biennial, in 
even-numbered years, meeting first Monday in January, 
hold 60 days. Terms of senators and representatives, 2 
years. Voters 34,076, native white 26,423, foreign white 
4,558, colored 3,095. School age, 7-18 years. Legal 
interest rate, 6 per cent., by contract 12 per cent. 

Average length N. and S., 368 miles, width 335 miles. 
Area, 122,000 sq. miles, 78,400,200 acres. Elevation, 
3,000 to 4,000 feet. Mountain peaks, 12,000 feet. The 
Staked Plain, an elevated region, unwatered and without 
wood, extends into the southeastern part of the Territory. 
No streams are navigable in the Territory. Timber scarce, 
except in few sections. The mountains are clothed with 
pine, spruce and fir. Cedar grows in foothills, and cot¬ 
tonwood and sycamore in valleys. Soil rich where water 
can be had for irrigation or on streams. Corn, wheat, 
oats, alfalfa, grapes, vegetables, especially onions androot 
crops and semi-tropical fruits are prolific. Sheep raising 
very profitable. Grazing interests extensive. Gold found 
in Grant, Lincoln, Colfax and Bernalillo counties, rich 
copper mines in Bernalillo county and in the Pinos Altos 
region. Zinc, quicksilver, lead, manganese and large 
deposits of coal have been found. Irrigable surface, 7,000 
sq. miles. 




Climate varies with different elevations. Temperature 
averages, summer, 70 deg., winter, 33 deg. Range of 
temperature, 4 deg. below zero to 90 deg. above. It is 
much warmer than the average in the lower altitudes, and 
colder in the higher. Air dry, rarefied and pure. Rain¬ 
fall, 9 to 11 inches. 


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MAP OP 

NEW MEXICO 


Chief Cities. — Santa Fe (capital), Las Vegas, Silver 
City and Albuquerqe. 

Leading Industries.—Mining, stock-raising and agri¬ 
culture. 

NEW YORK. 

One of the thirteen original States, “ Empire State.” 
Explored by Henry Hudson, Sept. 1609. The Dutch 
settled on Manhattan Island, 1614. Country called “New 
Netherlands Manhattan Island purchased from Indians 
for $24, 1626. England claimed the country as part of 
Virginia, captured Manhattan (New Amsterdam) Aug. 
1664, and named it New York. New York the battle-field 
of the French-English war 1754, was prominent in the 
Revolution. New York City capital 1784 to 1797. Slavery 
abolished 1817. Union soldiers furnished, 448,850; num¬ 
ber counties 60, custom districts 10, first railroad Albany 
to Schenectady 1831. State officers elected every 4 and 
senators (32 in number) every 2 years, representatives (125 
in number) yearly, on the same day as presidential elec¬ 
tion. Legislature meets first Tuesday in February yearly; 
congressmen 34, presidential electors 36. Election betters 
and bribers and convicts excluded from voting. School 
system superior, includes 28 colleges. School age 5 to 21 
years. Legal interest 6 per cent, usury forfeits principal 
and interest. Extreme length E. and W. 410 miles, ex¬ 
treme width 311 miles, area 47,620 sq. miles, 30,476,800 
acres, water frontage 900 miles, surface varied. The 
Hudson, rising in the Adirondacks, and flowing south over 




















































322 


ATLAS OF THE WORLD. 



300 miles to New York bay, is the chief stream. The 
Allegheny and its tributaries drain the S. W., and the 
Susquehanna the southern central division. The State is 
noted for the beauty of its lakes. Long, M an ^ a ^ an an ^ 
Staten Islands form important divisions of the State. 



Agriculturally the State is very rich. Cleared land aver¬ 
ages $60 and wooded $40 per acre. Considerable forests 
yet remain. The production of corn, wheat and dairy 
products is very large. The State ranks first in value of 
manufactures, soap, printing and publishing, hops, hay, 
potatoes, buckwheat and milch cows. Climate diverse, 
mean annual temperature for the State 47 deg. In the 
Adirondacks the annual mean is 39 deg., in the extreme 
south it is 50 deg., average rainfall 43 in. including snow, 
the fall being greatest in the lower Hudson valley, and 
smallest (32 in.) in the St. Lawrence valley. Range of 
temperature 10 deg. below to 100 above zero. Principal 
Cities.—New York, Brooklyn, Buffalo, Rochester, Syra¬ 
cuse, Albany (capital). Leading Industries. — Manu¬ 
facturing of all kinds, agriculture, dairying, the trades, 
etc. 


per cent., by contract 8 per cent., usury forfeits excess. 
Extreme length E. and W. 225 miles, breadth 200 miles, 
area 40,760 sq. miles, 25,686,400 acres. Includes Kelley's 
and Bass islands in Lake Erie. Lake frontage 230 miles, 
Ohio River frontage 432 miles. Entire state well watered. 
Valleys extremely productive. Uplands fertile as a rule. 
Ohio ranks first in agricultural implements and wool, 
second in dairy products, petroleum, iron and steel, third 
in wheat, sheep, coal, malt and distilled liquors, fourth in 
printing and publishing, salt, miles railway and soap, fifth 
in milch cows, hogs, horses, hay, tobacco and iron ore. 
Coal, building stones, iron ore and salt are found in vast 
quantities. Staple crops, wheat, corn, oats, potatoes, 
tobacco, buckwheat, etc., vegetables, apples, and the 
hardier fruits. Cleared land averages $45, woodland, $40 
per acre. Little forest valuable for lumber remains, except 
in small reserves. Climate as healthful as any in the 
United States. Warmest on Ohio River. Temperature 
for State averages, winter 35 deg., summer 77 deg., range 
of temperature 16 deg. below zero to 101 deg. above. 
Snowfall considerable. Average rainfall, including snow. 



OHIO. 

“Buckeye State.’' Explored by La Salle 1679. Ohio 
Territory organized May 7, 1800. Admitted as a State 
April 30, 1802. Number Union soldiers furnished 313,180. 
Number counties 88. State and congressional elections 
second Tuesday in October. Number senators 33, repre¬ 
sentatives 105; sessions biennial, but “adjourned sessions” 
practically amount to annual meetings; assembles first 
Monday in January. Terms of senators and representa¬ 
tives 2 years each. Number electoral votes, 23. Number 
congressmen, 21. Number voters 826,577. Insane and 
idiots excluded from voting. Number colleges 35, school 
age 6-21, school system first-class. Legal interest rate 6 


42 inches; decreases to 37 inches at north and increases to 
47 inches at south. Chief Cities.— Cincinnati, Cleve¬ 
land, Columbus (capital); Chillicothe, Zanesville, Toledo, 
Sandusky, Cleveland and Cincinnati, ports of entry. 
Leading Industries. — Agriculture, dairying, mining, 
quarrying, iron making, pork packing, manufacturing. 

OREGON. 

Name means “ Wild Thyme.” Oregon territory organ¬ 
ized August, 1848. Indian troubles, 1844, '47 and '54. 
Oregon admitted as a State 1859. Number counties 25, 
miles railroad 1,165. State officers elected quadrennially, 
and legislature every two years; number of senators 30, 







































































ATLAS OF THE WOBLD. 


323 


representatives 60, sessions of legislature biennial in odd- 
numbered years, meeting first Monday in Jan., holds 40 
days; term of senators 4 years, representatives 2 years. 
Number electoral votes 3, congressman 1, voters 49,629, 



including women. United States army, idiots, insane, 
convicts and Chinese not voting. Number of colleges 7, 
school age 4-20, school system good. Legal interest rate 
8 per cent, by contract 10 per cent, usury forfeits principal 
and interest. 

Average length E. and W. 362 miles, average width 260 
miles, area 94,560 sq. miles, 60,518,400 acres. Two- 
thirds entire State mountainous, with wide rich valleys. 
Columbia river 1,300 miles long, navigable 175 miles, full 
of cascades and runs through entrancing scenery. Soil 
generally superior. Wheat the best crop, superior in yield 
and quality; other crops do well, as do also fruits and 
vegetables, etc. Extremely favorable to cattle and sheep. 
Rich in minerals, gold in Jackson, Josephine, Baker and 
Grant counties, copper in Josephine, Douglas and Jack- 
son, iron ore throughout the State; coal along coast range. 
Timber resources enormous, and but little touched. Sal¬ 
mon fisheries among best in world. Improved land aver¬ 
ages $17.50, unimproved $4. Area arable two-fifths State, 
forest one-sixth State. 

Climate.—In western Oregon moist, equable, rainfall 
59 inches. In eastern Oregon dry. Both pleasant and 
healthful, though subject to occasional extremes at east 
Crops in east do now suffer, however, from drouth. At 
west snow and ice unknown, except on peaks, where it is 
perpetual. Frosts on high lands. Average temperature 
summer 65 deg., winter 45 deg. 

Chief Cities.—Portland, Astoria and Coos Bay, ports 
of entry, Rosenburgh, Portland and Salem (capital.) 

Leading Industries. — Agriculture, grazing, mining, 
fishing, lumbering, fruit growing, canning, etc. 


PENNSYLVANIA. 

One of the thirteen original states, named for Wm. 
Penn, the “ Keystone State.” State invaded three times 
by confederates, 1862, 1863, when battle of Gettysburg 
was fought, and 1864, when Chambersburg was destroyed. 
Union soldiers furnished, 337,930. Number counties, 67. 
State elections annual, same date as presidential. Number 
senators 50, representatives 201, sessions biennial, meeting 
first Tuesday in Jan., hold 150 days, term of senators 4 
years, representatives 2 years, number electoral votes 30, 
congressmen 28. Non-taxpayers and bribers excluded 
from voting. Number colleges 26, school age 6-21, school 
system good. Legal interest 6 per cent. Usury forfeits 
excess of interest. Length east and west 300 miles, width 
176 miles, area 44,985 sq. miles, 28,790,400 acres. Sur¬ 
face very diverse. Level at the southeast, hilly and mount¬ 
ainous toward the center, and rolling and broken at the 
west and southwest. Soil varies from barren hills to sec¬ 
tions of great fertility. Many superb farms. Cleared 
land averages $45, woodland $30 per acre. Much good 
timber remains. Farms average 100 acres. Oil, coal 
(anthracite at east, bituminous at west), iron, copper, 
kaolin, building stones, salt abound. Rye, corn, wheat, 
buckwheat, potatoes, vegetables, hay, oats, tobacco are 
staple crops. Dairying and stock flourish. Climate in 
mountains severe in winter, with much snow, summers 
pleasant. Summers hot on the Delaware, reaching 100 
deg. Summers long in Susquehanna valley. West of 
mountains summers hot and of moderate length, winters 
cold. Average winter temperature 34 deg., summer 74 



deg., rainfall, including snow, average 42 inches. Climate 
healthy. Chief Cities.—Philadelphia, third city in the 
United States, contains mint and navy yard; Pittsburgh, 
extensive manufacturing city; Harrisburg, capital. Phila- 



























































324 


ATLAS OF THE WORLD. 


delphia, Pittsburgh and Erie are ports of entry. Indus¬ 
tries.—Pennsylvania is the great iron, oil and coal state. 
The other industries include agriculture and kindred pur¬ 
suits, lumbering, manufacture of paper, woolens, liquors, 
implements, machinery, etc. 

RHODE ISLAND. 

One of the 13 original states. Called “Little Rhody.” 
First settled at Providence, 1636, by Roger Williams. 
Island of Aquidneck (Rhode Island) bought from Indians, 
1638, and Newport and Portsmouth founded. Lands of 
Narragansett Indians acquired by purchase, 1709. R. I. 



seamen distinguished themselves in the Anglo-French wars, 
1750 to 1863, and in the Revolution. Union soldiers fur¬ 
nished, 23,236. Number counties, 5. State elections first 
Wednesday in April. Elects 72 representatives, 34 sena¬ 
tors, 3 congressmen and 4 presidential electors. Legisla¬ 
ture meets annually on last Tuesday in May, at Newport, 
and holds adjourned session annually at. Providence. 
Terms of senators and representatives one year. Persons 
without property to the value of $134 excluded from vot¬ 
ing. Brown’s University at Providence founded 1764. 
Common school system excellent. School age 5-15. Le¬ 
gal interest rate 6 per cent., by contract any rate. Area 
1,088 sq. miles, or 696,320 acres. Length N. and S. 46 
miles, width 40 miles. Narragansett bay divides the state 
unequally, the western and larger part extending N. from 
the ocean some 27 miles. The bay is 3 to 12 miles wide, 
and contains several islands, of which Acquidneck, Canoni- 
cut and Prudence are largest. Block Island, at the west¬ 
ern entrance of the bay, also belongs to this state. Sur¬ 
face of state broken and hilly. Small rivers unfit for nav¬ 
igation are numerous, and afford valuable water powers. 
Chief rivers: Pawtucket andPawtuxet, entering Narragan¬ 


sett bay and Pawcatuck, falling into Long Island Sound. The 
state contains numerous small lakes, some of great beauty. 
Scenery varied and pretty. Soil middling quality. Hay 
best crop. Potatoes, corn and oats are the next most im¬ 
portant products. No forests. Dairying profitable. Land 
high-priced. No minerals mined. Climate, owing to 
nearness to sea, moderate. Average temperature—winter 
24 to 42 deg., summer 44 to 74 deg. Rainfall 43 inches. 
Snow lies 60 to 100 days. Health good. Chief Indus¬ 
tries.—Manufacture of fabrics of cotton, flax, linen, wool, 
boots and shoes, rubber goods, metals, jewelry, etc., agri¬ 
culture, dairying. Rhode Island, in proportion to size, is 
the largest manufacturing state in the Union. Principal 
Cities.—Providence, capital and seaport; Newport, capi¬ 
tal, seaport finest in the world, and great pleasure resort; 
Bristol, seaport; Warren, seaport; Lincoln, Pawtucket, 
Woonsocket. 

TEXAS. 

“Lone Star State.” Settled first by French under La 
Salle 1685; was a part of Old Mexico. Independence de¬ 
clared Dec. 20, 1835. Houston inaugurated as president 
Oct., 1836. Independence of the republic recognized by 
United States March, 1837; by European powers 1839 and 
’40. Continued Avars with Mexico embarrassed finances. 
Proposition for union with United States 1845, and ad¬ 
mitted as a state Dec. 29. State paid 810,000,000 by 
United States for all lands outside present limits 1850. 



Seceded Feb., 1861. Houston, who refused to secede, 
deposed. Military operations small. Last battle of the 
war near Rio Grande May 13, 1865. Re-entered Union 
1870. Number counties, 228. All elections Tuesday after 
first Monday in Nov.; number senators 31, representatives 
106; sessions of legislature biennial, in odd-numbered 































































ATLAS OF THE WORLD. 


325 


years, meeting second Tuesday in Jan., holds 60 days; 
term of senators 4 years, of representatives 2 years. 
Number electoral votes 13, congressmen 11, voters 
380,376. United States army, lunatics, idiots, paup¬ 
ers and convicts excluded from voting. Number col¬ 
leges 10, school age 8-14. School endowment enormous; 
includes millions of acres yet unsold. Legal interest 
8 per cent, by contract 12 per cent, usury forfeits 
entire interest. Extreme length E. and W. 830 miles, 
extreme width 750 miles, area 167,865,600 acres, largest 
of the states and territories. Coast line 412 miles. Gal¬ 
veston bay largest, has 13 feet of water, 35 miles inland. 
Rio Grande navigable 440 miles. Lands extremely fer¬ 
tile, except in the N. W., where water is scarce. Lands 
on Rio Grande and at south require irrigation for good re¬ 
sults, although crops will grow to some extent without. 
Entire state covered with rich grasses, affording pasture 
the year round. All cereals, root crops, vegetables, fruit 
and stocks flourish. Cotton best crop. Other staples, 
sugar, molasses, sweet potatoes, corn, wheat, grapes and 
fruits. Dairying extensive. Cattle, sheep, goat and hog 
raising on mammoth scale. Cotton picking July to Dec., 
corn planting middle of Feb., grain harvest May, corn 
harvest July. Ranks first in cattle and cotton, second in 
sugar, sheep, mules and horses. Coal area 6,000 sq. miles, 
quality good. Iron ore and salt deposits extensive. Other 
minerals found, but extent unknown. Improved land 
averages $8, and unimproved $3 to $4 per acre. Unculti¬ 
vated and timber land seven-eighths of area, timber area 
one-fourth. Climate varies, temperate at north, semi- 
tropical at south. Health everywhere most excellent. 
Thermometer ranges from 35 to 98 deg., but seldom rises 
to the latter temperature; at Austin averages winter 56 
deg., summer 80 deg. Rainfall averages at Austin 35 
inches, increases on coast and to the south, decreases to 
13 inches in N. W. 


UTAH. 

Settled 1848 at Salt Lake by Mormons from Illinois. 
March, 1849, state of ‘ ‘Deseret” organized. Congress 
refused to receive constitution adopted. Utah territory 
organized September, 1850. Troubles with government 
till 1858. Federal officers driven from territory 1856. 
Number counties 24. Territorial elections annual, first 
Monday in August. Number senators 12, representatives 
24, sessions of legislature biennial, in odd-numbered years, 
meeting second Monday in Januai^, holds 60 days. Terms 
of senators and representatives 2 years each. Voting 
population 32,773, native white 15,795, foreign white 18,- 
283, colored 695. School system fair, school age 6-18 
years, number colleges 1. Legal interest 10 per cent., by 
contract any rate. 

Average length 350 miles, width 260 miles, area 82,190 
miles, 52,601,600 acres. Surface rugged and broken, 
with some rich valleys. Traversed by Wahsatch, Uintah, 
Roan, Little, Sierra Lasal, Sierra Abajo, San Juan, Sierra 
Paboches and Tushar mountains. Southeast portion 
elevated plateaus, western portion disconnected ridges. 
Great Salt Lake is 130 sq. miles in area. In N. W. a 
large area of desert land. Soil in valleys very productive. 
Yield fine crops of cereals and vegetables. Wheat best 
crop. Fruits successful. Grazing important interest. 
Dairying profitable and interest is growing rapidly. 
Forests sufficient for home purposes. Gold, copper and 
silver in Wahsatch mountains. Silver predominates. Coal 
in valley of Weber river. Salt found in large deposits and 


the lake supply inexhaustible. Territory ranks third in 
silver. 

Climate mild and healthy. Warmer W. of Wahsatch 
mountains. Summers dry and hot in S. W. Rainfall aver¬ 
ages 16 inches at S. and 17 at N., chiefly in October 
and April. Spring opens in April. Cold weather begins 



late in November. In mountains winters severe and snows 
heavy. Temperature at Salt Lake averages, winter 35 deg., 
summer 75 deg. 

Chief Cities.—Salt Lake City (capital) and Ogden. 
Leading Industries.—Mining, stock-raising and agricult¬ 


ure. 


WASHINGTON. 

Named for George Washington. First settlement 1845, 
preceded, however, by Hudson Bay Co/s trading posts. 
Organized as territory 1853, admitted as state 1889. 
First legislature assembled at Olympia February, 1854. 
Indian wars 1855 and 1858. Gold discovered 1855. 
Island San Juan in dispute between United States and 
England 1859. Rights of the Hudson Bay and Puget 
Sound Co. purchased. Number counties 33. All elec¬ 
tions Tuesday after first Monday in Nov. Number sena¬ 
tors 12, representatives 24, sessions of legislature biennial 
in odd-numbered years, meeting first Monday in October. 
Terms of senators and representatives 2 years each. Num¬ 
ber colleges 2, school age, 4-21 years, school endowment 
reserved large. Legal interest 10 per cent, by contract 
any rate. 





















































326 


ATLAS OF THE WORLD. 


C 


Topography, Area, Soil, Products, Etc. — Extreme 
length E. and W. 341 miles, width 242 miles, area 66,880 
square miles, 42,803,000 acres. Coast line 200 miles. 
Columbia river navigable 175 miles. Excellent harbors in 
Puget Sound. Admiralty Inlet and Hood’s canal. Scen¬ 



ery, especially on Columbia, grand. Columbia river 
current overcomes tide at the mouth, and water in the bar 
drinkable. Cereals flourish but corn not successful. 
Wheat, oats, hops, fruit of temperate climates, except 
peaches, are staple. Grazing region entire section east of 
Cascades, covered with inexhaustible supply of bunch 
grass. Stock raising and dairying growing industries. 
Lumber resources unsurpassed. Coal on Bellingham bay 
and at Seattle, area of coal-bearing strata 20,000 sq. miles. 
Gold-bearing quartz and silver lodes in Cascade and Coast 
ranges. Copper, cinnabar, lead and other minerals are 
found. 

Climate.—On coast dry season from April to November, 
rest of year rainy. Rainfall averages at north 96 inches, 
for entire section 54 inches. Winters mild, little snow or 
ice. Summers cool with sea breezes. Temperature aver¬ 
ages winter 39 deg., summer 61 deg., ranges 30 deg. to 90 
deg. _ Eastern section dry, rainfall 10 inches. 

Chief Cities.—Olympia (capital,) Walla Walla, Seattle, 
Tacoma. 

Leading Industries.—Agriculture, lumbering, grazing, 
mining etc. 


soldiers furnished, 91,327. Number counties, 66. All 
elections Tuesday after first Monday in Nov.; number 
senators 33, representatives 100; sessions biennial, in odd- 
numbered years, meeting second Wednesday in Jan.; term 
of senators 4 years, of representatives 2 years. Number 
electoral votes 11, number congressmen 9, number voters 
340,482; insane, idiots, convicts, bribers, betters and duel¬ 
ists excluded from voting. Number colleges 7, number 
public schools 6,588, school age 4-20 years. Legal interest 
7 per cent., by contract 10 per cent, usury forfeits entire 
interest. 

Topography, Area, Soil, Products, Etc. — Extreme 
length N. and S. 298 miles, width, 260 miles, area 54,450 
sq. miles, 34,848,000 acres. Besides the great lakes Mich¬ 
igan and Superior, the state contains Green Bay, Winne¬ 
bago, Geneva, Devil’s lake and innumerable other lakes in 
the central and northern sections of the state, of unsur¬ 
passed beauty, making the state a favorite place of summer 
resort. Much of state prairie, but enormous stretches of 
magnificent pine and hardwood timbers remain untouched. 
Soil excellent and adapted to farming, dairying and 
stock raising. Fruit and berries fine crop. Cranberries 
largely raised. Wheat best crop, flax, buckwheat, hay, 
corn, oats staples. Lead mines Grant Lafayette and Iowa 
counties; native copper in Crawford and Iowa counties; 
iron ores in Dodge, Sauk, Jackson and Ashland counties. 
Ranks second in hops, third in barley and potatoes, fourth 



WISCONSIN. 

“ Badger State.” Settled first by French at Green Bay, 
1669. Formed part of the Northwest territory. Included 
in Indiana Territory, 1800. Became part of Michigan 
territory, 1805. Wisconsin territory organized 1836. 
Present boundaries fixed 1838. Admitted as state, May, 
1848. Seventeenth state to join Union. Number Union 



in rye and buckwheat, fifth in oats and agricultural imple¬ 
ments. Improved land averages SI8 and unimproved 810 
per acre. 

Climate.—Temperature averages winter 20 deg., sum¬ 
mer 71 deg., ranges from 32 deg. below zero to 95 deg. 
Rainfall 31 inches, including snow. Snows heavy, 
especially at north; spring late, summer short, fall pleasant. 



































































ATLAS OF THE WORLD. 


327 


Chief Cities.—Milwaukee, port of entry, great beer¬ 
brewing center; Madison (capital), Eau Claire, Fond du 
Lac, Oshkosh, La Crosse. 

Leading Industries. — Lumbering, farming, mining, 
manufacturing, brewing, pork-packing, dairying, etc. 

DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. 

Named for Columbus. First as seat of U. S. govern¬ 
ment 1790 by act of Congress. Formed out of Washing¬ 
ton Co., Md. (64 sq. miles). Government removed to 
District 1800. Captured by British 1814, and capitol, 
executive mansion and congressional library burned. Gov¬ 
erned by Congress till 1871, when a legislative body of 33 
(11 appointed by the president and 22 elected) was created. 
Executive officers still appointed by president. Officers 
appointed are paid by the United States, those elected, by 
the District. Citizens of District have no vote for national 
officers. Schools superior. Legal interest 6 per cent., by 
contract 10, more forfeits entire interest. Population, 
1880, 177,638. Miles railroad, 18. Surface made up of 
flats and hills. Similar in all features and products to 
Southern Maryland. Cities.—Washington (capital U. S.), 
pop. 147,307, Georgeton, pop. 12,578. 

THE WHITE HOUSE AT WASHINGTON, D. C. 

The White House, at Washington, D. C., is 170 feet 
long by 86 feet wide. The largest apartment, known as 
the east room, is 80 by 40 feet in dimensions and 22 
feet high. The adjoining blue room, finished in blue and 
gold, is devoted to receptions, diplomatic and social. The 
green and red rooms, so called from their finishings, are 
each 30 by 20. The rooms on the second floor are occu¬ 
pied by the executive office and the apartments of the Pres¬ 
ident's family. 

THE WASHINGTON MONUMENT. 

The corner-stone was laid by President Polk, July 4th, 
1848, and December 6, 1884, the cap-stone was set in 
position. The foundations are 126£ feet square and 36 
feet 8 inches deep. The base of the monument is 55 feet 
1£ inches square, and the walls 15 feet £ inch thick. At the 
500-foot mark, where the pyramidal top begins, the shaft 
is 34 feet 5£ inches square and the walls are 18 inches thick. 
The monument is made of blocks of marble 2 feet thick, 
and it is said there are over 18,000 of them. The height 
above the ground is 555 feet. The pyramidal top termin¬ 
ates in an aluminum tip, which is 9 inches high, and 
weighs 100 ounces. The mean pressure of the monument 
is 5 tons per square foot, and the total weight, foundation 
and all, is nearly 81,000 tons. The door at the base, 
facing the capitol, is 8 feet wide and 16 feet high, 
and enters a room 25 feet square. An immense iron 
framework supports the machinery of the elevator, which 
is hoisted with steel wire ropes two inches thick. At one 
side begin the stairs, of which there are fifty flights, con¬ 
taining eighteen steps each. Five hundred and twenty 
feet from the base there are eight windows, 18x24 inches, 
two on each face. The area at the base of the pyramidal 
top is l,187i feet, space enough for a six-room house, 
each room to be 12x16 feet. The Cologne Cathedral is 
525 feet high ; the pyramid of Cheops, 486 ; Strasburg 
Cathedral 474 ; St. Peter’s at Pome 448 ; the capitol at 
Washington, 306, and Bunker hill monument, 221 feet. 
The Washington monument cost $1,500,000 and was the 
highest structure in the world prior to the completion of 
the Eifel Tower in Paris, which is 984 feet in height. 

WYOMING. 

First settlement Ft. Laramie, 1867. Organized as a 
Territory from 1868. Number counties 9; all elections 
Tuesday after first Monday in November; number senators 
12, representatives 24; sessions biennial, in even-numbered 


years, meeting second Tuesday in January, hold 60 days; 
terms of senators and representatives 2 years each; voters 
10,180, native white 6,042, foreign white 3,199, colored 
949. Good school system started, school age 7-21. Legal 
interest rate 12 per cent., by contract any rate. 

Length 350 miles, width 275 miles, area 97,575 sq. 
miles, 62,438,000 acres. Surface traversed by Eocky 
Mountains, forming the continental divide, and is high 
and mountainous, varying in elevation from 4,800 to 12,000 
feet. At the N. W. is the Yellowstone National Park, 
3,600 sq. miles in area, and one of the greatest natural 



to o ct 


wonders of the continent. It varies from 6,000 to over 
12,000 feet in elevation, and its scenery is one vast pan¬ 
orama. Along the streams and in the valleys are tracts of 
arable lands w r hich may be made to produce prolifically with 
irrigation. Mountains, covered with forests of considerable 
extent, contain precious and base minerals in great depos¬ 
its. Soil, where water can be had, is good, soil chiefly 
suited to grazing. Half the Territory grazing land. 
Wheat, rye, oats and barley flourish, frost two frequent for 
corn. Water plentiful, game and fur-bearing animals 
numerous, iron ore abundant, mainly red hemantite. Cop¬ 
per, lead, plumbago and petroleum found, gold in the 
Sweetwater country and near Laramie City, valuable de¬ 
posits of soda in valley of the Sweetwater. Coal abundant 
and of good quality at Evanston, Carbon, Kock Springs and 
other points. Climate cold, severe in mountains, milder in 
valleys. Healthful, air pure, dry and bracing. Kainfall, 
15 inches. Temperature averages, summer 66 deg., winter 
18 deg., ranges from 31 deg. below to 80 deg. above. July 
warmest month, January coldest, latter averages 10 deg. 

Chief Cities.—Cheyenne (capital), Laramie 

Chief Industries.—Grazing, mining and agriculture, 
but little is done in manufacturing. Immense oil wells 
have been recently discovered. 
















































-imcsrtsft 


iiiii 










o\r P®@r 





*ou want some good advice. Rise early. Be abstemious. Be frugal. 
Attend to your own business and never trust it to another. 
Be not afraid to work, and diligently, too, with your own hands. 
Treat every one with civility and respect. Good manners insure success. 
Accomplish what you undertake. Decide, then persevere. Diligence and 
industry overcome all difficulties. Never be mean—rather give than take 
the odd shilling. Never postpone till to-morrow what can be done to-day. 
Never anticipate wealth from any source but labor. Honesty is not only 
the best policy, but the only policy. Commence at the first round and 
keep climbing. Make your word as good as your bond. Seek knowledge 
to plan, enterprise to execute, honesty to govern all. Never overtrade. 
Never give too large credit. Time is money. Reckon the hours of the 
day as so many dollars, the minutes as so many cents. Make few promises. 
Keep your secrets. Live within your income. Sobriety above all things. 
Luck is a word that does not apply to a successful man. Not too much 
caution—slow but sure is the thing. The highest monuments are built piece 
by piece. Step by step we mount the pyramids. Be bold—be resolute 
when the clouds gather, difficulties are surmounted by opposition. Self- 
confidence, self-reliance is your capital. Your conscience the best monitor. 
Never be over-sanguine, but do not underrate your own abilities. Don’t 
be discouraged. Ninty-nine may say no, the hundreth, yes: take off 
your coat: roll up your sleeves, don’t be afraid of manual labor ! America 
is large enough for all—strike out for the west. The best letter of 
introduction is your own energy. Lean on yourself when you walk. 
Keep good company. Keep out of politics unless you are sure to win— 
you are never sure to win, so look out. 




































































































































































FIRE INSURANCE. 


327 



THE BURNING OF CHICAGO, OCT. 9, 1871. 


(jXj_ 
-<J>-o— 





he earliest mention of anything like insur¬ 
ance as conducted at present was among 
the Anglo Saxon guilds or unions, who, 
in return for specific contributions, guar¬ 
anteed each other ‘ ‘ against loss from 
fire, water, robbery or other calamity.” 

The next allusion is in a speech of 
Lord Keeper Bacon, at the opening of 
the first parliament of Queen Elizabeth, 
in the following words: “ Doth not the 
wise merchant in every adventure of 
danger give part to have the rest assured?” 

But it was not until after the great fire of London, 
in 1666, that Ave find insurance assuming a definite 
shape. In 1681, the first regular office for insurance 
Avas opened in London. The Hand in Hand Contribu- 
tionship Society Avas started in 1696 and still survives. 
Insurance companies Avere established in Scotland in 
1720, in Germany in 1750. In Philadelphia, Benjamin 
Franklin was one of the organizers and first directors 
of a fire insurance company in 1752. France folloAved 
in 1816, and Russia in 1827. 

Early insurance Avas mere gambling, in the 17th and 
early part of the 18th centuries. In 1694, a marriage 
portion of $1,000 Avas offered to single men and Avomen 
upon the payment of 50 cents a quarter until married. 


A sharp couple immediately subscribed, were married 
at once, claimed their $2,000, and wrecked the com¬ 
pany. Companies were organized for all imaginable 
insurance, such as insurance against housebreaking, 
insurance against highwaymen, assurance from lying, 
assurance of horses against sickness, death or accident. 
This last company had a nominal capital of ten million 
dollars. 

The insurance of that day was simple gaming, for 
the reason that the parties insuring had no insurable 
interest in the property or persons insured. 

As an instance, in 1765 some speculator imported 
800 men, Avomen and children from Franconia and 
Suabia and left them in Goodman’s Fields, without 
money, shelter, food or friends. Some of them died 
on the third day, and immediately numerous wagers 
Avere laid as to the number who Avould die per day and 
Aveek. 

This was gambling m human life without a single 
feature of life insurance, except a sum of money paya¬ 
ble at the death of a certain party. 

Insurance is a contract by one party to indemnify 
another party for loss or damage to his property dur¬ 
ing a certain specified period. 

The contract itself is called a policy and the consid¬ 
eration paid is termed the premium. 
















































































































328 


FIRE INSURANCE. 


1 3 11 

The party issuing the contract or policy is called 
I insurer or underwriter , and the other the insured or 
assured. 

The latter is the more correct term, as the indemnity 
is for loss or damage and not against them. It is not 
a guard against calamity, but aids in softening or alle¬ 
viating the results arising from it. 

Insurance promotes commerce, manufactures and 
business enterprises generally, by sharing the results 
of calamities, the very prospect of which would deter 
many from making the venture. 

It divides losses that would completely wreck indi¬ 
vidual fortunes among a large number of persons and 
corporations, so that the loss is slightly felt by any. 

In fact insurers are nearly always incorporated com¬ 
panies. 

These companies are of two kinds, mutual and joint 
stock companies. 

In a joint stock company the capital is limited to the 
amount named in the articles of incorporation or char¬ 
ter, and is divided into shares owned by stockholders, 
and transferable. The affairs of the company are 
administered by a president, secretary, and other offi¬ 
cers, and a board of directors, selected by the stock¬ 
holders. 

In a mutual insurance company the capital consists 
of the deposit notes of its members, by the part of 
premiums paid in cash and the profits upon invest¬ 
ments. 

The insured in-a mutual company becomes a member 
of the company by the mere act of insurance. 

In a joint stock company the premiums are collected 
at the time of effecting the insurance. In a mutual 

t 

company they are for the most part collected after the 
loss by assessment upon all the members of the com¬ 
pany. 

Insurance companies are generally known by the 
names of casualties for which they indemnify the loser. 
Hence we have fire insurance, life insurance, accident 
insurance, health insurance, plate-glass insurance, 
marine insurance, and inland marine insurance com¬ 
panies. 

In fact, as we have seen in the commencement of 
this chapter, that companies and organizations have 
been made to indemnify for loss or damage from almost 
any and every conceivable cause, such as hail, torna¬ 
does, accident or disease of live stock, honesty of 
employes and public officers. 

T\ Fire insurance is, as its name denotes, a contract to 
Cw/ indemnify for loss by fire up to a certain amount 
/Ty named in the policy, in return for a specified considera¬ 


tion. The contract or policy provides “ that the com¬ 
pany will not be liable for loss or damage by fires 
caused by an invasion, insurrection, riot, civil commo¬ 
tion, military or usurped power.” 

The effect of this clause is that as the rate of premium 
is calculated for a peaceable, law-abiding community, 
the policy becomes null and void when civil authority 
is dethroned and anarchy or military power takes its 
place. 

The policy further provides that the insured must 
have a clear title to or at least an equitable or insurable 
interest in the property insured, another provision in 
the interest of public policy, as temptation consequent 
upon insuring another’s property would be to see that 
it was destroyed. 

Another provision in the contract is, that “no prem¬ 
ises thus insured nor any part thereof shall be used for 
or to carry on any unlawful traffic, trade or business.” 

This provision is needful to protect the company 
from the moral hazard of the insured destroying his 
own premises when tracked too close by the law and 
then getting indemnity for the self-caused loss or 
damage. 

Another provision nullifies the policy when certain 
articles are kept upon the premises, articles which 
ignite spontaneously, or at a low temperature or are 
explosive, or the keeping of which is forbidden by 
municipal regulations, such as naptha, gasoline, var¬ 
nish, camphene, gunpowder, etc., unless specially pro¬ 
vided for in the contract by written indorsement. 

411 these clauses and conditions are demanded by the 
public safety and in the interest of good morals and 
government. 

Another condition imposes upon the insured the duty 
of using his best endeavors to save and protect the 
property when exposed to, at and after the fire, and 
also, that there can be no abandonment of the property 
to the company. 

This is in consonance with the principle, the sound¬ 
ness of which cannot be disputed, that the insured 
must not under any circumstances make a profit by 
loss or damage by fire. 

The other provisions of the contract refer to notice 
to the company in case of loss, and the manner of prov¬ 
ing amount of the loss or damage and settlement of 
the claim. 

Notice of loss must be given forthwith to the com¬ 
pany or one of its agents, and within thirty days the 
insured must render a particular account of his loss, 
duly signed and sworn to, stating the time, origin and 
circumstances of the fire, the title, cash value, all other 











































FIRE INSURANCE. 




insurance upon the property, and amount of loss or 
damage and a certificate from the nearest magistrate, 
notary public, or the chief of the fire department (if 
there be one) stating that he knows the circumstances 
attending the fire and believes the assured has honestly 
lost the amount stated by assured. 

In case property is damaged by the fire or water 
thrown upon the property, or by removal, the property 
so damaged is to be separated from that not damaged 
and a list thereof made stating amount, cost, cash value 
and damage thereto. 

O 

All these provisions are to aid the adjusting agent 
of the company in arriving at an accurate and speedy 
settlement of the claim. 

Adjusting claims is a peculiar business, and the 
adjuster is too frequently considered as a kind of shark 
whose business is solely to cheat and defraud the in¬ 
surer who has been unfortunate enough to have a loss. 

The adjuster needs to know human nature “ like a 
book,” have an extended knowledge of values of many 
kinds of property, a temper that cannot be ruffled by 
insult, and an abundance of common sense and tact. 

His instructions from the company are very rarely 
specific, but general and very brief. 

1st. Ascertain as nearly as possible the exact amount of the loss. 

2d. Investigate origin and all the circumstances attending the fire. 



3d. Find out whether claimant is honest or a rascal, and his loss 
an honest claim or not. 

4th. If honest paj r it. If dishonest fight it, unlesss it can 
he compromised for a less sum than it will cost to whip it 
at law. 

It is to the advantage of the company to settle all 
claims speedily and in a manner to make friends. 

Self interest is opposed to dilatory settlements and 
litigation, and no company allows a claim to drift into 
the courts, except where it feels obliged to fight from 
motives based in regard to good morals and sound pub¬ 
lic policy. 

This applies to marine, life, fire and accident com¬ 
panies alike. 

Unresisted fraud is contagious, and endangers public 
morality and safety. 

This subject of insurance frauds will be treated of 
farther on. 

As soon as the agent has agreed with the insured as 
to amount to be insured and rate of premium, he makes 
out the written part of the policy, with date of com¬ 
mencement and expiration of the risk, and counter¬ 
signs it as agent. 

He then enters the written part of the policy, and 
the other information in his policy register (furnished 
by the company) about as follows: 


NATIONAL INSURANCE COMPANY. 


No. Policy 
and 

Renewal. 

No. Policy 
Renewed. 

Name and Resi¬ 
dence of Assured. 

Term. 

Commencem’t 
of Risk. 

Expiration 
of Risk. 

Copy of Written portion of Policy. 

(Let the copy be full and exact.) 

Amount 

Insured. 

Rate. 

Amount 

Prem. 

7668 

8465 

Henry H. Brown, 

1 Year 

March 12, '83. 

March 12, '84. 

On his stock of merchandise, consisting chiefly of 
dry goods, notions, gent’s furnishings, clothing, 
hats, caps, boots and, shoes, contained in two-story 
gravel-roofed brick building, situated 41 Main St., 
Fairfield, Iowa. 

$5000 other insurance concurrent herewith per. 
mitted. 

$2000 

I'A 

$30.00 


This done he proceeds to fill out his Daily Report to 
the Company, as follows : 

NATIONAL INSURANCE COMPANY. 


No. 7658. 

Last insured by 
this Co. under 
No. 3466. 

(If Co. has ever 
had this risk be¬ 
fore give No. of 
last policy.) 


How much? $1600. 


(Form 4.) 

Agency at Fairfield, Iowa. 

GRANTS INSURANCE 


Sum insured, $2000. 


Old rate 1)4, New 1%. 


Premium, $30.00 

To Henry H. Brown, of Fairfield, Iowa. 

As follows: On his stock of merchandise, consisting chiefly of dry goods, 
notions, gent’s furnishing goods, clothing, hats, caps, boots and shoes, con. 
tained in two-story gravel-roofed brick building, situated 41 Main Street, 
Fairfield, Iowa. 

$6000 other insurance concurrent herewith permitted. 

Term of one year, from March 12,1883, to March 12, 1884. 
Answer these questions fully, and always give precise wording of written 
portion of policy, even in case of renewal. Know who, what, and where 
you insure. 

Has this risk been declined by any other Company or Agency? No. 

Is there other insurance? Yes. Give Companies, amount and rate. 
Citizens, N. Y, $2000,1%. Home, IV. Y., $2000, IK- -Etna, Ct., $1000, 1)4. 
Are all the Policies worded precisely alike? Fes. Has this Co. other insur- 
rance within 100 feet? Yes. (Give No. of Policies, Amount and Distance.) 
Policy No. 3697, $1000, distant 60 ft. Policy No. 6326, $2000, distant 80 ft. 



If on building, has assured title by deed? Yes. 

Is property incumbered? Yes. 

How much is the incumbered property worth? $8000. 

Have you personally inspected this risk? Yes. 

How far is the risk from your office? Two blocks. 

Is risk within reach of fire department and water supply? Yes. 

L. H. SHARP, Agent. 
ANSWER ALL THESE QUESTIONS FULLY. 

How long has the insured resided at your place? 15 years. If on build, 
ings, how old? About 7 years. Do you know and fully recommend the 
insured as unquestionably reliable and trustworthy? Yes. Is he free from 
litigation and financial embarrassment? Yes. Is lie doing a profitable bus¬ 
iness? i es. What is the present cash value of the property insured? $8000. 
Has assured ever suffered by fire? Yes. Is building occupied by its owner 
or tenant? Tenant. What is used for lights? Kerosene. Are the stove 
pipes, flues, and chimneys secure? Yes. Are the walls between each tene- 
ment without openings? Yes. Do the division walls rise above the roof? 
Yes. How far? 12 inches. What kind of roof lias building insured or con¬ 
taining insured property? Gravel. 

Basement? Storage. First story? Risk. 

Second story? Dwelling. Third story? 


m 

•■■no 
2 0 ® 

s g s 

g.2 ® Fourth story? 
ft l 

m 

<D 

i* C *r 

co SO 

© *2 g East street. 
y.PS West 100 feet to small D bam 


Nortli adj. feet to 2 S. B., used for store. 

South alley 20 feet to 2S. D., used for barber shop. 






















































































330 


FIRE INSURANCE. 


At the end of the month the agent makes up his 
“ Monthly Account Current,’’ in the following, or a 
similar form. 

NATIONAL INSURANCE COMPANY. 

RETURN FOR MONTH OF March, 1883. 

Agency at Fairfield, State of Iowa. E- B- Sharp, Agent. 


43 . 

j. z — 

d£j 

c / 

111 

o" ,, 

NAME A RESIDENCE 
OF ASSURED. 

Date of 
Policy. 

Time 

Expiration. 

Amount of 

Policy. 

Rate. 

Premium. 


Month 

>> 

ai 

Mo. 

Yr. 


7656 

John Broun 

o 

March 

3 yrs. 

2 

Mar. 

1886 

5000 

1 

$50.00 


7657 

John Smith. 

8 

(( 

1 “ 

8 


1884 

3000 

2 

60.00 

3465 

7658 

Henry H. Brown, 

12 

(« 

1 “ 

12 

4. 

1884 

2000 

VA 

30.00 


ACCOUNT CURRENT for Month of March, 1883. 


By Balance clue Company at last report.. 
“ Premiums for current month. 


DEBIT ITEMS. 

To Balance due agency at last report. 

“ Commission on $140 premium, 15 per cent_ 

“ Expressage, $. Postage, $. 

“ Return Prem. Policy No..., less commis’n $. 


“ Inclosed Draft on First National Bank. 


21 


118 


67 


140 


$a 


00 


Balance due Company forward to next report, $. 

(«) Put footings of credit. (6) Put footings of debit, (c) Balance, if any. 

&iT Make checks or drafts payable to the order of the National Insurance 
Company. Send your personal check and save us exchange. Send no cur¬ 
rency at our risk.' For small amounts use postal money orders. Name the 
bank on which draft or check is made. Vouchers must accompany every 
charge. 

The second column of within report should contain every number con¬ 
secutively, from the number last reported to the last number of this report. 
If a policy or renewal is “not taken” or “canceled,” or for other reasons 
not to be included in report, enter the number and put explanation oppo¬ 
site. Every number must be accounted for in its order. 

Send this return promptly with close of month, and enter a copy of this 
account current on your Register, with date of mailing. 

In case of insurance upon manufacturing risks, where 
peculiar hazards enhance the rate of premium, the 
assured is required to fill out a blank of from 20 to 50 
questions which is called a survey. 

These questions are pertinent to the risk in question 
and designed to give the company as good an idea as 
possible of the risk assumed, such as kind of power 
employed, security of steam boiler house, velocity of 
machinery, especially of any runs in wooden boxes, 
kind of lubricant, disposition of dirt, waste and oily 
rags, etc., etc. 

Some companies refuse to be bound upon such facto¬ 
ries until after survey has been received, inspected and 
risk accepted. 

Every company has its own list of prohibited risks, 
copies of which are sent to the agent for his guidance. 
These vary. One company makes money on a class of 
risks where another meets only losses. 

Every company aims to make money on each class of 
risks, when taken in periods of say ten years. 

Many companies keep their experience tables of 


losses and premiums upon separate classes of risks 
sacredly guarded even from their own employes. 
Hence no such average tables of the results of lire 
insurance are obtainable as we have of life insurance 
experience. 

Fire insurance, consequently, has not become in any 
sense an “exact science ” and cannot be until personal 
jealousy has been laid aside and companies combine, 
more than in the past, for mutual education and aid. 

At present an element of chance or luck seems not 
wholly eliminated from the problem of ratio of pre¬ 
mium to hazard. 

One quantity is now and always may be indetermi¬ 
nate, and that is the moral hazard, although it has its 
value in the problem, and that value should be deter¬ 
mined. 

At present companies can only avoid it as far as pos¬ 
sible by continued repetitions to local agents of the 
precept, “ Do not insure anything for more than three- 
fourths its cash value.” “ Let the insured be a sharer 
to at least that extent.” 

But greed and ignorance too frequently combine in 

the local a^ent to heed the rule. 

© 

An instance known to the writer is in point. A 
merchant built himself a home, and insured it, of 
course. The supervising agent saw a finely-painted 
handsome dwelling. 

Fire came mysteriously. Extinguished once, it 
started again, and the third time only did it succeed. 

The adjuster, who had also been the supervising 
agent, found only a pile of ashes. The owner bewailed 
his homeless situation, and extolled the beauty and 
comfort and value of the home built to shelter his 
family, as he had hoped, for long years. 

Investigation proved that paint had, like charity, 
“covered a multitude of sins.” Accidentally the 
adjuster learned that the sills and all the timber had 
been bought after years of use at the bottom of lumber 
piles. The lumber was the debris of another lumber 
yard. Shingles had cost only 50 cents a thousand and 
everything except paint and nails in proportion, while 
the furniture had come from a second-hand store. The 
builder and all but one man who worked on the house 
had left the state, and the agent, who had insured only 
the modest sum of $3,500 on a house that really cost 
about $1,500, found that he had been fooled and his 
companies engaged in a long and expensive strife. 

The note books of every adjuster are full of just 
such instances of property built and furnished to sell 
to insurance companies. 

In another case known to the writer the adjuster 





























































































FIRE INSURANCE. 



went to pay for a farmer’s barn, grain, horses, agricul¬ 
tural implements, etc., etc. People in town and 
country spoke highly of the poor fellow. The adjus¬ 
ter found his man suffering from a burned face and 
hands, incurred while trying to save his horses, and 
with these evidences did not dream of anything save 
honesty; however, for form’s sake, he had the insured 
sworn as to the facts in the case, other insurance, etc., 
drew his check upon the company and departed for the 
next loss. 

He was recalled by a dispatch from his local agent, 
and found another adjuster for another company, who 
had come to pay the same claimant upon a policy taken 
by another agent. 

By chance the same notary was employed and said, 
“ Why, Mr. C. paid for this loss, and he (the claimant) 
swore then that he had no other insurance.” Mr. C. 
was telegraphed for. 

To adjuster No. 2 claimant swore he had no insur¬ 
ance except that in his company, and in answer to the 
question whether he had not been insured in company 
No. 1, he declared on oath, that he had never heard of 
such a company. The upshot in this case was that he 
gave adjuster No. 1 the check he had received and paid 
both adjusters for their time and expenses, so that his 
triple crime availed him nothing, but cost him the loss 
of his property and three hundred dollars besides. 

As previously shown, the first duty of the assured in 
case of loss is to notify the company through its local 
agent. His second, to prepare a statement of the 
amount of his loss or damage. The company, in any 
considerable loss, sends its adjuster to look into the 
loss and all attending circumstances. Appended here¬ 
with is a “ Proof of Loss,” to which should be attached 
a full list of property destroyed and also all damaged 
articles with loss on each. 

The damage or loss is usually settled by mutual 
agreement of assured and the adjuster. 

If they cannot agree, arbitrators may be selected, 
one by each party, and these chosing a third. 


FORM OF A PROOF OF LOSS. 


TO THE 

GLENS FALLS INSURANCE COMPANY, 


OF GLENS FALLS, NEW YORK. 


United States of America. 


State of Indiana, 



ta, ) 
ion. \ 


ss. 


County of Marion. 

Be it Known, That on this seventeenth clay of June, A. D. 1883, before me, 
John Jones, a notary public, duly commissioned and sworn, and residing 
in the City of Indianapolis, in the County and State aforesaid, and author- 
ized by law to administer oaths therein, personally appeared Andrew V. 


Green, who, being duly sworn, depose and say, and each for himself says, 
that the following statement and the papers therein referred to, are signed 
with his own hand, contain a particular, just, and true account of his loss, 
in the words and figures following, to wit: 

I. That on the 15th day of October, A. D. 1882, the Glens Falls Insur¬ 
ance Company, of the Village of Glens Falls, by their Policy of Insurance, 
numbered 11,361, issued by Premium & Co., said company’s agents at Indi¬ 
anapolis, in the State of Indiana, did insure the party herein and therein 
named against loss or damage by fire, the written part of said policy, and 
of all changes thereof since issued, being precisely as follows, viz.: 

[Give the written portion of the Policy in full, and also copy in full of 
all indorsements, assignments, alterations, etc., which may have been 
made since policy was issued.] 

$4,500, on his slock of dry goods, hats, caps, and gent’s f urnishing goods. 

$3,00 on his office furniture, and 

$200 on his safe, all contained in the three-story brick, metal-roof building, 
situate No. 10 North Jones Street, in the City of Indianapolis, Ind. 

For the term of one year from the 15 th day of October, A. D. 1882, to the 15 th 
day of October, A. D. 1883, at noon, which said Policy was subsequently 

continued in force, by renewal, until the.day of.A. I). 18.., 

at noon. 

II. That in addition to the amount covered by said Policy of said Com¬ 
pany, there was no other insurance made or existing on said property or 
any part thereof whatever, except as particularly specified in the annexed 
“Schedule A,”showing the name of each Company, and the written por¬ 
tions of each Policy, and all changes therein since the Policies were issued. 

[See Note No. 1.] 

III. That at the time said Policy was issued the title tosaid insured prop¬ 
erty, and the incumbrances and liens thereon, stood as follows, viz: Title 
in said Andrew V. Green, without any incumbrance or liens thereon , and no 
other person or persons had any right, title, or interest of, to, or in said 
property, or any part thereof, whatever. 

[See Note No. 2.] 

IV. That at the time of the fire hereinafter mentioned the title to said 
insured property, and the incumbrances and liens thereon, stood as fol¬ 
lows, to wit: In said Andrew F. Green, and absolutely unincumbered, and 
no other person or persons had any right, title, or interest of, to, or in said 
property, or any part thereof, whatever; nor has there been any change in 
said title or interests; nor has there been any liens of any kind, on any of 
said property, since said Policy was issued, except as above specifically 
stated. 

V. The said holders of said incumbrances and liens at the time said 
Policy was issued, and at the time of said fire, respectively, had no insur¬ 
ance on said property, or any part thereof, except as particularly stated 
in annexed “ Schedule A.” 

[See Note No. 1.] 

VI. That the building insured or containing the property destroyed or 
damaged was occupied in its several parts, at the time of the fire herein¬ 
after mentioned, by the parties hereinafter named, and for the following 
purposes only, to-wit: 

Basement—Storage, Country Produce. G. IF. Farmer. 

1st Story—A. F. Green. Store. 

2nd—Several parlies. Law offices. 

3d — G.. T. Brown. Dwelling. 

And deponent says further, that there has been no change in the occu¬ 
pancy or use of the buildings, nor has there been any other building 
erected within one hundred feet thereof, nor has the occupation or use of 
any building within one hundred feet become more hazardous, nor his the 
hazard or risk of insured buildings been otherwise increased in any man¬ 
ner since the issuing of said Policy. 

VII. That the actual cash value of the property named in those items 
of said Policy upon which loss or damage is claimed in the next section, 
estimated under all the circumstances of age, condition, and circum¬ 
stances of location and market, at the time immediately preceding said 
fire, was as follows, viz.: 

Value of Merchandise . . $7,500... 

Value of Office Furniture .. $ 350 ... 

Value of Safe . . $ <;oo... 

As will more fully and particularly appear in the annexed “Schedule B,” 
which gives a full and accurate description, and a true itemized valuation 
of each building and article for which claim is made, with the amount of 
loss and damage on each, stated separately. 

[See Note No. 3.] 

VIII. That on the lOMday of June, A. D. 1883, at about 2 o’clock A. M. a 
fire occurred by which the property insured was injured or destroyed to 
the extent of the following amounts on the following named items of said 
Policy, for which the following named sums are claimed, viz.: 

Total Loss on each __ „ „ . 

Item of Policy. items of policy. Amount of Claim. 

$2,750... on Dry Goods ... $2,750... 

$ 783.60 on Hats and Caps . $ 783.60 

$ 376.40 on Gent’s Furnishing Goods . $ 370 A0 

$ 231.50 on Office Furniture .'._ $ 231 50 

$ 350 00 on Safe . $ 200.00 

$4,401.50 Total Loss with Total Claim on Company for. $4,341.50 


















































332 


FIRE INSURANCE. 


as herein and. in the statements and the several schedules and papers here¬ 
unto annexed particularly set forth, all of which are made a paid of this 
proof, and which the deponent declares to be a just, true, and faithful 
account of hi.i loss, as far as he has been able to ascertain the same. 

[Give loss under each item of the Policy, as “Dwelling,” “Household 
Furniture,” etc., and amount of claim on each item of policy.] 

IX. That the fire originated in the second story of the building, from some 
cause unknown to said deponent, but supposed to be an overheated stove. 

The said deponent further declares that the said fire did not originate by 
any act, design, or procurement on his part, nor on the part of any one 
having an interest in said property, or in any insurance thereon, nor in 
consequence of any fraud or evil practice done or suffered by him and that 
nothing has been done by or with his privity or consent to violate the con- 
dit ions of insurance, or render void the Policy aforesaid, and that he will 
furnish, whenever required by said Glens Falls Insurance Company, full 
particulars, exhibiting the construction of the building containing the 
property insured, its dimensions and condition at the time of the said fire, 
and such additional information concerning said insured property, the 
damage thereto, and the insurance thereon, as well by means of books of 
accounts and other vouchers furnished, as by replies to interrogatories 
made, as shall be required by said Company. 

[State all you know about the origin of the fire, fully; and, if origin or 
cause of fire is not known, give the general supposition.] 

'Witness my hand at Indianapolis, in the County of Marion, and State of 
Indiana, this 17 th day of June, A. D. 1883. 

Subscribed and sworn to before me, this j 
11th day of June, A. D. 1883. \ 


closely into the physical hazard, see if anything liable 
to spontaneous combustion is stored or kept on the 
premises—in short, to gain as full knowledge of every¬ 
thing affecting the hazard as he can, as well as the 
business standing and repute of the assured. The 
form of report varies with companies. Appended we 
give a sample : 

SUPERVISING AGENT’S REPORT. 

THE NATIONAL INSURANCE COMPANY. 

Agency at Jamestown, III. Name of Assured, A. B. Franklin. 

Location, 46 East Ma n St., Policy No. 65, Amount $1,500, Rate 1 %, Re¬ 
newal No.. Expires, Nov. 17, 1880, Description, On his Printing Presses, 

Card Cutters, Paper Cutters, Type and such other materials as are usually 
used in printing offices. On id floor of 3- story brick building. Block of 2, 
Stories, 3; Fire Walls, East; Roof, Composition; Cornice, ivood; Iron Shut¬ 
ters, No; Basement,.; 1st floor, Dry Ooods; 2nd floor, Offices, Millin¬ 

ery; 3rd floor, Risk. Small portable boiler, well secured, brick beneath. Ex¬ 
posures, N. St. 80 ft. to brick store; S. Isolated; E. Separate fire wall, double; 
W. St. mfeet to ‘l-story brick bank. Date of Survey, March 15,1880. Remarks, 
Good, clean. 1 quart Benzine only. Rate on Renewal 2 %. In such risks 
nothing can be saved in case of fire. Doing profitable business. 


JOHN JONES, n 
Notary Public. 

INSTRUCTIONS. 

Note 1.—In case of other insurance on the property or any part of it, by 
owner, mortgagee, or other person having any interest in or lien upon it, 
Schedule A must give the name of the Companies, date and term, rate, and 
amount of premium paid, and a full copy of the written portion of each 
Policy, and of all changes by indorsement, assignment, or otherwise, 
which may have been made since Policy was issued. 

Note 2.—Sections III. and IV. must show whether title is in fee simple, 
or whether held by contract, lease, or otherwise, as fact may be; also all 
incumbrances by mortgage, judgment, builders’or other liens, amounts 
thereof, severally, with names of pax-ties holding same. In case of pi-op- 
erty held in trust, or on commission, state (using a Schedule if necessai-y) 
the names of the owners, and the marks and numbers. 



It will thus be seen that insurance companies exer¬ 
cise all possible care of inspection and supervision. 
Should the supervisor see anything unsafe that the 
assured can remedy, he calls attention to it and asks 
that the change be made, giving his reasons. Oily 
waste used to wipe olf machinery and thrown aside in 
a corner he looks sharply after, knowing how often it 
bursts into a flame. Sawdust and oil will ignite in 
sixteen hours in a hot room. Cotton, saturated with 
linseed oil, in from six to ten hours. Iron and brass 


Note 3.—Schedule B should give an itemized statement of everything 
destroyed or damaged, with the value in one column, and the loss or dam¬ 
age in another, groxxped under the several items of the Policy by which 
the thing is claimed to be covered. The totals of the value of each gi-oup 
to be also entered in Section VII., as “value of dwelling,” “household 
furniture,” “barn No. 1,” “farm pi-oduce therein,” etc., etc. Schedule B 
should also give age, size, height of posts, materials of, condition of repair, 
etc., etc., of all buildings, and a descriptive mention of each item of 
property. 

Note 4.—Attach all Schedules and other papers pei-taining to this proof 
lirmly and securely to this blank by mucilage or fastenei-. 


MAGISTRATE’S OR NOTARY’S CERTIFICATE. 

Officers are cautioned to carefully read and thoroughly undei-stand the 
nature and i-esponsibility of this official certificate. 

State of Indiana, ) 

County of Marion. ( ss ' 

I. John Jones, residing in Indianapolis, and the most contiguous officer 
to the property within described, hereby certify that I am not concerned 
in the loss or claim above set forth, either as creditor or otherwise, ox- 
related to the insured or sixfferex-s; that I have exaixiined the circxxmstances 
attending the fire, or damage as alleged, and that I am well acquainted 
with the character and circumstances of the insui-ed, and do verily believe 
that he has, by misfortune, and without fraud or evil practice, sustained 
loss and damage on the property insured to the amount of Four Thousand 
Four Hundred Ninety-one 50-100 dollars. 

In Testimony Whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and 

,---, official seal, this Seventeeruh day of June, A. D. 1883. 

( K Seal Ul j JOHN JONES. 

' - , - ' Notary Public. 

Every careful company has its risks inspected by a 
“ supervising agent.” 

With most companies the same “special agent” 
unites the duties of supervisor and adjuster. 

The duties of the supervising agent are to look 


scraps or shavings, when oily, are liable to spontaneous 
ignition. 

In short, cleanliness and tidiness are essential to 
safety. No rate can be safely fixed for a dirty risk. 

The Minneapolis flour mill explosions only confirmed 
the previously entertained beliefs of experienced under¬ 
writers, although even they had failed to appreciate 
the terrible power of diffused flour, flour-mill dust, 
dust from shavings, etc. It required the actual demon¬ 
stration by after experiment to establish the fact that 
50 lbs of fine wheat flour difused through 4,000 cubic 
feet of air had, on the application of flame, the power 
to lift 250 lbs 80 feet high. 

At the Washburn Mill, a pair of mill stones, or 
burrs, were lifted and thrown over and outside the 
debris to a distance of forty feet. 

Hence, the reason why insurance companies and 
agents so often cry “ Clean up,” and, as it seems to 
many, are over zealous in preaching the gospel of 
cleanliness. Tidiness is safety in the farm house, city 
dwelling, shop, store, and factory, and inasmuch as 
property burned is gone—just so much abstracted from 
the fruits of industry—it should not be as hard a lesson 
to learn as it is that lack of cleanliness costs the people 
of these United States millions of dollars every year. 



































ife insurance has various forms 
of policy or contract,all of them, 
however, containing the one idea 
of a fixed sum paid at death of the 
party insured. The several forms 
are as follows: 

1st. A Policy issued to a person on 
Ids own life, payable at death to his 
executors, administrators or assigns. 

2d. A Policy issued to a wife (or to 
a husband for a wife) on the life of her 
husband, payable at his death to the 
wife for her own use, free from the 
claims of the husband’s representatives 
or creditors. This kind of policy is 
made payable, should the wife die before the husband, 
to his or her children. 

3d. Endowment Insurance Policies are issued, pay¬ 
able in a certain number of years to the assured, or 
should death occur before maturity, to his children or 
wife. 

LIFE POLICIES ON THE TEN PREMIUM NON¬ 
FORFEITING PLAN. 

Ten annual premiums secure a paid-up Life Policy, 
while the full amount of the policy will be paid if 
the party insured dies before completing the ten 
payments. 

If, after the receipt by the company of not less than 
three annual premiums, the policy should cease in con¬ 
sequence of the non-payment of premiums, then upon 


the surrender of the same, within six months, the com¬ 
pany will issue a new policy for the full value acquired 
under the old one; that is to say, if three annual prem¬ 
iums have been paid, the company will issue a policy 
for three-tenths of the sum originally insured, and in the 
same proportion for any number of payments, without 
further charge. 

EXAMPLE. 

Ten payments secure a paid-up policy of $1,000,.payable at death. 


Nine 

(( 

tt 

it 

tt 

900. 

If 

If 

Eight 

it 

it 

tt 

tt 

800. 

If 

f4 

Seven 

tt 

it 

a 

tt 

700. 

tt 

H 

Six 

(t 

it 

tt 

tt 

000. 

it 

If 

Five 

a 

it 

tt 

n 

500. 

tt 

it 

Four 

a 

tt 

tt 

it 

400. 

it 

it 

Three 

«i 

a 

tt 

a 

300. 

H 

ff 



4th. Life Policies paid up by fifteen or twenty 
annual premiums, non-forfeitable after three years, are 
issued. Also, Endowment Insurance Policies on the 
same non-forfeiting plan. This class of insurance es¬ 
pecially commends itself to debtors, who can thus pro¬ 
vide by installments for the liquidation of their debts 
at a given time, and yet, in the event of death, secure 
to their creditors the full amount of iheir claims. 

5th. Annuity Policies are issued, by which the com¬ 
pany guarantees, in consideration of a certain principal 
sum paid to the company, to grant a certain annual 
allowance or annuity during the life of a person who 
shall have paid such principal sum. This allowance de¬ 
pends upon the age of the person or annuitant at the 
time the principal sum is paid to the company—the 
older the annuitant the greater the yearly allowance 
that the company stipulates to pay. 























































































































334 


LIFE INSURANCE. 


DOUBLE ENDOWMENT for TWENTY YEARS. 

A Double Endowment is a twenty year endowment 
assurance policy, which will yield to the holder ot it, at 
maturity, double the amount insured in the event of 
death, and is the best form of endowment ever offered 
to those who are more desirous of receiving a large sum 
for their own use in advanced years, than of leaving it 
to their heirs in the event of their early death. 

SEMI-ENDOWMENT FOR TWENTY YEARS. 

A Semi-Endowment is a twenty year endowment 
assurance policy, which will yield to its holder, at ma¬ 
turity, half the amount insured in the event of death. 

These policies are desirable for those who not only 
wish to provide for their families, but also to make 
provision for themselves when the family is grown up, 
securing to themselves at the end of twenty years a cash 
value, which may equal the total amount paid to the 
company during the twenty years. 

SINGLE PREMIUM LIFE POLICIES 

Are policies for the whole life, the premium on which 
may be settled by a single payment. Persons having 
funds which they are reasonably confident they shall 
not require in business operations, or to meet current 
expenses, and who have an aversion to incurring future 
pecuniary liabilities, however small, prefer this mode 
of discharging their obligations to the company. 

There are some other plans or kinds of contract , such 
as the Tontine, etc., which have been adopted in some 
instances, but which have failed to become of general 
use, or have been thrown aside as impracticable. 

The most important case of life insurance is that 
which covers for the lienefit of a helpless family the 
life of the husband and father, its productive head. 

The doctrine of probabilities was first developed by 
Pascal & Iluygeus in regard to games of chance. 

In 1671 Jan DeWitt, of Holland, applied this table 
of probabilities to life contingencies, so as to determine 
the value of life annuities and reversions, in order to 
aid the government to raise loans. 

In 1698 the London “ Mercers Widows’ Fund” was 
started. This, as all earlier companies, was founded 
“rather on mutual benevolence than insurance.” 

It we take a thousand persons, starting in life to¬ 
gether, or alive at a given age, nothing is more certain 
than that their natural deaths will occur in a series dif¬ 
fering not very widely from that of any other thousand 
persons alive at the same age, under same circumstances. 

The truth of this general law is shown by the tables 
of mortality used in the calculation of life insurance 
premiums, and in the valuation of policies. 

These tables are the Carlisle, the English Life, and 


the Actuaries’ Rate or Combined Experience tables. 
The first of these is so called from the town of Carlisle, 
and was prepared by Mr. Milne, an eminent mathema¬ 
tician, from observations of the mortality in that town 
during the latter part of the last century. These ob¬ 
servations were applied to a promiscuous population of 
about eight thousand persons. The English Life table, 
the second above named, was prepared by Dr. Farr, 
from data furnished by the census of England, and the 
records of deaths in that country, and published in 1843. 
His observations extended over quite a number of years, 
and embraced the entire male population, taking city 
and country together. The Actuaries’, or Combined 
Experience table, the last above named, was prepared 
by a committee of actuaries, from the combined expe¬ 
rience of seventeen of the principal life insurance com¬ 
panies in England, and was deduced from the records of 
the deaths of insured lives. This table is thought to 
express more accurately than any other published table 
the mortality of selected lives thus far experienced by 
American companies; and that experience indicates a 
rate of mortality so much lower than that of the actu¬ 
aries’ rate as to make the assumption of that table 
entirely safe. 

MORTALITY TABLE— ASSURED LIVES. 

American Table of Mortality adopted by the State of New York as the 
standard for valuation of Policies. 



£ * 
a bo 

£4* 

5 

O 

Number 

Surviving 

at 

each age. 

Deaths in 
each year. 

Completed 

Age. 

Number 

Surviving 

at 

each age. 

2 >4 

C r* 

a 

C ° 

C ^ 

Completed 

Age. 

Number 

Surviving 

at 

each age. 

Deaths in 

each year. 

10 

100,000 

749 

40 

78,106 

765 

70 

38,569 

2,391 

11 

99,251 

746 

41 

77,341 

774 

71 

36,178 

2,448 

12 

98,505 

743 

42 

76,567 

785 

72 

33,730 

2,487 

13 

07,752 

740 

43 

75,782 

797 

73 

31,243 

2,505 

14 

97,022 

737 

44 

74,985 

812 

74 

28,738 

2,501 

15 

96,285 

735 

45 

74,173 

828 

75 

26,237 

2,476 

16 

95,550 

732 

46 

73,345 

848 

76 

23,761 

2,431 

17 

94,818 

720 

47 

72,497 

870 

77 

21,330 

2,369 

IS 

04,080 

727 

48 

71,627 

896 

78 

18,961 

2.291 

10 

93,362 

725 

49 

70,731 

927 

79 

16,670 

2,196 

20 

92,637 

723 

50 

69,804 

962 

80 

14,474 

2,091 

21 

91,014 

722 

51 

68,842 

1,001 

81 

12,383 

1,964 

22 

91,192 

721 

52 

67,841 

1,044 

82 

10,419 

1,816 

23 

90,471 

720 

53 

66,797 

1,091 

83 

8,603 

1,648 

24 

89,751 

710 

54 

65,706 

1,143 

84 

6,955 

1,470 

25 

SO,032 

718 

55 

64,563 

1,199 

85 

5,485 

1,292 

$S6 

88,314 

718 

56 

63,364 

1,260 

86 

4,193 

1,114 

27 

87,596 

718. 

57 

62,104 

1,325 

87 

3,079 

933 

28 

86,878 

718 

58 

60,779 

1,394 

88 

2,146 

744 

20 

86,160 

710 

59 

59,385 

1,468 

89 

1,402 

555 

30 

85,441 

720 

60 

57,917 

1,546 

90 

847 

385 

31 

84,721 

721 

61 

56,371 

1,628 

91 

462 

246 

32 

84,000 

723 

62 

54,743 

1,713 

92 

216 

137 

33 

83,277 

7‘26 

63 

53,030 

1,800 

93 

79 

58 

34 

82,551 

729 

64 

51,230 

1,889 

94 

21 

18 

35 

81,822 

732 

65 

40,341 

1,980 

95 

Q 

O 

3 

36 

81,090 

737 

66 

47,361 

2,070 




37 

,80,353 

742 

67 

45,291 

2,158 




38 

79,611 

749 

68 

43,133 

2,243 




30 

78,862 

756 

69 

40,890 

2,321 



** 


Long and careful observations have shown that though the life of any given 
individual is proverbially uncertain, yet that, if a large number of persons 
in ordinary circumstances at a given age be taken, there is a law, fixed 
and uniform, determining within very narrow limits the average number 
of years of life remaining to them. Forexample, if we take 10,000 persons 
at the age of 2-2 years, the sum of their ages at death will amount to about 
620,000 years, showing that on an average each person now 22 years old will 
live very nearly 41 years longer. This mean after lifetime is called expecta¬ 
tion of life at the assured age, that is, the number of years which one at 
that age may probably expect to live, though many will die sooner, and 
even 72 out of 10,000 during the first year. 












































































LIFE INSURANCE 


335 


EXPECTATION OF LIFE. 


Constructed from the Mortality Table. 


Years 

old. 

Expectation. 

Years 

old. 

Expectation. 

Y ears 

old. 

Expectation. 

Years. 

Years. 

Y ears. 

10 

48.7 

40 

28.2 

70 

8.5 

11 

48.1 

41 

27.5 

71 

8.0 

12 

47.4 

42 

26.7 

72 

7.6 

13 

46.8 

43 

26.0 

73 

7.1 

14 

46.2 

44 

25.3 

74 

6.7 

15 

45.5 

45 

24.5 

75 

6.3 

16 

44.9 

46 

23.8 

76 

5.9 

17 

44.2 

47 

23.1 

77 

5.5 

18 

43.5 

48 

22.4 

78 

5 1 

19 

42.9 

49 

21.6 

79 

4.8 

20 

42.2 

50 

20.9 

80 

4.4 

21 

41.5 

51 

20.2 

81 

4.1 

22 

40.9 

52 

19.5 

82 

3 7 

23 

40.2 

53 

18.8 

83 

3.4 

24 

39.5 

54 

18 1 

84 

3.1 

25 

38.8 

55 

17 4 

85 

2.8 

26 

38.1 

56 

16.7 

86 

2.5 

27 

37 4 

57 

16.1 

87 

2.2 

28 

36.7 

58 

15.4 

88 

1 9 

29 

36.0 

59 

14.7 

89 

1.7 

30 

35.3 

60 

14.1 

90 

1.4 

31 

34.6 

61 

13.5 

91 

1.2 

32 

33.9 

62 

12.9 

92 

1.0 

33 

33.2 

63 

12 3 

93 

.8 

34 

32.5 

64 

11.7 

94 

.6 

35 

31.8 

65 

11.1 

95 

.5 

36 

31.1 

66 

10.5 

. 

, . 

37 

30.4 

67 

10.0 

. , 

. . . 

38 

29.6 

68 

9.5 


. • • 

39 

28.9 

69 

9. 

*• 

... 


The essential securities for the stability of a company 
are honesty and efficiency of management, and the 
average rate of premium. 


This rate is calculated on the probability of life, and 
the probable expenses of the company. 

This scale or table of the probability or expectation 
of life has been formed, and is supposed to be best 
adapted to the insurance of the lives of persons of good 
constitution, in good health, residing in healthy local¬ 
ities. Hence companies differ very slightly in their 
rates of premium. 

The following are about the usual rates: 


PREMIUMS PAYABLE IN ADVANCE, ANNUALLY. 

OX ONE THOUSAND DOLLARS. 


Age. 


LIFE- 

-PAYABLE AT DEATH 

ONLY. 


Annual. 

5 Pay’ts. 

10 Pay’ts. 

15 Pay’ts. 

20 Pay’ts. 

1 Pay’t. 

41 

32.60 

94.60 

60 70 

47.45 

40.10 

409.46 

42 

33 90 

96.95 

62.25 

48.75 

41.25 

419.14 

43 

35.20 

99.35 

63.85 

50.10 

42.50 

429.15 

44 

36.50 

101.80 

65.60 

51.55 

43.85 

439.44 

45 

38.00 

101.35 

67.35 

53.05 

45.20 

450.00 

46 

39.60 

107.00 

69.20 

54.60 

46.65 

460.80 

47 

41 20 

109.75 

71.10 

56.25 

48.20 

471.82 

48 

43.10 

112.50 

73.05 

57.95 

49.85 

483.02 

49 

45.00 

115.35 

75.10 

59.75 

51.55 

494.42 

50 

47.00 

118.30 

77.20 

61.60 

53 35 

506.01 

51 

49.20 

121.30 

79.40 

63.55 

55.25 

517.76 

52 

51.50 

124.35 

81.65 

65.60 

57.25 

529.68 

53 

53.90 

127.50 

84.00 

67.75 

59.40 

541.75 

54 

56.50 

130.70 

86.40 

70 00 

61.65 

553.95 

55 

59.40 

134.00 

88.95 

72.40 

64.05 

566.28 

56 

62.40 

137.35 

91.60 

74.95 

66.60 

578.72 

57 

65.60 

140.75 

94.35 

77.60 

69.30 

591.26 

58 

69.00 

144.30 

97.20 

80 40 

72.20 

603.90 

59 

72 70 

147.90 

100.20 

83.40 

75.30 

616.62 

60 

76.40 

151.60 

103.35 

86.55 

78.65 

629.41 


TABLE OF PREMIUMS PAYABLE IN ADVANCE, ANNUALLY. 

ON ONE THOUSAND DOLLARS. 

N. B.—The lower figures in the Endowment Tables are the Annual Premiums. The upper ones are the Ten Payment rates for the same terms. 


Age. 

LIFE- 

-PAYABLE AT DEATH ONLY. 

ENDOWMENT—PAYABLE AT DEATH 

OK AFTER. 

ENDOWMENT—PAYABLE AT DEATH, OR AGE. 

Annual 

5 P’ts 

lOP’s 

15 P’s 

20 P’S 

1 P’t. 

10 Yrs. 

15 Yrs. 

20 Yrs. 

25 Yrs. 

30 Yrs. 

35 Yrs. 

40 Yrs. 

40 

45 

50 

55 

60 

65 

70 

20 

17.30 

60.70 

38 55 

29.75 

24 70 

264.50 

104.85 

88.10 

65.35 

74.95 

46.20 

64.70 

35.25 

56.70 

28.35 

50.65 

23.85 

46.15 

20.80 

74.95 

46.20 

64.79 

35.25 

56.70 

28.35 

50.65 

23.85 

46.15 
20.80 

42.95 

18.80 

40.85 

17.55 

21 

17.80 

61.85 

39 25 

30.30 

25.20 

2(59.39 

104.90 

88.20 

65.40 

75.05 

46.30 

64.80 

35.35 

56.90 

28.50 

60.90 

24.00 

46.50 

21.00 

77.45 

49.25 

66.70 

37.15 

58.30 

29.60 

51.95 

24.75 

47.30 

21.50 

43.90 

19.35 

41.70 

18.05 

22 

18.30 

63.00 

40.00 

30.90 

25.70 

274.45 

104.95 

88.25 

65.50 

75.15 

46.40 

64.95 

35.45 

57.10 
^8.60 

51.20 

24.15 

46.85 

21.20 

80.00 

52.70 

68.75 

39.20 

60.00 

31.00 

53.35 

25.70 

48.40 

22.25 

44.90 

19.95 

42.55 

18.55 

23 

18.70 

04.25 

40.80 

31.50 

26.20 

279.68 

105 05 

88.35 

65.60 

75.30 

46.50 

65.10 

35.60 

57 35 
28.75 

51.50 

24.35 

47.25 

21.45 

82.70 

56.50 

70.90 

41.50 

61.75 

32.50 

54.75 

26.75 

49.60 

23.05 

45.95 

20.60 

43.45 

19.05 

24 

19.30 

65.50 

41.60 

32.15 

26.75 

285.08 

105.10 

88.45 

65.70 

75.40 

46.60 

65.30 

35.70 

57.55 

28.95 

51.80 

24.55 

47.65 

21.70 

85.55 

60.85 

73.15 

43.95 

63.55 

34.10 

56.25 
27.90 

50.85 

23.85 

46.95 

21.25 

44.40 

19 65 

25 

19.80 

66.80 

42.45 

32 80 

27.30 

290.66 

105.20 

88 55 
65.80 

75.55 

46.75 

65.45 

35.85 

57.80 

29.10 

52.10 

24.75 

48.05 

22.00 

88.55 

65.80 

75.55 

46.75 

65.45 
35 85 

57.80 

29.10 

52.10 

24.75 

48.05 

22.00 

45.35 

20.25 

26 

20.30 

68.15 

43.30 

33.50 

27.90 

296.43 

105 30 

88.65 

65.90 

75.70 

46.85 

65.65 

36.00 

58.10 

29.30 

52.50 

25.00 

48.55 

22.25 

91.70 

71.45 

78.05 

49.80 

67.50 
37.75 

59.45 

30.40 

53.45 

25.70 

49.20 

22.75 

46.35 

20.85 

27 

20.90 

69.55 

44.20 

34.20 

28 50 

302 39 

105.35 

88.75 
66 00 

75.85 

47.00 

65.90 

36.15 

58.40 

29.50 

52.90 

25.30 

49.05 

22.60 

94.90 

77.95 

80.65 

53.20 

69.55 

39.85 

61.10 

31.80 

54.85 

26.75 

50.40 

23.50 

47.45 

21.55 

28 

21.50 

71.00 

45.15 

344)0 

29.15 

308.55 

105.45 

88.90 

66.10 

76.00 

47.15 

66.10 
36.35 

58.70 

29.75 

53.30 

25.55 

49.60 

22.95 

98.30 

85.65 

83.35 

57.10 

71.70 

42.15 

62.85 

33.35 

56.30 

27.85 

51.65 

24.35 

48.55 

22.25 

29 

22.10 

72.45 

46.10 

35.65 

29.80 

314.91 

105.55 

89.00 

66.20 

76.15 

47.30 

06.35 

36.55 

59.00 
30 00 

53.75 

25.85 

50.20 

23.30 

101.90 

94.70 

86.20 

61.45 

74.00 

44.65 

64.70 

35.00 

57.80 

29.00 

52.90 

25.25 

49.65 

22.95 

30 

22.70 

74.00 

47.10 

36.45 

30.45 

321.48 

105.65 

89.15 

66.85 

76.35 

47.45 

06.05 

30.75 

59.40 

30.25 

54.25 

26.20 

50.80 
23 75 

105.65 

105.65 

89.15 

66.35 

76.35 

47.45 

66.65 

36.75 

59.40 

30.25 

54.25 

26.20 

50.80 

23.75 









89.30 

76.55 

66.90 

59.80 

54.80 



92.30 

72.05 

78.85 

50.50 

68 60 

61.05 

55.65 

27.20 

52.05 

24.55 

31 

23.40 

75.60 

48.10 

37.25 

31.10 

328.25 

105.80 

66-50 

47.60 

37.00 

30.55 

26.60 



38.70 

31.60 



32 

24.10 

77.20 

49.20 

38.10 

31.85 

335.25 

105.90 

89.45 

66.65 

76.75 
47 80 

67.20 

37.25 

60 20 
30.90 

55.35 
27 00 

. 

. 

95.55 

78.55 

81.45 

53.95 

70.70 

40.80 

62.75 

33.05 

57.05 

28.30 

53.30 

25.45 

33 

24.80 

78.85 

50.30 

39.00 

32.60 

342.48 

106.05 

80.60 
66 80 

77 00 
48.00 

67.55 

37.50 

60.70 

31.25 

55.95 

27.45 

. 

. 

98.95 

86.25 

84.15 

57.80 

72.90 
' 43.10 

64.50 

34.60 

58.55 

29.50 

54.60 

26 40 

34 

25.60 

80.00 

51.40 

39.90 

33.40 

349.93 

106.15 

80 80 
66.95 

77.25 

48.25 

67.90 

37.80 

61 20 
31 60 

56.65 

27.90 

. 

. 

102.50 

95.35 

87.00 

62.20 

75.15 

45.70 

66.35 
36.30 

60.10 

30.70 

55.95 

27.35 








89.95 

77.55 

68,30 

61.75 

57.35 



106.30 

106.30 

89.95 

67.15 

77.55 

48.50 

68.30 

61.75 

32.05 

57.35 

28.45 

35 

26.50 

82.40 

52.60 

40.85 

34.25 

357.63 

106.30 

67 15 

48.50 

38.15 

32.05 

28.45 



38.15 

36 

27.40 

84.30 

53.80 

41.80 

35 10 

365.58 

106.45 

90.15 
67 35 

77.80 

48.80 

68.75 

38.50 

62.35 

32.50 

. 

. 

. 

. 

93.10 

72.85 

80.00 

51.60 

70.30 

40.15 

63.40 

33.50 

56.80 

29.55 








90.40 

78.15 

00.20 

63.00 





96.35 

79.40 

82.60 

72.45 

65.20 

60.35 

37 

28.30 

86.20 

55.10 

42.85 

36.00 

373.79 

106.60 

67 60 

49.10 

38.90 

33.00 





55.10 

42.35 

35.00 

30.75 








90.65 

78.50 

69.70 

63.70 





99.75 

85.35 

74.65 

67.00 

61.90 

38 

2!). 30 

88.20 

56.40 

43.90 

36.95 

382.27 

106.80 

67.85 

49.45 

39.40 

33.60 

. 

. 

. 

. 

87.10 

59.00 

44.70 

36.65 

32.05 









90.90 

78.90 

70.30 

64.45 





103.40 

96.25 

88.20 

76.90 

06.90 

63.55 

39 

30.40 

90.25 

57.75 

45.00 

37.95 

391.03 

107 00 

68.15 

49.85 

.39.90 

34.20 





63.45 

47.35 

38.50 

33.40 









91.25 

79.35 

70.95 

65.30 





107.20 

107.20 

91.25 

79.35 

70.95 

65.30 

40 

31.50 

92.40 

69.20 

46.20 

39.00 

400.09 

107.20 

68.45 

50.25 

40.45 

34.90 





68.45 

50.25 

40.45 

34.90 







bo 


20 


21 


23 


24 


25 


26 


27 


28 


29 


30 


31 


32 


33 


34 


35 


36 


37 

38 


39 


40 
















































































































































































































336 


LIFE INSURANCE 


PREMIUMS PAYABLE IN ADVANCE. ANNUALLY 

ON ONE THOUSAND DOLLARS. 

N. B.—The lower figures in the Endowment Tables are the Annual 
Premiums. The upper ones are the Ten Payment rates tor the same 

terms. 

ENDOWMENT. 


7. Have you any application for insurance now pending? In what Cos.? 

8. Have you ever applied to an}' agent, or sought insurance in any com- 
pany, which either postponed or refused to issue a policy? State com. 
panies and cause. 

9. Do you use spirits, wine or malt liquors daily, or occasionally, and to 
what extent? 

10. Are you engaged in or connected with the manufacture or sale of 
malt or spirituous liquors? 


Age. 


41 

42 

43 

44 

45 

46 

47 

48 

49 

50 

51 

52 

53 

54 

55 

56 

57 

58 

59 

60 


PAYABLE at death, or after. 

PAYABLE AT DEATH, OR AGE. 

10 Yrs. 

15 Yrs. 

20 Yrs. 

25 Yrs. 

55 

60 

65 

70 

107.45 

91.60 

68.85 

79.90 

50.75 

71.65 

41.05 

94.40 

74.25 

81.90 

53.50 

73.05 

42.55 

67.15 

36.45 

107.80 

92.00 

69.25 

80.45 

51.30 

72.45 

41.75 

97.75 

80.90 

84.60 

57.10 

75.25 

44.90 

69.00 

38.20 

108.15 

93.45 

69.75 

81. M 
51.90 

73.30 

42.50 

101.30 

88.70 

87.45 

61.15 

77.60 

47.45 

71.00 

40.10 

108.55 

93.00 

70.30 

81.85 

52.60 

74.25 

43.35 

105.05 

97.90 

90.45 

65.70 

80.05 

50.30 

73.10 

42.10 

109.00 

93.00 

70.85 

82.60 

53.35 

75.30 

44.30 

109.00 

109.00 

93.60 

70.85 

82.60 

53.35 

75.30 

44.30 

109.50 

94.25 

71.50 

83.50 
54.20 



98.90 
76. SO 

85.35 

56.75 

77.60 

46.65 



. 

. 

110.05 ' 

94.95 

72.25 

84.45 

55.10 

100.40 

83.60 

88.15 

60.55 

80.00 

49.20 



110.65 

96.75 

73.05 

85.45 

66.05 

104.10 

91.50 

91.15 

64.75 

82.50 

52.00 





111.35 

96.60 

73.90 

86.60 

57.15 

108.00 

100.90 

94.20 

69.50 

85.10 

55.00 

. 


112.05 

97.50 

74.80 

87.80 
58. &5 

112.05 

112.05 

97 50 
74.80 

87.80 
58 35 





112.85 

98.50 

75.85 



100.95 

80.90 

90.60 

61.95 









113.70 

99.60 

76.95 

104.55 

87.90 

93.60 

66.00 









114.65 

100.80 

78.20 

108 40 
95.95 

96.70 

70.45 









115.70 

102.05 

79.55 

112.50 

105.50 

100.00 

75.45 





116.80 

103.50 

81.00 





116.80 

116.80 

103.50 

81.00 









118.05 



107.10 

87.35 













119.40 

111.00 

94.55 













120.90 

115.15 

102.90 













122.50 

119.60 

112.70 













124.30 

124.30 

124.30 












In order to make sure that the applicant is a person 
of good constitution, in good health and without bad 
habits or tendency to inherited or family disease, and 
so likely to fulfill his tabular life expectation, applica¬ 
tion blanks are furnished and the applicant answers 
questions as to age, profession, general state of health, 
age of brothers and sisters, and parents, if living, if 
dead, age at death and disease causing death as well as 
ages attained by grandparents. In addition to these 
he must set forth for whose benefit the insurance is 
taken and what is the interest of suc'/tperson in the life 


QUESTIONS TO BE ASKED BT MEDICAL EXAMINER. 

Note.—A s it is of vital importance that the personal and family record 
be clearly stated, and few persons not physicians recognize the difference 
between diseases and symptoms, the Examiner will ask the following ques¬ 
tions and see that the answers are free from ambiguity. (The terms “child¬ 
birth,” “debility,” “old age,” “exhaustion,” “exposure,” “result of acci¬ 
dent,” “worn out,” “over work,” “dropsy,” “fever,” and especially “don’t 
know,” will not be accepted by the company without explanation.) 

11. Have you any disease or disorder? If so, what? 

12. For what have you sought medical advice during the past seven 
years? Dates? Duration? Physicians consulted? 

13. Have you had any personal injury or accident? What? When? 
Result? 

14. Have you had rheumatism? Number of attacks? Dates? Duration? 
Severity? 

15. Are you or have you been subject to dyspepsia? Dates? Duration? 
Severity? 

16. Have you ever had any of the following diseases? Answer each ques¬ 
tion explicitly, and give particulars under head of Remarks. [Here follows 
alist of about forty diseases.] 

Remarks. 

17. Family Record. 


living. 



Ages. 

Condition of Health. 



Mother living.. 



N umber. 

How many brothel's living. 





IIow many sistersliving. 







Father’s father living.. 







“ mother “ . 



Mother’s father 1 iving. 



“ mother “ . 







dead. 



18. Have any two members of the family, grandparents included, had 
consumption? Cancer? Paralysis or apopiexy? Disease of Heart? Dis¬ 
ease of Kidneys? 

Dated this.day of.A. D. 188... 

In presence of.Examiner. 

Party to be examined sign here. 

(Writing name in full.) 


to he assured. 

The last is an important question, as it underlies the 
principle that separates life insurance from gambling. 

APPLICATION FOR LIFE INSURANCE. 

APPLICATION TO 

THE BENEFIT LIFE INSURANCE COMPANY. 

QUESTIONS TO BE ASKED BY THE AGENT. 

1. Are you married? 

2. What is your occupation? (Give kind of business and position held.) 

3. Are you in good health? 

4. For whose benefit is the proposed insurance? How related to you? 

5. What is the total insurance now on your life? 

6. In what companies and for what amounts? 


DECLARATION. 

Being desirous of effecting an assurance of $.on the.plan, 

premiums payable.with the BENEFIT LIFE INSURANCE 

COMPANY, on the life of.born at.State of 

.on the.day of.18..., at present and for. 

years resident of.county of.Stateof. 

I agree that the foregoing answers to the questions of the agent and exam¬ 
iner shall be the basis of my contract with the company, and warrant them 
to be true, and agree that any untrue or fraudulent answer or the indul¬ 
gence by the insured in any habit which tends to shorten life shall render 
the policy void. 

Dated at.this..day of..A. D, 188... 

W itness ...*Signature. 

*Note—D eclaration should be signed by wife, if wife’s policy is desired. 
The husband may sign her name as her attorney. 

As in fire insurance so in life, there must be an 
interest that is insurable. 
























































































































































































































LIFE INSURANCE. 


337 


The medical examiner next takes the applicant and 
gives him a personal examination, particularly directed 
to tracing the presence of hereditary or organic dis¬ 
ease, or any tendency thereto, and as to the applicant’s 
personal habits. 

The applicant signs this blank as his warranty. The 
physician then makes out still another blank to which 
he certifies, and the application and papers go to the 
company’s office, where the medical examiner-in-chief 
gives them a careful examination to guard against any 
collusion on the part of agent, local physician and 
applicant ere the policy is issued. 


FORM OF POLICY. 


NOT ASSIGNABLE. 

THE BENEFIT LIFE INSURANCE COMPANY. 

Incorporated by the State of. 

No. .Animal Premium, $. $. 

This Policy Witnesseth, That the Benefit Life Insurance Company, 
in consideration of the statements and agreements in the application for 
this Policy, and In the declaration subjoined thereto, which are hereby 

made a part of this contract, and of the sum of.dollars and_cents, 

to them in hand paid by the Assured, Mrs.. Wife of the Insured, 

.and of the.Annual Premium of.dollars and.cents, to 

be paid at or before twelve o’clock, M., on the.day of.in every 

year during the continuance of this Policy, Do Insure the Life of. 

of.in the County of.State of.in the amount of. 

dollars, for the term of Life. 

And the said Company do hereby Promise and Agree, to and with 
the said Assured, well and truly to pay, or cause to be paid, the said sum 

insured, at their office, in the City of. , to the said Assured, within 

sixty days .after due notice and satisfactory proof of the death of the said 
Insured. And in case the said Assured shall die before the decease of the 
said Insured, then the amount of this Insurance shall be payable to the 
children born of their marriage, or to their guardian if under age; or if 
there are no such children or their descendants living, then payable to the 
executors, administrators or assigns of the Insured, within sixty days 
after due notice and satislactory proof of interest and of the death of the 
said Insured, deducting therefrom all indebtedness of the party to the 
Company, together with the balance, if any, of the then current year’s 
premium. 

This Policy is issued and is accepted by the Assured upon the following 
conditions—namely: 

That the Insured will reside in those parts of the United States only that 
lie at least one hundred miles from the Gulf of Mexico, or in the Dominion 
of Canada, or in Europe or in Japan, and not elsewhere without written 
permission of the Company first obtained. 

That for three years from the date hereof the Insured shall be restricted 
in traveling to points within and to voyages between the above limits, 
after that period journeys for business or pleasure may be made without 
restriction. 

That he will not at any time within three years from the date hereof be 
personally engaged in any blasting, mining or submarine operation, or In 
the production of any highly inflammable or explosive substance, or in 
working or managing a steam engine or boiler, or bo employed in any man¬ 
ner on a railway train or on a steam or sailing vessel. 

That he will not engage in any military or naval service, unless it be in 
the militia in time of peace. 

That any violation of either of the above conditions without the written 
permission of the Company previously obtained, shall render this Policy 
void. 

That the statements contained in the said application and declaration 
and every of them are true, and it any of them shall be found untrue, 
then this Policy shall be null and void; but that after three years from the 
date hereof, this Policy shall not be thereby rendered void, unless such 
eiToneous statement or statements shall be shown to be material and to 
have been made with intent to deceive or defraud the Company. Any 
error made in understanding the age of the Insured, will be adjusted by 
paying such amount as the Premiums paid would purchase at the table 
rate. 

That if the death of the Insured shall result from the intemperate use of 
stimulants or narcotics, or if he shall die by his own hand or in conse¬ 
quence of a violation of any law or by the hands of justice, this Policy 
shall be void. If, however, it shall be shown that the Insured at the time 



of taking his life was insane, the Company will pay the sum insured, or 
refund the Premiums actually received, with interest thereon, according 
to its judgment of the equities of the case. This option is distinctly 
reserved by the Company and is made a part of this contract. 

That in case the said Premiums (the party whose life is insured being 
living) shall not be paid on or before the several days hereinbefore men¬ 
tioned for the payment thereof, at the office of the Company in the City 
of.or to Agents when they produce receipts signed by the Presi¬ 

dent or Treasurer, then, and in every such case, the said Policy shall cease 
and determine; but when after two full annual Premiums shall have been 
paid on this Policy it shall cease or become void solely by the non-payment 
of any Premium when due, its entire net reserve by the American Experi¬ 
ence Mortality and interest at four per cent yearly, less any indebtedness 
to the Company on this Policy, shall be applied by the Company as a 
Single Premium at the Company’s rates published and in force at this date, 
either, fii-si, to the purchase of non-participating term insurance for the full 
amount insured by this Policy, or, second, upon the written application by 
the owner of this Policy and the surrender thereof to the Company at 

.within three months from such non-payment of Premium, to the 

purchase of a non-participating Paid-up Policy payable at the time this 
Policy would be payable if continued in force. Both kinds of insurance 
aforesaid will be subject to the same conditions, except as to payment of 
Premiums, as those of this Policy. No part, however, of such term insur¬ 
ance shall be due or payable unless satisfactory proofs of death be fur¬ 
nished to the Company within one year after death; and if death shall 
occur within three years after such non-payment of Premium, and during 
such term of insurance, there shall be deducted from the amount payable 
the sum of all the Premiums that would have become due on this Policy 
if it had continued in force. 

THIS POLICY does not take effect until the Premium shall have been 
actually paid; nor are Agents authorized to make, alter, or discharge this 
or any other contract in relation to the matter of this insurance, or to 
waive any forfeiture hereof, or to grant permits, or to receive for the cash 
due fbr Premiums anything but cash. 

In 'Witness Whereof, the said Benefit Life Insurance Company have 
by their President anti Secretary, signed and delivered this Contract, at 

the City of. in the State of.. this.day of.one 

thousand eight hundred and. 

. Secretary. . President, 

C 


LIFE INSURANCE FRAUDS. 


Yet, despite all this care, frauds upon life insurance 
companies are not at all uncommon. 

In a case not long since the local examining physi¬ 
cian certified that the applicant was of a ruddy com¬ 
plexion, free from any tendency to heart or lung 
disease, etc., when in fact the very same physician 
expected him to die in a few hours, as he did, and the 
dying man was propped up and held up in bed in order 


to sign his name. 


In another case known to the writer, the general 
agent had partly written his check to pay a death loss, 
and was saying to a friend, “ That is the way the- 


company pays its losses,” when his eye caught a simi¬ 
larity of writing in the application for insurance and 
the proof of death. Tearing up his half-drawn check, 
he put on overcoat and hat and started for the railroad. 
In less than sixty hours thereafter General-had 


resurrected his dead man, whom he found at table 
enjoying a hearty meal and displaying good appetite 
for a man whose body was supposed to be resting on 
the bottom of-river. 


The following statistics show something of the 
extent and magnitude of the business of life insurance 
in the United States on January 1, 1882, and relate to 






























































ACCIDENT INSURANCE. 


the business of fifty-three companies from their organi¬ 
zation to January 1, 1882. 

Amount of premiums to date - - $1,154,739,618.55 

Ain’t paid death losses, endowments 823,897,319.37 
Assets of 53 companies at date - 
Paid by policy holders in 1881 - 
Paid to policy holders, death claims, 
endowments and purchased policies 


468,541,788.93 

60,444,996.00 


58,388,283.00 



Number of families in U. S. (census 

of 1880). 9,945,916 

Number of policy holders in United 

States -. 732,704 

Average of policies to families - - 1 in 13J 

Amount of insurance in force - $1,649,484,953.66 

In these figures prudential and co-operative institu¬ 
tions or societies are not included. 






it ccident Insurance Policies are contracts insuring 
M for “death only,” covering fatal accidents; for 
\ “ indemnity only,” insuring against lion-fatal 

accidents which are totally disabling; or for 
“ death and indemnity,” covering both fatal and non- 
fa tal accidents. 

Any sums paid as indemnity will, in case of loss by 
death during the same year, be deducted from the 
amount insured. Weekly indemnity is paid only for 
twenty-six weeks from date of accident. 

Accident companies insure against all bodily injuries 
caused by purely accidental means but not against dis¬ 
ease in any form, nor from accidents caused by war, 
riot, fighting, wrestling, racing, drunkenness, breach 
of the law or any unnecessary or unlawful exposure. 

Risks are classified into six divisions, according to 
occupation of the insured, the premiums for both 
“death and indemnity” ranging from $5 per $1,000 
per annum to $20 per $1,000. •- 

Passengers’ tickets are also sold at nearly all railroad 
ticket offices. This ticket is, to all legal intents, a 
policy of accident assurance for indemnity in case of 
lion-fatal accident during the journey from the perils of 
traveling, or for the whole amount insured in case of 
death from accidental cause, subject to certain condi¬ 
tions printed upon the back of the ticket. 

A three thousand dollar ticket costs 25 cents for a 
three day’s trip 

During the year 1882, the accident premiums received 
by the companies doing business in Massachusetts were 
reported at about $2,000,000. 




Appended hereto we give the form of a traveler’s 
accident ticket: 

FORM OF ACCIDENT TICKET. 


Regist’d Year. | 1870 | 77 | 78 | 79 | ’80 | ’81 | ’82 | ’88 |’84 | ’85 |’86 | ’87 

/YTVi , i T. rr-r-rr-: — -——-:——— —r—:— -----—-r—=r 


. Month | Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | Ap. | May | Jun. j Jul. j Aug. Sep. I Oct. | Nov. | Dec 






OF HARTFORD, CONN. 


THIS TICKET INSURES 


Of . 

by occupation . 

in the sum of $3,000-00, for the term fixed by the 
Coupons remaining hereto attached , beginning with 
the day and hour as hereon canceled, and is subject 
to a 1 1 the provisions of the contract on back hereof. 


jsl 


TOT TMANSFJEMJLJBI-JE. 

A- 


Premium 




RODNEY DENNIS,. 

Sec'y. 


12 


14 


16 


18 


20 


22 


24 


26 


28 


30 


I A.? 


p .M | 1 | 2 | 3 1 4 | 5 | 0 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | Night 


■M. j 1 1 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 1 10 | 11 | 12 | Noon 


The transfer of such ticket would forfeit all claims 
arising thereunder. 














































































































CO-OPERATIVE INSURANCE. GUARANTY INSURANCE. 


339 


.|J..... *.. . 

Beneficiary or Co-Operative Associations. 

.. . —. . . 




^his class of associations have multiplied until 
they are numbered by the hundreds. They 
claim to give insurance at cost, while profess¬ 
ing not to be insurance companies. 

This is done to escape state supervision and state 
reports. 

It is difficult to treat of them as they deserve, 
because they deserve so differently. Some are really 
deserving and furnish reliable indemnity. 

Others were conceived in iniquity, born in fraud and 
lived their short lives in baseness that no words can 
properly describe. The term “graveyard insurance,” 
has been fitly applied to these fraudulent schemes, 
and a few of the schemers have found their proper 
home, the penitentiary. Between these last and the 
best class are a long array of struggling associations 
destined to an inglorious life and speedy death, from 
which there will be no possible resurrection. 

A life insurance company contracts to pay certain 
sums of money in consideration of certain stipulated 
premiums. A mutual aid or beneficiary association 
contracts to pay certain sums of money in considera¬ 
tion of certain stipulated assessment rates. 

Hence the supreme courts of at least two states 
(Massachusetts and Ohio) hold the latter contract to 
be “one of insurance, although the declared object of 
the insurer is benevolent and not speculative, or, that 
the amount to be paid is not. a gross sum but one 
graduated by the number of members.” 

In fact nearly all the really deserving of these asso¬ 


ciations have demanded state supervision, as the only 
means of self-preservation of the deserving societies. 

The amount of business done 1 by these societies is 
enormous, but hard to bring down to exact figures. 

The seventy-three associations reporting to the Mas¬ 
sachusetts Insurance Department, January 1, 1882, 
reported income from assessments, $5,991,388, and 
losses paid, $5,838,215. 

It would be safe to estimate the amount paid by 
assessment during the year 1882 into these associations 
as at least $60,000,000, and that seems to be a very 
low estimate. 

Some of these societies will undoubtedly live, and 
continue to flourish, despite the load of obloquy they 
have to carry from the numberless fraudulent concerns 
that strove to conceal the wolf beneath the sheep’s 
skin, being, instead of co-operative, only deceptive. 

Around many of these societies are thrown social, 
fraternal, and moral influences which are worthy of all 
honor and commendation. 

Of the value of these influences there can be no ques¬ 
tion, they are beyond even cavil or shadow of reproach. 

If the system on which they are based can stand the 
light of state supervision and the test of advancing 
age, it deserves indorsement and success. 

Meanwhile the closest scrutiny and extremest caution 
is demanded by those who wish to make a sure protec¬ 
tion for their widow and orphans, that the rod on 
which they lean “ may not prove a broken reed and 
pierce the hand.” 





Guaranty or Fidelity Insurance, 


<2/5- 


- r a-~s> 



T he Guaranty Insurance Society was established in 
London for the purpose of granting policies 
against dishonesty of servants or employes in 
commercial or professional pursuits. 

It depended for success upon the application of the 
law of average that seems to be a fundamental principle 
of the law of the universe, that in the occurrence of 
every class of events, great or small, a rule of propor¬ 
tion is strictly followed. 

In 1850, the great banks of England and Ireland, 


two of the leading railways of the United Kingdom, 
and several of the large commercial firms of London 
and Liverpool, had discontinued the use of private 
bonds and made arrangements for using the policies of 
the Guaranty Society. Since that date this kind of 
insurance has largely increased in England, and four 
companies are issuing policies of guaranty in the 
United States, covering, in 1881, amounts of over two 
million dollars. 

The policies of a guaranty company are based upon 






































340 


GUARANTY INSURANCE. 


the statements of reliable citizens who fill out theii 
knowledge of the applicant for insurance in the follow¬ 
ing form: 

FORM OF AN INQUIRY. 


The Guaranty Company of the United States. 

Devoted solely to the issuing of Ronds of Security in Positions of 

Trust. 


QUESTIONS. • ANSWERS, 

ally, which would lead you to suppose 
that he is or has ever been engaged in 
any gambling, or speculating transac¬ 
tions, or that his style of living is in 
any way extravagant or incompatible 
with emoluments arising out of his 
employment? 

7. Is the applicant engaged in any 
business, employment, or undertaking 
besides that for which he proposes to 
be guarantied (as above) and whether 
in partnership or on his own account? 

8. Is he, or has he ever been, in em- 
barrassed circumstances, bankrupt or 
insolvent? 

9. Have you any reason to suppose 
he is at present under any embarrass¬ 
ments, liabilities, debts or responsibili- 


Capital Subscribed, * 1,000,000. 


Paid up, *500,000. Assets, *500,000. 


Sir: 

An application for a bond of guaranty for fidelity having been made by 
the party named below, and he having referred the directors to you as his 
former employer for testimony as to his character and antecedents, I beg 
to hand you the subjoined list of questions, to which I shall feel obliged 
by your early reply. 

As the great advantages contemplated by this system of corporate sure¬ 
tyship can only be realized by good faith on the part of referees in com- 
municating freely with the company, I beg earnestly to solicit your candid 
answers, and to point out to you the advantages to accrue to all concerned, 
by your giving the company the benefit of your co-operation in this 
respect, the object of the directors in obtaining this information concern¬ 
ing the conduct and principles of those who apply to the company to 
become their sureties, being, at the same time as to protect employers 
from loss by the acts of unworthy employers, to assist them (the directors) 
in promoting the appointment of reliable officers to positions of trust in 
the country. Your replies hereto, will be held strictly private and confi¬ 
dential, and will in no way involve you in any pecuniary responsibility. 

I am, Sir, your obedient servant, 

SAMUEL L. MASON, 

General Manager. 


To 


ties whatever? 

10. Has he, to your knowledge, any 
private property or income, independ¬ 
ent of his emoluments from the office 
for which he is to be guarantied as 
above? If so, please to state the nature 
and extent, as far as you know, and 
whether encumbered or not. 

11. In what capacity was he in your 
service, how long, and why did he 
leave? And did he give you entire sat¬ 
isfaction, or did he at any time give 
you cause for dissatisfaction or com¬ 
plaint? 

12. Have you any reason to consider 
him incompetent to fill the position 
which he proposes to undertake? 

13. Do you know or have you heard 
of any circumstances, however appar¬ 
ent^ trifling, connected with any of 
his former employments, or otherwise, 
that you deem it advisable for the com¬ 
pany to be acquainted with, in order to 
guide the directors in estimating the 
risk to be incurred by becoming his 
security? If so, please state fully. 

14. Do his general principles and cir¬ 
cumstances, to the best of your knowl¬ 
edge, render him, in your opinion, a 
safe and proper person to be guarantied 
by the company, and one you would 
yourself trust, or recommend for the 
position above stated? 

Signature of former employer 


Address and occupation 


Proposal No. Amount. 

Name, address and occupation of party requiring to be guarantied, and 

that of his employer. Mr.of.. .aged.in the situation 

of.at.to.. 


QUESTIONS. 

1. Is the above-named applicant for 
guaranty well known to you, and how 
long have you known him? 

2. Are you connected by relation¬ 
ship, or otherwise, with him? If so, in 
what way? 

3. Are his liabits sober and correct, 
and his general conduct such as to en¬ 
title him to the confidence of his em¬ 
ployers? 

4. Has he, to your knowledge, been, 
or have you ever heard of his having 
been irregular or unsteady in his habits, 
or addicted to any bad habits? 

5. Can you give any information as 
to his family relations or intimate asso- 
ciates? If so, do any, to your knowl¬ 
edge, bear an unfavorable reputation? 

6. Have you any knowledge, or have 
you heard anything concerhing his 
habits, associations, or actions gener- 


Length of time 
known? 

... Yrs.Mo. 


ANSWERS. 

From 


18 . 


To 


18.... 


Date.dav of. 


.18.... 


The advantage in having the character and fidelity 
of officers and employes of banks, railroads, and mer¬ 
cantile establishments thus regularly insured for a 
specified amount, instead of requiring bonds for faith¬ 
ful performance, as does the government of its officers, 
is found mainly in the fact that in case of a default by 
the employe insured, the amount of the policy is more 
easily collected than in the case of private citizens as 
bondsmen. Then, again, in the case of a claim against 
private citizens as bondsmen, there is oftentimes litiga¬ 
tion and wrangling which is more or less mixed with 
personalities and results, in the majority of cases, in 
enmity between the various parties to the case. This, 
it is desirable to have avoided, by mercantile and finan¬ 
cial concerns, as it must necessarily, to some extent, 
injure their business and prosperity. 




































































RETAIL BUSINESS, 








iffl 


small capitalist should enter a 
business of which he has inti¬ 
mate knowledge. Unless such 
a person starts with proper 
precaution and judgment, his 
capital will be expended with¬ 
out adequate results; rent and 
taxes will accumulate, the stock will lie 
dead or become deteriorated, and loss and 
ruin must follow. For the least absorp¬ 
tion acting upon a small capital will soon 
dry up its source; and we need not 
picture the trouble that will soon arise 
when the mainspring of a tradesman’s 
success abides by him no more. 

The larger capitalist can scarcely be considered an 
exception to the same rule; for it is probable that the 
larger capitalist, upon commencing a business, would 
sink more of his funds in a larger stock—would incur 
liability to a heavier rent; and the attendant taxes, 
the wages of assistants, would be greater, and, there¬ 
fore, if the return came not speedily, similar conse¬ 
quences must sooner or later ensue. 

Large or small capitalists should, therefore, upon 
entering on a business, consider well the nature of the 
locality in which they propose to carry on trade, the 
number of the population, the habits and wants of the 
people, and the extent to which they are already sup¬ 
plied with the goods which the new adventurer pro¬ 
poses to offer them. He should also consider his ability 
to cater to the wants and tastes of the people in order to 
attract the customers to trade with him in preference 
to those already established, and supplying the trade. 


BUYING IN, AND GETTING STARTED. 

Generally good connections are formed by buying 
out an old dealer of good reputation, and thus at once 
coming into the enjoyment of the advantages of an 
established business. This method of getting into 
business is often too dear, especially if the concern has 
anything like a monopoly of the trade. It may be less 
expense to get the customers out of old ruts, or to 
secure new customers, by new advertisements, new 
goods, new prices, and new rules of credit, than to buy 
out an established business at an exorbitant figure. 

The retail merchant should carefully observe the 
taste of the community in which he is located. If the 
prevailing style is for gaudy or flashy colors, he should 
keep such goods in stock. If yellow or red are 
prevailing colors, he must learn to like these colors 
himself, and must be able to supply the demand for 
them. If the tastes of the community are plain, the 
style of the goods must correspond. The quality of 
goods must also be considered when laying in a stock; 
thus a wealthy and fashionable neighborhood would 
not patronize a store filled with cheap and shoddy 
goods, neither would a community of new settlers, or 
where the people are mainly poor, buy high-priced 
articles which are above their means. 

The quantity of goods should depend upon the 
amount of capital, the probable sales, and the ability 
to readily stock anew during the season. Be careful 
not to overstock. The retail dealer should decide 
before going into the wholesale market, just what 
amount of capital he is to place in a stock of goods, and 
then not be influenced beyond this by the plausible 
representations of the wholesale salesman. He should 


a 

































































































342 


RETAIL BUSINESS. 


do more than this; he should make out a carefully pre¬ 
pared statement of the amount of capital which he 
desires to place in each department ot his store. Thus 
in a grocery stock it may be something like this: 

Teas and Coffees, - $000.00 

Sugars, --••-**• 000.00 

Flour, 000.00 

Canned Goods, - 000.00 

Syrups, Vinegars and Oils, ..... 000.00 

Spices, .* ..-..00. 

Soaps, ....... 00. 

$ 0000 . 

After a complete list is made out, he should then 
take each of the above departments and itemize them; 
thus Teas and Coffees may be divided up into a dozen 
kinds and varieties, and a separate sheet of paper 
should be used whereon the number of pounds of each 
variety is placed opposite its name and the price and 
value extended. If it is found that the value of all 
the varieties of Teas and Coffees foot up a larger amount 
than the sum set apart for this department in the 
original statement, then some of the items must be 
reduced in quantity, and in deciding what articles may 
be stricken out or diminished, the wants of the com¬ 
munity, the class of custom, must be considered. 

After the merchant has thus, with great pains, per¬ 
haps, made a careful draft of the various departments 
of his store, and of the quantity and quality of the goods 
for each, he should then transcribe this to a pocket 
memorandum book, placing the names, quantities and 
prices of the articles on the left page, leaving the right 
or opposite page blank. 

When in the wholesale market, this pocket memo¬ 
randum book will be of the greatest advantage to the 
buyer, as his mind will be fully occupied in comparing 
prices and qualities of goods, making terms as to credit, 
and many other details without also undertaking to 
remember what articles to buy. Guess work in buying 
has been the rock upon which many a retail business 
has split and foundered. The alternate or blank page 
of the memorandum book will be, found convenient for 
checking off the items as they are bought, noting any 
change in price, quality or quantity of the goods 
actually purchased, or comparing the prices of rival 
houses in the market. The mark used in checking off 
the items as they are bought should be the initial letters 
of the name of the house from whom the goods are 
bought. 

BUYING GOODS ON CREDIT. 

Some persons regard credit as the result of a sort of 
influence exerted over the mind of the creditor, by 
some fair scheme or story, either honest or dishonest. 



The fact is, however, that credit is a product of busi¬ 
ness success. It is accumulated capital, from a business 
which has been well conducted, the same as Real 
Estate is accumulated capital. The surest and quick¬ 
est way a retailer can obtain credit is not to ask it. If 
he shows that he is able to conduct his business with¬ 
out credit, he will soon find that the wholesale mer¬ 
chant is very anxious to sell to him on credit. In 
fact, he will be offered more goods on credit than he can 
possibly handle or sell. But while it is desirable to 
keep entirely out of debt at the beginning, this may not 
always be practicable; and it may be necessary to run 
a small credit with the wholesaler at first. In establish¬ 
ing a credit, there are several methods. The retailer 
may arm himself with one or more letters of introduc¬ 
tion, bearing pointedly on his business ability, char¬ 
acter and financial status, from persons in good 
standing: who are well known to the wholesale mer- 
chant. A line from the banker in the town would also 
have much weight. 

The Style of a Letter. 

Richmond, Pa., Sept. 18,18—. 

H. B. Claflin & Co., 

New York. 

Gentlemen: This will introduce to you the hearer, Mr. Henry Otis 
of this place, who goes into the wholesale market for the purpose of 
buying goods. 

Mr. Otis is a perfectly reliable young man; cautious, prudent, enter¬ 
prising and honest; and withal he possesses an excellent knowledge of 
the Dry Goods business. 

In extending a credit to Mr. Otis for any reasonable amount, we are 
confident that he will meet all his engagements promptly 

Respectfully, 

CHAS. COTTONADE & CO. 

Or, the retailer may obtain a personal introduction by 
a dealer with whom he is acquainted, and who happens 
to be in the market at the same time. Care should 
always be exercised, and no introductions should be 
asked or accepted from a merchant who is not in excel¬ 
lent standing, as this would cloud and impair the credit 
of the person who is introduced, at once. It is not well 
to seek an introduction through a rival merchant, or 
one who is to.be a competitor, as by so doing, the per¬ 
son introduced places himself under obligations, and to 
a certain extent under the power of his rival. The 
wholesale merchant is most likely to occasionally con¬ 
sult the introducer concerning the success and standing 
of the person introduced, and he may by innuendoes, 
and the use of “ifs” or “buts,” easily lead the dis¬ 
penser of credit to infer that the person is not safe, 
while the person introduced supposes he has been 
greatly obliged by his friend, who so kindly introduced 
him, when in fact he is being injured by him. Accept 
an introduction from no one in whom you have not 
















































o 



RETAIL BUSINESS. 


343 


implicit confidence. He who is now your friend may 
become your enemy through rivalry, jealousy or many 
other causes, and the wholesale dealer, supposing always 
that the friendly relations which existed between you 
at first, still exist, naturally asks your rival and enemy 
concerning your financial standing. This places you 
in his power, and with your credit ruined at the whole¬ 
sale market you may be eventually ruined at home. 

The retail merchant asking credit, should have no 
objections to giving a full, frank and honest statement 
to the wholesaler concerning the amount of his capital, 
his former career, and the circumstances which tend 
to show his industrial habits, his prudence and economy. 
To deny the mer¬ 
chant this infor¬ 
mation to which 
he is entitled, is to 
create doubts in 
his mind, and to 
give any false or 
strained statement 
of your affairs, is 
to eventually ruin 
your credit, be¬ 
sides laying your¬ 
self liable for a 
criminal prosecu¬ 
tion for “obtain¬ 
ing goods under 
false pretenses.” 

Having establish¬ 
ed a credit at one 
of the wholesale 
houses, it is an 
easy matter to ex- 

A RETAIL 

tend this to the 

others, as you can “ refer to-& Co., who have sold 

me goods.” 

RECEIVING AND MARKING GOODS. 

As the goods are received in store, the retail mer¬ 
chant should first inspect the cases to see if they have 
been tampered with, or opened during their transit 
from the wholesale house. It occasionally happens 
that articles are abstracted from a box or package by 
an employe of the railroad or transportation company 
or by some irresponsible person, who obtains access to 
the goods in their passage over their route. The dis¬ 
ordered or confused arrangement of the box upon its 
being opened, will usually indicate to the merchant 
whether anything of this kind has occurred, and if it 


has, he should immediately notify the transportation 
company. 

As the goods are removed from the boxes they should 
be carefully examined. If any of the articles are in 
pairs, such as boots and shoes, it should be seen that 
they are properly mated, or fastened together. Each 
article is checked off with the invoice and the quality 
and price compared. If any articles are found to be 
short in weight or number, a memorandum of such 
should be made at once, and if any are stained or dam¬ 
aged they must be set aside. All notices of shortage 
in goods or claims for damage, should be made at once, 
and the merchant should not wait until the settlement 

of his bill, which 
may be three or 
four months hence. 

After t he goods 
are unpacked,they 
must be appropri¬ 
ately and taste¬ 
fully arranged in 
their various 
d e pa rtments 
throuhgout the 
store. This is a 
matter which can 
only be treated in 
general terms, as 
the peculiarities 
of the business, 
the location of the 
store room, its 
size, its light, etc., 
will govern the 
arrangement of 
the stock. But 


STREET. 


under any circumstances, it may be laid down as a rule 
that each department should be allotted a certain 
space, and all articles should at all times be kept in 
their proper place, so that the proprietor or his clerks 
could go directly to the article even in the dark. 
Goods which are most in demand, and most frequently 
called for, should be arranged in the most convenient 
and prominent part of the store, and articles which are 
usually sold in connection with others should be placed 
near them. Some goods must be kept in the upper 
part of the store, others in the cellar. Some articles 
are injured by exposure to moisture, while others 
require a damp place; some must be kept cool, others 
warm. Light and exposure exhibit defects in certain 
classes of goods, and in other classes are essential to 



































































































































































344 


RETAIL BUSINESS. 


their sale. A variety of details, and much experience 
must enter into the problem of arranging the stock ot 
goods on the shelves of the retail dealer. 

The arrangement of samples, use ot placards, and 
price tickets also call for ingenuity, taste and method. 
Markins: s'oods, and the various devices resorted to by 
the merchant to record the cost and selling price ot 
his wares has been fully treated in another part of this 
book, to which the reader is referred; but it may here 
be said that the “key word” and other contrivances, 
form the very least important part of the marking of 
a stock of goods. The cost price of an article is not what 
it may have cost in the wholesale house, but this amount 
with freight, drayage, and all the charges added, 
and in reckoning the profit and selling price, these 
must be carefully looked after, and allowed for, or the 
profits at the end of the year will not be forthcoming. 
The freight cannot be allowed on articles of merchan- 
dise indiscriminately, or at a given rate per cent. For 
instance, the freight may, on an entire stock of 
goods, average five per cent, but it would not do to 
add five per cent to the first cost of all articles, for a 
small box of cutlery would then pay more freight than 
a barrel of flour, and the merchant would find that his 
flour was being sold readily, while no one bought 
cutlery, and in the end the merchant would be the 
loser. 

Profits should also depend upon the nature of the 
articles themselves. Thus perishable goods; those which 
are salable only during a limited season; those which 
are liable to go “out of stvle” and be left on the 
merchant’s hands, must all be sold at a higher profit 
than staple articles, in order to compensate the mer¬ 
chant for his risk and trouble. 

Young merchants upon just commencing are liable 
to undertake to attract custom by selling certain goods, 
concerning the price of which the public is usually 
pretty well informed, at a ruinously low figure, trust¬ 
ing to make up for the loss on this by a larger profit 
on some other class of goods. But in many cases the 
customers are just shrewd enough to buy the low 
priced articles of the new comer, and the other articles 
of the old established dealer, thus leaving the young 
merchant a loss without a corresponding profit. 

EMPLOYES. 

An employer who is a judge of character, may tell 
an honest employe from a rascal by his general bear¬ 
ing. In each person there is an expression in a gene¬ 
ral way of what he is. This may be seen in every 
natural posture of the body, in every gesture, in the 


tone of voice. The posture of an honest man will not 
usually appear in any degree strained. The habit of 
gesture will be in a line with the impulse, if not the 
the idea, of integrity. An applicant or employe who 
makes a gratuitous display of his religious convictions 
and his honor, is a hypocrite, and will steal when he 
gets an opportunity. 

Having secured an intelligent and faithful clerk, it 
should be the aim of the merchant to retain him in em¬ 
ploy for a long period of service. In this way employer 
and clerk come to know each other better; the clerk 
sees his own interests to be identical with those of his 
employer, while employer finds that he is receiving 
good service, and appreciates it. The habit of employ¬ 
ing clerks and keeping them only “while the new is 
on,” and then discharging them to hire others, in the 
belief that new clerks work with more enthusiasm, 
is very poor policy, and in the end the employer is 
greatly the loser by it. The best clerks are usually 
unwilling to engage fora few weeks or months in this 
way. 

If the proprietor has not a thorough knowledge of 
the business in which he has just embarked, he should 
secure a first-class, competent and experienced clerk who 
possesses the requisite business experience, whom he 
may install as head clerk, and who may also act as 
his confidential adviser. To such a man the proprietor 
can afford to pay a good salary, or perhaps better, as 
an inducement to extra exertions in prosecuting the 
business, he may pay a fixed salary and also a per cent 
of the profits of the business. Thus giving the head 
clerk a direct, personal interest in the success of the 
business. 

The salary of a good clerk must not be inadequate. 
A proprietor can better afford to pay a good fair price 
for service, than to have a dissatisfied clerk in the store. 
Besides where clerks are compelled to accept a compen¬ 
sation which is not sufficient for their support, the 
temptation to embezzlement and other species of dis¬ 
honesty is increased. 

On the other hand, the clerk should work faithfully 
in the interests of his employer, and endeavor to pro¬ 
mote the success of the business in every possible man¬ 
ner. He should be on hand to open the store in the 
morning in good time, sweep the floor, dust the goods, 
arrange the wrapping paper, twine, nails, etc., in their 
proper places, and see that every department is kept 
up in neat and regular order. If any extra stress of 
labor is thrown upon the clerk, such as receiving new 
goods, taking an account of stock, etc., he should not 
manifest impatience, or grumble at his extra duties. The 






































o 



RETAIL BUSINESS. 



proprietor will give a clerk an extra compensation 
where the extra demands are unusual or unreasonable. 

Employers should govern their clerks with kind 
words and with tact, avoiding all displays of temper, and 
any inclination to arbitrary or tyrannical domination 
over them. If an employe makes a mistake it may be 
calmly pointed out to him, without any bustle or gen¬ 
eral fault finding. The proprietor should also show 
that he appreciates the services of his clerks, for if he 
has all censure and no praise for them he is in a fair 
way to be poorly served. 

When an employer finds that he has a clerk who 
possesses evil habits, although he may be efficient, it is 
better to let him go, as they are liable to bring dis¬ 
credit, not only on themselves but also on the house. 
If a clerk has become so conceited and self-important, 

that he regards himself as essential to the success of 
© 

the business, although the proprietor may regard him 
as indispensable, he should be discharged at once, for 
to keep him is to compromise authority and sacrifice 
self-reliance. 

ENTERING INTO PARTNERSHIP. 

The partnership relation involves responsibilities 
and duties, and should not be entered into without 
due deliberation. The proprietor of a business should 
examine his own character, and ascertain wherein he 
is deficient in those qualities which are so essential 
to success. Perhaps he may be inclined to be over¬ 
sanguine or venturesome; or, he may be rather timid, 
or too conservative. Possibly, upon examining his 
character he may find that he possesses energy and 
enterprise or dash, while details are utterly distasteful 
to him, and that while he prosecutes his business vigor¬ 
ously, he is constantly a heavy loser through bad debts, 
or accounts not looked after and collected. Or, the 
merchant may find that with an increase of capital his 
business may be greatly extended and made more 
lucrative; new departments may be profitably added, 
of which the proprietor has no personal experience. 
In these and in a multitude of other cases there are 
sound reasons for entering into the partnership rela¬ 
tion. The reason which impels the merchant to enter 
into co-partnership will also in many cases, determine 
the kind of a partner to be chosen. Thus, one with a 
faculty for detail work should be associated with one 
having enterprise and energy; the venturesome man 
with the conservative, and so on, in order that the 
firm may combine all the essential qualities to consti- 
tute a harmonious and successful whole. 

In dividing up the business between themselves, the 


partners must not allow any feeling of exclusiveness 
to come in, but must at all times remember that the 
interest of the whole, is the interest of each, and each 
should freely consult the other concerning his own 
department of the work. Thus if one partner attends 
the selling, and the other the buying of the goods, it 
is impossible that the buyer should have a correct idea 
of the wants of the customers, and know what to buy 
and what not to buy, in the market, unless he is in 
frequent and close communication with the seller, and 
thus any feeling of exclusiveness would defeat the 
very object of the co-partnership. 

The credit of a partnership is usually better than 
that of a single individual with the same amount of 
capital, for the reason that in case the sole proprietor 
of a business dies, the entire affairs must go into liquida¬ 
tion and perhaps a claim may be delayed several months 
before payment, but in the case of a partnership, if one 
partner dies, the debt then becomes a claim against the 
surviving partner, who would most likely pay it at 
once. 

As a general rule it is best not to enter into partner¬ 
ship with relatives, for the reason that such co-part¬ 
nership is not apt to be conducted strictly on 
business principles, and hence often lead to personal 
feeling, which should at all times be avoided. Partners, 
as a rule, should hold similar views on all social, 
political and moral questions;—not that these have 
any connection with the business, but that such views 
are necessary to harmony among associates. Men of 
different religious or political opinions, especially if 
they are of strong feelings, should be cautious about 
entering into the partnership relation. Persons of 
different nationalities are not apt to agree well together. 

In forming a partnership the articles ought always 
to be drawn in writing. Important points to be stated 
clearly are: Name of the firm; when it begins, and 
how long it is to continue; how much is to be drawn 
for individual expenses, and when; the nature of busi¬ 
ness to be done; what personal service and capital 
each partner is to invest in the business; whether 
interest is to be allowed on capital; what disposition 
is to be made of the joint property if the partnership 
is dissolved; no member of the firm is to become bound 
to answer for debt, indorse a note, and the like, except 
for the business of the firm, without the written con¬ 
sent of the other members. One of the objects to be 
attained in written and formal articles of co-partner¬ 
ship, is the fact that when the partners sit down to 
form such a contract, they are led to reflect more 
seriously and minutely on the matter, and the associa- 
































RETAIL BUSINESS 


ness, is that of effecting the sales. A failure here 
makes all a failure, while success in this department of 
the scheme makes all departments successful. There 
are men engaged in the retail trade, in inconvenient 
locations and incommodious store rooms, with dis¬ 
ordered stock, weak credit and limited capital, who 
by native ability do sell goods, and make from year to 
year a handsome profit. But how much more pleasant 
and nrofitable, too, would such a business be, if in 


tion is not so lightly entered into. 1 he mutual uis- 
cussion as to what should be incorporated in the ai tides 
of agreement, gives each a better understanding ot hit 
duties and responsibilities, and enables them to live 
together in a business way, in greater haimonj am 
consequent prosperity thereafter. 

HOW TO SELL GOODS. 

Important above all other departments of the busi 


.Dim: Winnie 


INTERIOR VIEW OF A MODEL GROCERY STORE. 


connection with the ability in selling goods was also 
combined, the other details and accessories so necessary 
to a successful and prosperous enterprise. On the 
other hand, there have been persons with considerable 
capital; with goods carefully selected with regard to 
the wants of the community, and purchased at favor¬ 
able prices; store in good order and all the details 


well provided for, who, to the surprise of their friends 
have made a failure. All from their inability to effect 
sales. 

To be successful in selling goods a salesman should 

C; C* 

have a full knowledge of them, their origin, and worth 
as compared with other goods of similar character, so 
as to be able to properly describe and commend them. 










































































































































































































































































































RETAIL BUSINESS. 


347 


A good salesman must have a pleasing address, and 
never forget that it is a part of his business in deal¬ 
ing with customers to be gracious and patient at all 
times. He should be able to express his thoughts 
clearly, fluently, and in the most civil manner, and 
must not misrepresent the goods. Truthfulness breeds 
confidence, and confidence makes sales. 

People like to be waited upon at the counter by 
polite and intelligent salesmen. Such persons, in 
selling goods, always attract customers. They do not 
weary of the display of kindness, and they are bound 
to satisfy their customers whether the latter buy or 
not. In their presence buyers will have little or no 
impulse to complain of the goods or prices, and in the 
course of time very few persons will dare to be rude in 
expression or manner. The goods should be so arranged 
upon the counters that the salesman can find the desired 
article immediately, for customers do not like to be 
kept waiting while a clerk climbs to the top shelf of 
the store in search of some article, and the ability to 
show a customer an article at once without having to 
hunt for it or consult other clerks, has of itself, made 
many a retail sale. 

Politeness is an essential quality in a successful 
salesman. lie should avoid an over display of polite¬ 
ness, as this has the appearance of being put on, or 
forced, and is distasteful to the customer. The clerk 
should, upon seeing a customer enter the store, 
advance to meet the customer, and with a slight bow, 
ask “What can I show you to-day,” or a similar expres¬ 
sion. Clerks who lean or sit on the counter and stare 
at customers as they come in, and who wait in 
their places until the customer comes directly up to 
them and asks to look at an article, before making a 
move, or even a recognition of the stranger, are not 
apt to sell a large quantity of goods, and you may hear 
the proprietor complaining of the dullness of business. 
The store is the home of the clerk, and he should meet 
his customers and welcome them the same as friends 
are welcomed in the home. No uneasiness or ill-humor 
should ever be manifested by a clerk if he fails in effect¬ 
ing a sale. He may have taken down a whole shelf of 
goods, requiring much labor to replace, but although 
no immediate sale was effected, he has by his obliging 
disposition laid a basis for a sale to-morrow or next 
week, and has secured a customer, which he would 
have driven away by any display of disobliging man¬ 
ner. A customer calls to match a piece of ribbon. 
The sale in such a case can only amount to a few cents 
and the clerk is very busy. He glances at the sample 
and says, “1 don’t think we can match it.” The cus¬ 


tomer goes away, thinking that probably he could 
match but did not wish to bother with it. A clerk 
should manifest just as much anxiety to match the 
ribbon, as if ho expected thereby to effect a sale of 
ten dollars. In fact, although he may be almost cer¬ 
tain that he cannot match the ribbon, he should 
examine the stock and see, thereby convincing the 
customer of his willingness to please; or he may place 
the samples before the customer, with a request 
that the customer compare them, while he goes on 
with his other customer. Some salesmen talk too 
much, as if regarding their success in selling goods, as 
in proportion to the volubility of their language. 
Such salesmen are apt to talk too much about the 
goods, in the first place, and they are also apt to intro¬ 
duce into the conversation outside matters or topics of 
news, which tend to draw the customer’s mind away 
from the article and defeat the sale. No outside 
matters should be allowed to encroach upon the mind 
until after the sale has been consummated. Other 
salesmen talk too little, and leave the customer to 
find out everything for himself. There is a mean be¬ 
tween these two extremes, and the smart salesman, 
who has a good knowledge of human nature, will find 
this mean in the case of each customer, and will succeed 
in effecting sales where others would fail. 

Other things being equal, no clerk can sell goods as 
successfully as the proprietor himself. There is a com¬ 
mon tendency for the merchant, who has a few clerks 
employed, to put off the work of selling goods on them, 
but this is a great mistake. Of course, as the business 
increases, the proprietor will find his time largely 
taken up with general matters about the store, so that 
it will be impossible for him to sell many goods; but 
in a small business where this is not the case, the pro¬ 
prietor should mingle freely with his customers, show 
his appreciation for their trade, and learn their tastes 
and wants, that he may the more fully meet them. In 
small stores the mistake is too prevalent of seeing the 
proprietor ape the manner of the larger establishments, 
by mounting a stool and enthroning himself behind 
the desk, as a sort of driver of the two or three sales¬ 
men. 

Selling goods for cash is the most satisfactory to all 
persons. It is more economical to the merchant, as it 
requires fewer clerks and less of his own time. No 
books of account, no making of bills, no dunning, col- 
lecting, suing or investigating the credit and responsi¬ 
bility of customers, comes in to demand a large share 
of the proprietor’s time, attention and labor, but he 
is left to look after the wants of his customers, and the 


































RETAIL BUSINESS. 


other details of his business. A cash business has 
connected with it, less of losses. Owing to a failure 
of some customer to pay, the merchant who sells on 
credit necessarily loses from time to time, the price of 
his goods, and these losses, together with the additional 
expense of conducting a credit business, requires that 
the merchant who sells on credit should sell at a higher 
price than the cash merchant. Customers who pay 
their bills are charged enough more to compensate for 
the loss of those who do not pay. Then again, owing 
to the fact that collections have been slow, and the 
merchant cannot realize on goods sold, he must, in 
order to meet his obligations with the wholesale mer¬ 
chant, resort to the bank for a loan. The interest on 
the loan, goes in as an additional charge against each 
customer on goods sold, and thus the cash merchant 
is able to undersell by several per cent, the merchant 
who sells on credit. The merchant who sells for cash 
is also enabled to buy for cash, and thereby get a dis¬ 
count on his bills at the wholesale house, which gives 
him a decided advantage in selling goods at low prices. 

But it is not always within the range of possibilities 
for the retail merchant to sell exclusively for cash, and 
under circumstances which call for the credit system 
there are various details and features which call for 
consideration and good judgment, for it requires far 
more ability to conduct a credit business than one on a 
cash basis. In the first place a credit business should 
never be embarked in, except in a locality where the char¬ 
acter of the population is settled, and the retailer may 
know something of the honesty and financial standing of 
those whom he credits. He should first look well to the 
character of his customers as regards honesty, for this 
is a very important factor in a trustworthy debtor. 
But all honest persons have not the means of payment, 
and the merchant cannot afford to sell his goods on 
honesty alone, unless there is with it soon to follow, the 
means ot settling the account. Some customers ask 
lor credit because they are without money at the time, 
but expect soon to realize on their income. The car¬ 
penter will pay when his job is completed; the farmer 
when he “sells his corn,” and the salaried man when 
‘‘ day ” comes. It requires then the cool considera¬ 
tion and investigation of him who grants the credit to 
know that the reliance placed in future income and 
results, is not overestimated; and the contract of the 
carpenter that was to yield one thousand dollars profit, 
and enable him easily to pay his debt at the store, 
may not fall short and yield only one hundred 
dollars profit. In other words, the dispenser of credit 
must look at the prospects ot his customer in their true 




light, divested of all roseate hues. Credit is also 
extensively based on the property in the possession of 
the customer, consisting of real estate and personal 
property; but this may often prove very delusive, for 
incumbrances may exist on them to such an extent as 
to leave nothing for the payment of debts. If the 
retailer grants credit at random he is almost sure to 
lose and in the end fail; and it is only by fully investi¬ 
gating and carefully weighing all the facts in every 
case which enables him to grant credit with safety. 
As a general rule in granting credit the following classes 
may generally be discriminated against , and sales to them 
should not be made on credit to any very large amount: 
People of extravagant habits, and little means to sup¬ 
port them; intemperate people, or victims of vicious 
habits; those who have no particular regard for the 
rules of health and who are diseased; minors and mar¬ 
ried women not legally responsible for their debts; 
those who often change their place of residence; 
strangers, whose means of a livelihood are unknown; 
speculators, and those who show no disposition at 
middle life to accumulate or save anything toward sus¬ 
taining themselves in later years. 

Every retailer should have a fixed limit beyond 
which he should not extend his credits. This will 
depend upon the amount of capital employed in the 
business; the length of the time of credit granted to cus¬ 
tomers as compared with the term of credit granted him 
by the wholesale merchant; and also whether he has 
any means outside of the business which he may fall 
back upon in case of emergencies. Thus supposing 
that the amount of the merchant’s stock at its lowest 
point is just equal to his capital, and that the time of 
his payments is two months later than the average of 
his outstanding accounts, it will require that he collect 
every dollar of his accounts, less the amount of his net 
profits on the same, within two months after they are 
due in order to meet his own payments promptly. On 
account of the risk attending the credit system, it is 
not best to have too large amounts outstanding. As 
a general rule, twice the amount of the retailer’s capi¬ 
tal should be the limit in extending credits, and many 
conservative retail dealers limit their outstanding 
accounts to the amount of their capital. The merchant 
should keep an account of the amount charged and paid 
daily, and when the obligations neared the limit he 
should begin to deny credit. 

The opening of a rival store tends to reduce the sales 

ot those already established. To counteract this the 

merchant is most liable, in his anxiety to effect sales, 

to extend credit to those who are unworthy of it, or to 

«/ 




















































RETAIL BUSINESS. 


349 


give credit more freely to those who only had a limited 
credit before. This is a source of loss to the dealer, 
which is not easily seen at first, but arises mainly 
through the loss of the cash part of his custom, 
which is always safe, and an increase in credits which 
are the occasion of losses. By extending credits more 
liberally the merchant is enabled to make his weekly 
sales foot up as much as before, and he continues satis¬ 
fied. No increase of gross profits is thought of to 
cover the extra loss he will be subject to; 
all he looks to for the time, is to see that at 
the end of the day his sales are as much as 
heretofore. He does not notice that his 
business is gradually changing into a credit 
one. By and by there is not so much cash 
received, and he begins to be short of money 
to pay his bills. He looks back to the time 
when he had plenty of money to meet all re¬ 
quirements in advance, and even discounted 
his bills, thereby making a profit. Now 
he has to pay interest often, and the interest 
account shows a larger debit than credit. 

The times seem “hard” with him and with ^ 
his customers. Whenever he buys goods^C^l 
he feels the necessity of trying to get a little^W^ 
longer credit on his purchases, that pay day 
may be further off. He scarcely thinks it 
worth while to even look at the great bar- 
gains offered in the market for cash, as he 
has not the money to take advantage of such. 

He is quite at a loss to account for his want 
of prosperity. His annual sales foot up as 
large as ever, and he hopes that soon “ times 
will be better.” And thus hundreds of mer¬ 
chants go on in fancied security, doing busi¬ 
ness as they think, in the same way as when 
their sales were largely cash, while in reality 
they are losing money from over credit with 
its attendant losses. In such cases the only 
recourse of the merchant is to cut off all questionable 
credits, and then reduce his expenses, if he would save 
himself from ruin. 

REPLENISHING THE STOCK. 

From time to time the retailer finds it necessary to 
add new goods in order to keep his stock and assort¬ 
ment as the sales go on. In doing so there are various 
things to be carefully considered. As stated before, 
the merchant should be constantly passing through his 
stock in order that he may inspect his sales, and see 
what classes of goods are most in demand, and become 



thoroughly acquainted with the tastes and desires of his 
customers, in order that he may have this indispensable 
knowledge when he comes to lay'in new stock. In 
every class of business there is what may be called a 
staple line of goods. These are articles which arc con¬ 
stantly in demand throughout the year, and the mer¬ 
chant should keep a good assortment of them, buying 
as he sees his assortment or stock getting low. This 
part of the buying need give the merchant very little 
trouble, as his only concern will be how he 
may buy the cheapest. But there is another 
class of goods which are in demand for a 
brief season of the year only, as scythes in 
the mowing season, or skates in the ice 
season, and the shrewd merchant must, 
before the season opens, lay in a stock to 
meet the demand and yet not so large as to 
have a quantity left, which will be unsalable 
for another year. There are certain articles, 
especially of wearing apparel, which “go 
out of fashion,” and are thus unsalable by 
the retailer, and in order to meet the demand 
A£for fashionable goods, and yet not incur the 
’^r^loss attendant upon having the goods left on 
j/whiis hands, the retailer must use keen per¬ 
ception and precaution in buying. Where 
the wholesale market is near at hand, it is 
especially advisable to buy this class of goods 
in small quantities, and replenish often, 
rather than undertake to anticipate the 
entire season’s sales. 

It often happens that the retail merchant 
finds near the close of the season that some 
of the articles have not met with as ready a 
sale as he expected, and that his stock of the 
season’s articles is much larger than he 
anticipated at its close, and consequently 
that his entire stock is larger than he wishes, 
or can well afford to carry over the dull sea- 
As he cannot reduce his stock by selling off the 


son. 


season’s articles he allows his staple articles to be run 
down, so that his assortment is. broken, and he loses 
custom on that account. This must be carefully 
guarded against, and while the merchant must still 
continue to buy, he should buy very cautiously, mean¬ 
while reducing his stock of the unseasonable articles 
as best he can, by selling them at cost, or urging their 
sale more strongly. 

In every well conducted store, there should be kept 
in a convenient place, a memorandum or slate, upon 
which the clerks may each record the names of such 






































350 


RETAIL BUSINESS. 


articles as are sold out or nearly out, the names of 
articles which have been called for but have not been 
kept, and the names of such articles as are in unusual 
demand, and are liable to raise in price or soon be 
unobtainable on account ot the unusual demand. Lhe 
proprietor may then take this memorandum and from 
it, together with other matters of his observation, 
judge as to what to buy and how much, and with 
proper sagacity he will always have the articles wanted 
in season, at a reasonable price, and yet never seem 
to have an undue quantity when the season has passed 

PAYING FOR GOODS. 

As a general rule the merchant should avoid giving 
his promissory notes to the wholesaler, or indeed to 
any one, unless it be for special and forcible reasons. 
Although a promissory note may be promptly met at 
maturity, the fact of its existence is an advertisement 
of debt, and a merchant’s credit is injured to a certain 
extent by having his notes circulating through the 
community. Wholesale merchants are willing enough 
to sell any reasonable quantity of goods on credit, and 
allow a suitable time for payment, and if the retailer 
meets his bills promptly at maturity he will fare well 
at the wholesaler’s hands, and be enabled to buy all the 
stock he needs, seldom giving notes in payment. But 
he should keep his credit good with the wholesale 
house, and this is done by prompt paying. The whole¬ 
sale merchant can scarcely go into the methods and 
details of the retailer’s business, to know that he is 
conducting his business on correct principles and mak¬ 
ing a fair profit; if he has been well introduced and his 
payments are prompt, this is enough. In this way 
retail merchants have sometimes held high credit at 
the wholesale market, by prompt paying, while at 
home they were incumbered and embarrassed with debt. 
Then there arc other retailers who make a good profit, 
and are successful and well able to pay all obligations, 
but who through carelessness, neglect to meet their 
payments promptly at the wholesale market, and hence 
have low credit there, when they might as well be 
enjoying the best. 

A retailer will always find it to his advantage to be 
prompt, and stand well at the wholesale house. He 
should buy with such caution and forethought as will 
enable him so see his way clear to pay for the goods 
promptly when due, and should avoid buying what he 
does not really want, because importuned by the sales¬ 
man, and because he knows his credit is good. 

Another matter which may seem to bean exceedimd v 
small one, but which is ot much more consequence 


than simply its size, is the express charges on money 
sent by express or the exchange on drafts and checks, 
where money is remitted in that manner. The differ¬ 
ence in the real value and the face value of a check 
may be twenty-five cents, owing to the fact that it is 
payable at a distance from where the wholesaler re¬ 
ceives it, and it is subject to a “ shave” of this amount 
in the wholesaler’s hands, which is a direct loss to him, 
and while the amount may be small, yet the retailer 
cannot afford to take this petty advantage. The same 
may be said of express charges. These the retail 
merchant should always prepay, so that the full amount 
of money be placed in the wholesaler’s hands, subject to 
no charges or deductions. The retailer might by taking 
these little advantages of his wholesale merchant, per¬ 
haps in a year’s time, save fifty or seventy-five dollars, 
but it would be at the expense of his reputation for 
honesty, and he would in the end be greatly the loser 
by his petty meanness. 

The retailer, having had a good trade, often finds 
himself in possession of funds in advance of the 
maturity of his obligations. In such case, some mer¬ 
chants speculate in wheat, or invest in western land or 
town lots, possibly buy lottery tickets or take a flyer 
on the grain market. These are the methods employed 
by weak minds, to whom money is a source of annoy¬ 
ance. 

The best use the merchant can put his surplus cash 
to, is in anticipating his own indebtedness, and obtain¬ 
ing a discount on his bills thereby. In this way mer¬ 
chants frequently make as much as the rent paid for their 
store-room. When a merchant has money to anticipate a 
debt he should consider how he may best apply it. 
Thus, supposing there are several obligations at the 
wholesale house, some due soon, others due quite a time 
hence. Of course the discount on the longer bills will 
be greater, and hence this is a temptation to pay them, 
and get the benefit of the larger reduction. But if the 
longest bills are paid, perhaps there may be a deficiency 
of cash to meet.early bills. It is necessary, then, to 
examine and see how this cash surplus arises. If it 
arises from the natural profits of the business, it may 
be safely used to discount whatever bills it would be 
most to the merchant’s advantage to have discounted, 
but if it arises largely from sales or collections being 
made earlier than usual, it is an indication that the 
receipts of cash will be less during the next few 
weeks, and the merchant should therefore look well 
after payments maturing during, that time. If for 
instance, a dealer should make his estimate of sales 
for the month of October to be probably $4,000 and 

















































RETAIL BUSINESS 


should on this 
basis, obligate 
himself to make 
payments to that 
amount including 
the running expenses of the 
business, an early fall trade might 
bring up the September sales so 
that $1,000 of the $4,000 to be sold in 
October are sold a month earlier, and at 
the end of September he has a surplus of cash 
on hand of $1,000, but he would be very 
imprudent if he should apply the $1,000 
thus received, in the settlement of bills due 
in January, as in all probability he would 
find that his October receipts would not meet that 
month’s indebtedness. 

There is another feature which deserves mention at 
this point. The dealer maybe buying goods of several 
wholesale houses, and his credit may range higher at 
one house than another. In applying a payment to 
undue obligations, he should select such houses as will 
strengthen his credit by the payment. Thus, it his 
credit standing is weak in a house where he expects 
to buy largely in future, he should apply the payment 
to debts due at that house. 

LOSSES. 

There are various losses which are incident to the 
mercantile business, and which the shrewd merchant 
must calculate upon and meet. In all classes ot goods 
there is a loss constantly arising from depreciation in 
value caused by damage in handling; exposure to 
dust; the fading of colors from exposure to light, and 
“ moth and rust which doth corrupt, as well as from 
“thieves which break through and steal.’ This 
depreciation in the value of goods will depend largely 
upon the articles themselves. Thus, fancy or orna¬ 
mental goods are subject to greater damage and decrease 
in value, by being exposed or shopworn. Articles 
go “ out of fashion ” and are then comparatively value- 
less. New and improved articles, better adapted to 
supply the wants of man, are constantly being invented 
and put upon the market, and the old goods are 
reduced in popularity and value. In all these cases 
the merchant may guard himself against loss to a cer¬ 
tain extent by precaution, observation and foresight, 
but to avoid loss entirely is impossible. Thus he may 
anticipate, to a certain extent, the changes ot fashion, 
and dispose of most of his stock before the demand 
ceases, or at a reduced price after the change, but 


some loss may be inevitable. He may provide against 
the damage of exposure and dust, by covering his 
goods and using care in their preservation. The 
expense of a muslin covering to be thrown over the 
goods while sweeping the store, or a window shade to 
protect the goods from the direct rays of the sun at 
certain times of day, will be many times saved in the 
protection afforded the stock. 

Losses by fire, can in most cases be guarded against 
by precautions in the construction of the heating 
apparatus. See that the stove or furnace is properly 
provided with sheet zinc to protect the woodwork near 
it, and that fines are kept in good repair. In dry 
goods stores it is not uncommon to see a great variety 
of fancy articles strung upon the chandeliers or gas 
pendants, or stretched on lines dangerously near the 
light. Combustibles, such as benzine, gasoline, 
alcohol, turpentine and gunpowder, should be placed 
in a part of the store which is not much frequented, 
and that part should be known as “ the dangerous cor¬ 
ner.” After taking all possible precautions against 
fire, the retail merchant should besides keep his 
stock well insured in responsible companies. 

From burglars, the best precaution is to have a 
clerk sleep in the store. If for any reason this clerk 
should be sick or called away, another should take his 
place. When it is known that a clerk sleeps in the 
store, burglars will usually select such evenings as 
they know the clerk to be out late and will operate 
then; hence unseasonable hours of such a clerk are to 
be avoided. Bolts, bars and locks may not bean entire 
protection against burglars, but they deter the rascals 
to a certain extent, and are hence to be commended. 
Strong sheet iron shutters, securely fastened, are good 
protection for both doors and windows, and the 
appearance of watchfulness and security will often 
deter the burglar from an attempt to steal, where the 
trouble and risk are so great. For this reason a pad¬ 
lock on the outer door is a bad precaution, as it gives 
notice that there is no one inside. A liffht left burn- 
ing throughout the night so that the whole interior of 
the store may be seen by any passerby, and especially 
when a large clock is placed near the light, so that the 
belated traveler homeward looks in to see the time of 
night, will render the place too conspicuous for a 
burglar. 

Losses from petty stealing by dishonest customers 
and loafers, otherwise called “ shop-lifting,” can only 
be guarded against by precautions, such as keeping a 
sharp eye on suspicious characters, who do not seem 
to have any special aim or object in the store. In a 














































352 


RETAIL BUSINESS. 



store where the stock is confused and disarranged or 
kept in a careless manner, depredations from this class 
of persons is greatest. 

Peculations of clerks and employes, is a source of 
frequent loss to the retail merchant, and is very diffi¬ 
cult to discover and punish. Many employers seldom 
scrutinize the doings of their clerks, and trust with 
implicit confidence all who are in their employ. When 
at last their eyes are opened, and they see that some¬ 
thing is wrong, without troubling themselves to 
detect and punish the criminal, they simply discharge 
him and turn him loose to prey upon some other 
unsuspecting dealer. Sometimes clerks are permitted 
to purchase any article kept for sale in the store, and 
are allowed to keep their own account of it, or make 
payment for it without referring the matter to the 
employer. This often leads to pilfering, as the clerk 
neglects to charge the item, and quiets his conscience 
by saying to himself, “ I will charge it in the morn¬ 
ing,’’ and then forgets or neglects it, and finally argues 
himself into the belief that he was entitled to the 
article anyhow, as a compensation for extra work last 
week in unpacking goods until late at night. The 
next time the clerk wants am article he takes it in the 
same way, and his conscience is more easily silenced 
by argument, that his salary is less than it ought to be, 
and that he is sort of getting even: and so on, from 
bad to worse, till his stealings become larger and more 
frequent, and amount to hundreds or thousands of 
dollars. 

The employer may prevent the first step toward 
crime, by a watchful supervision over his clerks, and he 
should have a strict rule that no clerk is to purchase to 
take out of the store any article except directly from 
himself. He should also employ all checks and safe¬ 
guards which he finds practicable, and if a clerk is 
found to be dissipating or disposed to spend his wages 
in questionable society, or has a demoralizing influence 
on other clerks, he should be discharged at once. 

Another loss in the retail trade is from omission to 
charge goods sold. When all hands are quite busy 
a well-known customer enters, and after looking about 
the store, selects a hoe, and walks out with it, saying 
as lie goes, “Charge this to my account.” Nobody 
charges it, the customer forgets it, and the amount is 
lost. These losses can be all avoided by a little care 
and discipline. 

KEEPING THE BOOKS. 

A thorough and systematic system of accounts is to 
the merchant, what the mariner’s compass is to the 



ship captain,—a guide through a voyage on the seas 
of business enterprise. Good book-keeping tends to 
save and turn to the best use that which is already 
made, or by its records of the past, throw some light 
on the future for the dealer’s guidance. The best kept 
books can never put a dollar in the cash drawer, but 
they can save hundreds from unnecessarily going out, 
if there has been sufficient talent in conducting the 
business, to put them in. 

The two main essentials in the accounts of a store, 
are to show at all times the amounts which the mer¬ 
chant owes, and the amounts which others owe him. 
These results may be accomplished by “ single entry,” 
but it is very desirable that a set of books should be 
so kept that far more than this may be shown concern¬ 
ing the condition of the business. The book-keeping 
in a retail store of average size need not be a heavy 
duty; a half hour or so at the close of each day will 
suffice to post up the day’s business, and afford the 
proprietor his customary daily view of the condition of 
his business. Many merchants neglect the books of 
their store and allow them to run behind from week to 
week and month to month, only getting finally 
cleared up and a “balance sheet” ofl’ once a year, or 
once in six months. The management of their busi¬ 
ness is something like a prolonged battle, in which they 
only emerge from the smoke and confusion once a year 
or once in six months, to look over and marshal their 
forces, carry oft' the dead and wounded, inspect their 
trophies, and note the vantage ground which they may 
have gained in the struggle; whereas, they should be 
so situated that they can view the whole field from day 
to day, and see how the battle is going, in order to 
know just when to recede and when to advance. 
Under such a system much of the result is luck and 
chance, which under wiser and more systematic man¬ 
agement, forethought and calculation, 
would have turned into assured success. 

One of the losses which the retail mer¬ 
chant is subject to, is from uncharged 
goods, as explained before under the head 
of losses. The charging of an article or 
bill of goods, should be considered a part of 
the sale, if the goods are sold on credit, and 
the merchandise should not be passed 
over to the customer until after the 
entry is made. In taking money 
in the settling of an 
account, the entry 
should be made before 
the receipt is made out" 





















































RETAIL BUSINESS. 


353 


or delivered to the person paying. The retail mer¬ 
chant who sells on credit, should have a part of the 
counter or a separate platform near where the books 
are kept, set apart for the purpose of placing goods 
sold on credit, while the entry is being made. Then 
on the other side of the book-keeping desk, or near by 
it, a similar space allotted for the goods after they have 
been charged and before they have been delivered or 
sent out. This arrangement need not occupy much 
space but will greatly facilitate the charging of goods 
sold. 

An equally important part of the business is the 
entering of goods bought, in order that the merchant 
may at all times know who he owes and how much. 
There should be in the store a particular place for 
receiving, opening and inspecting goods, and they 
should be kept in this place until after they are entered 
upon the books, when they may then go into the stock. 
With every box, case or parcel of goods there should 
arrive also an invoice, and a careful comparison should 
be made belore the goods are entered. If the invoice 
and the goods are compared and found to agree, the 
invoice is then pasted in a large stub invoice book, in 
that portion set apart by the index, to the name of the 
firm of whom the goods were purchased, and in a small 
blank book is entered simply the date, name, and 
amount of the bill, for convenience in posting, and 
adding up purchases. It sometimes happens that the 
invoice is lost in the mails, and although the goods may 
have arrived, the invoice does not come to hand. In 
such case the dealer may let the goods lie unpacked 
until he gets a duplicate invoice from the wholesale 
house; but this might be very inconvenient as the 
goods might be needed at once, and to let them lie 
would be to lose custom. The merchant should then 
open the box, and take especial pains in the examination 
ot the goods, and make out a memorandum 
invoice according to its contents, leaving 
the prices blank. It would be well also 
to have the head clerk of the store 
check over this memorandum to avoid 
any possibility of error. This mem¬ 
orandum may then be entered as if it 
were an invoice, leaving the amount 
blank to be filled in, upon 
receipt of the invoice from 
the wholesale house. The 
memorandum 
invoice should 
be carefully 
preserved fur 




comparison with the genuine when it is received, and 
if the goods are partly or entirely sold out the matter 
can be adjusted as well, if there should be found a 
discrepancy. 

In retail stores of any considerable size it is now quite 
customary to have some one to take charge of the cash 
receipts, make change, etc., and the salesman uses 
a small cash ticket. The object of this ticket is to 
furnish the cashier with the amount of the sale, by which 
at the close of the day the cash account may be verified, 
if there should be an error; but the ticket is suscep¬ 
tible of further uses. By having the initials of the 
salesman on the ticket which he puts in to the cashier, 
the amount of his daily sales may be from this ticket 
drawn off and recorded. 

FORM OF A CASH SALES TICKET. 



.. /f. . 

Bought of Gingham, Muslin & Co. 

8 pap. Cambric , 20 

1 

60 

12 Prints , 15 - 

1 

80 

2 pr. Hose , 60 

1 

20 

Salesman, G. L. M. 

4 

60 


These tickets need not be large, and only on a cheap 
quality of paper, but they should be bound or fastened 
together, so that one at a time may be detached as 
needed. This ticket may also be used in' case goods 
are not sold for cash, but are to be charged. It is an ex¬ 
cellent stimulus to salesmen to have the amount of their 
daily sales recorded, as it affords the proprietor an oppor¬ 
tunity to see who is, and who is not, a profitable man 
to retain in his employ. The average daily sales of a 
clerk should form some basis for fixing his next year’s 
salary. The following form will illustrate how each 
saleman’s sales may be kept, so as to afford the desired 
information at any time. This may be kept by having 
ruled columns in the regular cash book, or by keeping 
this in the cashier’s small or “petty” cash bcok, 
which i3, perhaps, preferable: 
















































354 


RETAIL BUSINESS. 


FORM FOR PETTY CASH BOOK. 


18-. 

G.S.M. 

C. A. 

R.W.S. 

g. r. 



Sept. 16. 

$18 45 

$16 25 

$10 14 

$3 15 

47 

99 

“ 17. 

26 18 

18 43 

13 90 

88 

59 

39 

“ 18.. 

23 40 

17 20 

absent 

1 84 

42 

44 

“ 1!*. 

19 SO 

15 43 

25 64 

2 78 

63 

65 

“ 20. 

sick 

14 19 

14 30 

4 13 

32 

62 

“ 21.. 

17 90 

17 22 

10 88 

1 45 

47 

45 

Total for the week.. . 





293 

54 


Another valuable adjunct to the regular set of books 
kept by the merchant, should be a summary book for 
the cash and credit sales of the year. This will give 
the merchant an opportunity to compare at any time 
the business of this year with the business of the cor¬ 
responding season last year. It matters little as to 
the form of this book, provided it supplies the desired 
information. The following- form would be as good as 
any for this purpose : 


ACCOUNT OF DAILY SALES, 18—. 


Day 

of 

January. 

February. 

March. 







Month 

Cash. 

Credit. 

Cash. 

Credit. 

Cash. 

Credit. 

1 



46 25 

84 32 



2 

. . . 


87 60 

35 16 



3 

45 32 

62 40 

42 80 

86 45 



4 

36 20 

48 60 

32 70 

64 20 



5 

42 84 

60 35 





6 

27 36 

85 40 

85 80 

64 70 



7 

88 63 

64 20 

32 64 

47 90 



8 

, , . . 


90 85 

64 50 



9 

85 90 

49 32 

56 85 

85 20 



10 

88 64 

67 30 

84 20 

62 45 



11 

90 40 

80 30 

90 63 

84 33 



12 

20 18 

35 64 





13 

92 87 

36 43 

48 25 

46 32 



14 

90 46 

88 62 

16 42 

18 95 



15 







16 

45 84 

34 io 





17 

8416 

47 18 





18 

72 40 

100 85 





19 

46 30 

95 20 





20 

84 16 

32 70 





21 

90 10 

85 40 





22 







23 

25 40 

4016 





24 

46 80 

85 20 





25 

40 45 

49 60 





26 

18 20 

15 30 





27 

90 25 

110 80 





28 

60 30 

28 70 





29 







30 

90 50 

45 60 





31 

29 20 

84 18 






1,532.86 

1,542.59 






This book should be ruled with columns for each 
month of the year, on opposite pages, so that may be 
seen at a glance the entire year’s business, without turn¬ 
ing leaves. The labor required in making up these 
summaries may seem too great to compensate the mer¬ 
chant in the benefits which he receives therefrom, but 
such is not the case. A little time at the close of each 
day will suffice to draw off all the items to their proper 
accounts in the ledger, and also to post up the amounts 
in the summary book, and the time thus employed, 


would reap the merchant a much more profitable har¬ 
vest than discussions on political and other questions, 
“spinning yarns,” etc., with loafers and loungers, who 
find refuge in any store that will harbor them. 

At the end of the year, or what is better, at the end 
of every six months, the merchant should take an 
account of stock, and close his books, in order to ascer¬ 
tain exactly what his gains and losses have been. The 
inventorying of a stock of goods is an important mat¬ 
ter, and should not be turned over to boys or inexper¬ 
ienced clerks, as a duty beneath the proprietor’s atten¬ 
tion. The proprietor should himself actually pass on 
the values to be set to the various articles or goods as 
they are handled, dusted and replaced on the shelves. 
Some articles may have greatly decreased in value, 
owing to certain causes of deterioration or supply, 
which a clerk knows nothing about, and if the inven¬ 
tory is made on an incorrect basis, the profits as shown 
by the books when they are closed, will be to a greater 
or less extent fictitious. The time of taking the in- 
ventory is also an excellent opportunity for the pro¬ 
prietor to see what goods have remained on hand too 
long, and to adopt suitable measures to have them 
sold off. 

After the books have been closed and a balance sheet 
drawn off, showing the condition of the business, this 
should then be so arranged that it may be compared 
with the results of previous years. 

A portion of the same book as is used for the sum¬ 
mary of Daily Sales may be ruled off and set apart for 
this purpose, and may upon one page set forth the 
results of several years’ business, so that the merchant 
has a bird’s-eye view of his past business career. This 
would appear something as follows: 


SUMMARY OF THE BUSINESS OF GINGHAM, MUSLIN &. CO. 



1882. 


1883. 


1884. 

Mdse, on hand at 1st of year 

7,386 

10 

8,416 

20 

8,762 

50 

Bought during the year. 

26,342 

18,624 

84 

28,716 

90 

24,318 

60 

Sold “ “ for cash. 

30 

19,304 

8 1 

21,463 

50 

Sold “ “ on credit 

11,416 

30 

14,360 

25 

8,642 

SO 

Mdse, on hand, close of year 

8,416 

20 

8,762 

50 

9,246 

30 

Gross profits on sales,. 

4,727 

86 

5,294 

45 

(5,271 

50 

Interest account, Dr. 

216 

30 

418 

20 

342 

60 

“ “ Cr. 

318 

60 

443 

20 

402 

SO 

Profit and loss, Dr. 

142 

80 

2 6 

30 

805 

45 

“ “ Cr. 

8 

60 

11 

30 

21 

45 

Expense, store. 

1,432 

60 

1,682 

30 

1,750 

45 

“ private. 

1,625 

42 

1,7.56 

80 

1,620 

42 

Outstanding accounts. 

Estimate of loss on same.... 

3,625 

84 

3,824 

60 

3,725 

42 

320 

00 

345 

00 

250 


Cash on hand at end of year. 

716 

30 

814 

25 

1,732 

SO 

Indebtedness. 

2,763 

40 

3,420 

80 

285 

60 

Net profits added to capital. 

1,317 

94 

1,333 

35 

1,926 

83 

Capital at end of year. 

7,285 

60 

8,618 

95 

10,545 

78 


In these latter days of commercial activity and com¬ 
petition, merchants are coming to base their dealings 
and ventures more and more on statistical informa- 




















































































































RETAIL BUSINESS. 



tion, and the most important of such, is that concern¬ 
ing the merchant’s own business. He should make a 
study of this, and compare frequently the present with 
the past, and then reflect on the conditions of trade in 
general and draw his inferences therefrom. A regular 
and systematically kept set of books will not of itself 
make a business successful, but it will point the way 
to success, and will be one of the important adjuncts 
in any line of retail trade. 

EXPENSES AND PROFITS 

These two words are full of meaning to the mer¬ 
chant. The expenses of clerk hire will usually regu¬ 
late itself, as when trade is slack the merchant will be 
most apt to let go those employes whose services are 
not required, or as the business grows, he will employ 
more help as he needs it. The rent of the store is 
usually quite a large item, and one which should be 
well considered before entering into the lease. The 
price paid for rent will of course depend upon the nature 
and extent of the business, and the protit on goods 
sold. As a erenoral rule a rent which does not exceed 

O 

ten per cent on the gross profits, would not be con¬ 
sidered exorbitant, while one which exceeded twenty 
per cent would be so considered. The merchant’s ex¬ 
penses for both the store and his living should not 
exceed fifty per cent of the gross profits of his business, 
as there will be other losses which will come in to 
reduce the other fifty per cent, and in the end he will 
find that his net gain for the year has not been adequate. 

THE MERCHANT SOCIALLY. 

While the attentive, exemplary, and careful dealer, 
pursuing the even tenor of his way, will succeed and 
accumulate a competence, without the exercise of the 


qualities of sociability and popularity in the commun¬ 
ity, it is true that other men, no more capable than he, 
will succeed sooner and far easier by the exercise of 
these qualities. The merchant should therefore be a 
public spirited, social and genial man, mingling with 
the community freely, and ingratiating himself quietly 
and imperceptibly into the respect, esteem and confi¬ 
dence of all. He should be present at meetings 
intended for the public good, and should aid in all 
works for the improvement of the town and its citi¬ 
zens. At the same time he should avoid espousing a 
partisan cause, for he thus antagonizes a certain por¬ 
tion of the community. He should never allow his 
store room to be the meeting place, either formally or 
informally, of any political club, party or clique, even 
though he may take no active part in the meeting him¬ 
self, for he will be held as sanctioning the movement, 
and will be condemned by the opposition party. 

The retail merchant, in engaging in various public 
enterprises of the town, should avoid carrying the 
matter to such an extent as will draw his mind awav 
from his business, or consume time which should be 
devoted to his store. Instances are not rare, where re¬ 
tailers are drawn into various organizations, being presi¬ 
dent of this, secretary of that, and treasurer of the other, 
until one-half their time and energy is taken up with 
these matters, to the manifest injury of their business. 

The retail merchants of this country form a large and 
influential class, and their influence for intelligence, 
upright dealing, and legitimate trade should be highly 
beneficial to all communities. To them the greatest 
reward for such examples will always be, that while 
they strengthen and profit their own calling by proper 
ways, they also earn the greater compensation of the 
respect and esteem of their fellow men. 










































OUR LUMBER INTERESTS. 






UMBER 







LUMBER-MAKING. 

ihe lumber interest is one having an extent and 
magnitude which it is hard to comprehend from 
statistics. It employs in these United States 
a capital of over one hundred and eighty million 
dollars, and marshals an army of over 
one hundred and forty-seven thousand 
employes, and its annual pay-roll foots 
up to the astonishing figures of nearly 
thirty-five million dollars. As an illus¬ 
tration not only of the extent of this but 
other industries in this country, 
we will only mention that for 
spools and bobbins employed in 
silk, cotton and woolen manufac¬ 
ture, there was gotten out, 
in the year 1880, over 34,- 
000,000 feet of lumber. 
Add to this fact that it took 
over one and a quarter bil¬ 
lion staves to fur¬ 



nish cooperage for 
this people. Then 
think of the 
other armies 
of operatives 


shaping those staves into barrels and hogsheads, mak¬ 
ing that 34,000,000 feet of lumber into spools and bob¬ 
bins, and the other and still greater armies handling 
the nearly forty-eight billion feet of lumber, not includ¬ 
ing shingles, lath or staves, made in a single year, pil¬ 
ing it, loading it upon vessels, cars and wagons, convey¬ 
ing it by vessel, train and wagon to the other great ar¬ 
my of carpenters and joiners, furniture and agricultural 
machine makers, and all the various uses of lumber, 
and you will get some idea of the extent and reach of 
the lumber manufacture and trade of the United States. 
The single state of Michigan employs directly over 
twenty-five thousand men in this business, pays an 
annual pay-roll of seven million dollars and scatters 
lumber valued at the mill at over $52,000,000. 

The marvelous growth of the Saginaw region illus¬ 
trates the rapid increase of the lumber industry. 

In 1856 one small saw-mill and a few shanties occu¬ 
pied the ground where now in twenty miles you find 
over 60,000 people, and all busy with the hum of 
active, pushing business life. No manufacturing in¬ 
dustry stands for and by itself. They are all dovetailed 
and interlaced by mutual and dependent interests. 
Still more, commerce, trade and agriculture are all and 
each stimulated and fostered as well as dependent in a 
measure upon each other and the manufacturer. But 
upon none are they more dependent than upon the 
board-maker. 

In the early days, when the streams were fringed to 
the water’s edge or arched with pines that knew no 
master save old age, the mill went to the logs. It was 
the primitive mill with its cumbrous, slow-moving 
water-wheel, and its one or two “sash” 
or framed saws of leisurely motion. A 
daily production of ten thousand feet of 
dumber was a large cut—a something to be 
about. 













































































































OUR LUMBER INTERESTS. 


357 


Now, with the steam mill located for convenience of 
shipping, with its “ gangs ” of from twenty to forty 
saws, and its “ circulars ” wheeling their 900 revolu¬ 
tions every 60 seconds, the logs come to the mill , and 
three hundred thousand feet per day is not a thing 
worth the boasting-. 

The lumberman of to-day must first “locate his 
logs.” He owns a tract, say, of 100,000 acres (only a 
medium one, by the way) of pine land. Yet it is not 
all pine forest, but also of oak and other hard woods, 
with tamarack swamps here and there, and in the late 
summer or early autumn his spies, or rather prospect¬ 
ors, search out and locate the scene of the next winter’s 
operations. With the hunter’s outfit of coffee, bacon, 
flour, salt and pepper, guns and axes, the party of log 
hunters take themselves to the woods. Their quest is' 
often embarrassed by too many trees. Occasionally 
a post of observation must be sought in a lofty tree top. 
Should the trunk be straight and limbless for a long 
distance, the log hunter seeks another tree that he can 
fell against the one he wants to climb. Ascending his 
lofty perch he scans the ground in all directions, takes 
in the location of all clumps or tracts of pine, the 
direction and course of streams. Descending, the party 
ascertains the location of tracts of pine, calculates the 
distance to haul, places to bank upon river or creeks, 
surface and nature of the ground, and also determines 
the location of the winter camp. 

Before the snow begins to fly the earlier “teams” 
of hands, horses, oxen and men have been collected 
and started to the woods to locate and arrange the 
camp and winter’s scene of operations. 

The lumberman does not build any part of his busi¬ 
ness as he who “ commenced to build and counted not 
the cost.” He knows how much lumber he wants to 
cut the next season. Making a wide margin for acci¬ 
dents from too little water to float his winter’s cut of 
logs from the creeks, from logs that may be “hung 
up” by the way, and all the other accidents and inci¬ 
dents that “ logging is heir to,” he calculates that ten 
men will get him logs equivalent to a million feet of 
boards. He knows by experience about how much 
they will eat and provides accordingly. With his log 
hunters he has calculated the probable length of haul 
and necessary number of teams, and so provides them 
and for them. 

If any considerable hay-producing ground is on his 
tract he has had it cut, stacked and, as far as possible, 
defended against fire. 

The advance of his small army has reached the 
ground and located camp. The “ camp,” or “camps,” 


and necessary shelters for the horses and oxen have 
been put up—log houses, of course, strongly and 
warmly built, for both man and beast. Bunks for the 
men, rude but comfortable, with matresses of odorous 
pine boughs are made ready for the coming force. The 
ground has been cleared around the camp, for a “burn 
out” would be an irremediable disaster in midwinter. 
Already the main road and brandies have been located 
and partially cleared of trees and logs, skids and levers 
prepared, and banking places selected and cleared. In 
short, preparations for the winter are far advanced 
when the main force arrives, timed as nearly as possible 
with the first good snow fall. 

A DAY AT THE CAMP. 

It is now midwinter. The snow lies from one and 
a half to four feet deep through the forest. The vistas 
among the trees look like the aisles of some vast cathe¬ 
dral, and the green boughs far aloft are crowned with 
pure, fleecy white. 

At earliest dawn all is astir inside the camp—break¬ 
fast dispatched, teams are fed and cared for, and with 
the coming light the choppers are filling the woods 
with the ring of the axe, the long resounding crash 
tells of the fall of another monarch of the forest, 
words of command issue to the outgoing teams, and 
soon teams of six to ten oxen or horses are bearing 1 
their loads along roads trodden hard as ice to the 
banking ground. 

Loading is largely done “ from the ground ” by the 
strength of the teams, as a chain is fastened around the 
log and it is drawn upon the sled. Four, five, and six 
large logs are thus piled up in a huge load of from six 
to ten tons, if the roads are in prime condition. The 
first loads are dumped upon the ice and the logs piled 
as high as possible. The pile grows shoreward and up 
the banks—shored and skidded, so that they will float as 
easily as possible with the spring rise. Meantime the 
cook is preparing a huge dinner, not of dainty, but, 
better still, of hearty brawn-producing food, for well 
he knows how men can eat who have breathed deep 
breaths of pine land winter air, and swung their axes 
with strong arms. 

With the approach of night the woods become silent 
as woods ever are, and the wearied laborers gather to 
supper with good appetites. The teamsters care¬ 
fully attend to the comfort of horse or oxen, for it is 
expected that a team will be in as good condition in 
the spring as in the fall, if a teamster knows his busi¬ 
ness. After supper, each chopper inspects his axe, 
sharpens it if necessary, boots are carefully tallowed 


































358 


OUli LUMBER INTERESTS. 



and all prepare for the morrow, while hearty laughter, 
joke, witticism, and songs sung by strong and often 
melodious baritones and tenors, while away a couple 
of hours. 

To their credit, be it said, liquor seldom intrudes its 
presence in the loggers’ camp, and then very sparingly. 
A drunken chopper has no business in the woods. He 
would be a perpetual peril, and soon learn that “ his 
room was better than his company.” 

Old books and 

magazines are read 

© 

and re-read, stories 
told and re-told, 
packs of cards shuf¬ 
fled until the spots 
disappear and knaves 
and kings bear closer 
resemblance than is 
even their wont. 

The daily newspa¬ 
per is a thing of 
remembrance only, 
and the great world 
and its events and 
happenings remem¬ 
bered once in a while 
when some one ven¬ 
tures to wonder how 
it goes on. 

The winter and its 
work come to a 
close, and the extra 
outfit stored with 
the snow, the teams 
and teamsters de¬ 
part, leaving the 
men who are to “run 
the drive ” awaiting- 
the spring rise of 
water. '* 

Pike poles about eight feet long with a strong spike 
in the end are prepared or looked after, boots with 
soles bearing huge sharp spikes are brought out and 
coated with tallow, and all made ready for the spring 
rains and the run. 

Meantime, the skirmish line of logs has been drift¬ 
ing leisurely down the creeks with the ice, and so on 
with the river. 

The spring rains now come and are anxiously watched 
by the lumberman at his home and the men in camp. 

Too little water and the logs “ will not come out,” 


CUTTING THE LOGS, 


that is, they will not be floated. Too much water, and 
they will stray oft’ among the trees along the banks 
and be left “ hung up ” by the quickly receding stream. 

To obviate danger from both causes the men at camp 
are working with lever and pike to push, coax and 
roll into the stream. A rear guard, each attended by 
its traveling cook, follow the drive on each side of the 
stream, to coax or drive stragglers into the current, 
and so at last they reach the great “ booms.” 

Thirty million feet 
of logs occupy from 
five to ten miles of a 
river, and demand 
the watchful care of 
from fifty to a hun¬ 
dred men. 

The great danger 
feared is a jam. In 
some narrow place 
two huge logs may 
strike the opposite 
sides of the stream. 
The up-stream ends 
naturally swing to¬ 
ward the center and 
they meet like an 
inverted V, in this 
manner \. In an 
hour the river is full 
of logs for a half mile 
or more, piled on 
and over each other 
by the partially dam- 
med-up current. 

Far back up the 
stream the loggers 
see the danger sig- 
nal by the slowing 
current and hasten 
to the front. 

A daring, skillful man undertakes to cut the logs 
that act as the keystone and set the imprisoned host at 
liberty. With spiked boots he steps from log to log, 
and soon the ringing strokes of his axe show that he 
has selected his point and commenced what may be his 
last hour’s work. He must needs know when to stop 
and how to retreat. A quick jump and rapid flight to 
shore over the now tossing logs, and the jam is broken 
and the logs again surging on their course to the sort- 
ing boom. 

O 

A sorting boom consists of enormous timbers strung 


















































OUR LUMBER INTERESTS. 


359 


I 

across the current and leading the logs into a pocket. 
Each log has its owner’s mark, made by the chopper, 
and this mark is registered and known amongst others 
of the craft. 

These booms are usually owned by a company, who 
charge so much per thousand for booming and sorting, 
and is placed at the head of the river suitable for raft¬ 
ing. An opening being made, each log is made to go 
to its owner’s place and there formed into a raft. On 
some of the western rivers rafts are connected by ropes 
attached to each log in the raft; on others, poles are 
used instead of ropes. For rudders, from four to six 
twelve-foot planks are inserted in the ends of as many 
small trees and hung on pivots at either end of the 
raft. Each rudder or immense steering oar is worked 
by one or more men, as the case requires. 

Sometimes a small hut is built upon the raft, and so 
equipped, it lazily glides down the current. We said 
“ lazily,” but that is not always true. Swift, tumbling 
rapids may intervene, as upon the Wisconsin river, at 
Grand Rapids and Mosinee. In that case a special pilot 
is taken aboard. At Grand Rapids, Wisconsin, the 
rapids are about a mile in length. Huge granite boul¬ 
ders, as large as a small house, raise their heads in 
places and threaten certain destruction to any raft that 
does not give them room-way. The pilot is taken on 
board above the rapids and the rudders double manned. 
Carefullv sanded the raft commences the run. At one 
place, safety ropes are necessary, as the bow plunges 
under water, and then the whole raft, and the men 
stand knee-deep in the foaming current. 

Safely over the rapids, dangerous short bends 
threaten, and so, with just enough danger to give 
spice, the hardy raftsmen float onward, sometimes for 
hundreds of miles, to the mill. 

At both Grand Rapids and Mosinee, a yearly loss of 
life is almost certain. Indeed, from the forest to the 
lumber yard, death and violent death ever threatens. 
At least one out of every hundred men who goes to the 
woods returns not home. No business, unless it be 
railroading, is as destructive to life and limb as lum¬ 
bering. 

The long journey is usually over in May or about 
the first of June, and the rafts come gliding into the 
mill booms or are fastened along the river side. 

If in the booms, the fastenings are unloosed and the 
log lies idly awaiting its next attack. It soon comes. 
[A spiked pole guides it to the apron or logway just 
[as the driver’s goad drives the unwilling steer from 
[Kansas prairie into the gangway of the slaughter¬ 
house. 


Nor does the simile end there. In a few moments 
both will be flayed, dismembered and so changed as to 
be utterly beyond recognition. 

As the one receives a blow in the head from the 
pointed hammer of the killer, so the log receives a 
sharp blow that drives a spike into its head, or is prod¬ 
ded along upon the log carriage. The chain attached 
to that spike tightens and strains, and the log glides up 
the logway or the apron and is thrown upon its side. 
A couple of sure, swift strokes, and it is secured to its 
bed by two clamps. 

The sawyer reverses or throws forward a lever, a 
sudden jar, and it glides steadily forward to the circular 
saw, spinning its 900 revolutions per minute and seem¬ 
ingly waiting for its victim. Thirty seconds and the 
cruel saw-teeth, curved forward like a serpent’s fang, 
have eaten their way along its length, and the “ edg¬ 
ing” or slab has fallen away from the parent log, to 
be borne on a tramway to the lath saw or “thrown 
over among the rubbish” as food for the devouring 
furnace or, as in the Saginaw region, to fill a street 
now below level, or become part of a new wharf lot. 

The log, bereft of one side, has another as quickly 
torn away until it is thrown, now a thing of four 
sides, to another bed, and again secured in gyves of 
steel. 

Another lever is moved, another jar, and our log 
moves unresistingly toward the “ gang,” with its 
twenty or more saws securely fastened in their frame, 
and now dancing up and down like an uncanny thing 
of life, waiting for another victim for its insatiate 
jaws. A minute more and the gang has moved steadily 
on through the log, which is now no longer a log, but 
lumber. 

It would not take more than a touch of the tran¬ 
scendental philosophy to say that “ purified by wounds 
and dignified by suffering, the reddish brown log has 
bravely borne its apotheosis and is now ready to take on 

higher and nobler duties.” 

© 

Another movement of another lever and the board 
pile, which it now is, is thrown, still quivering from 
the strokes of the saw, upon a car, and with its com¬ 
panions hurried to the vessel dock or railroad platform 
where it is thrown, or rather they are thrown, awaiting 
shipment to one of the great lumber distributing 
points, such as Toledo, Cleveland, Buffalo, Milwaukee, 
and notably beyond all, Chicago. 

We have thus followed the fortunes of our log from 
the proud pre-eminence of the monarch of the forest, 
standing in majestic pride among its fellows, until we 
have almost felt it were a sentient being, until its 




































360 


OUR LUMBER INTERESTS. 



apotheosis into lumber, ready for some ot the number¬ 
less uses that have given to our time the name of “ The 
Wooden Age.” 

The census reports of 1880 furnish the following 
figures, as regards the number ot mills, hands cm- 

O 7 O 

ployed, etc., in the United States: 


Number of mills - 
Number of men employed - 
Females and children 
Total number employes 
No. feet lumber cut 
No. INI shingles made - 


- 25,708 
141,564 

- 6,392 
147,956 

18,091,396,000 
- 5,555,046,000 

Value of product ----- $233,367,729 

The best statistics obtainable from our Canadian 
neighbors, places their production for the year 1882 at 
520,921,600 feet, or about twice the amount produced 
in the state of Pennsylvania alone. 

We have said that this business is a hand to hand 
fight with the elements from first to last, from the 
forest to the lumber yard. Fire is liable to sweep over 
and ruin the whole tract of forest. As but a short 
time ago, in the Huron peninsula of Michigan, hun¬ 
dred* of thousands of acres were ravaged by a single 
fire. The forest, camps, and even villages, with houses 
and other property were all swept away. Not only so, 
but such fires are always accompanied by the loss of 
many lives. 

No one who has not experienced it, knows or can even 
imagine the horrors of a forest fire. With the air all 
flame and smoke, and not a breath that does not carry 
death into the lungs and air passages, the fire rushes 
upon a hamlet or village, and in a short time every 
house, barn or tree is a mass of flame. 

And the lumberman who was yesterday a millionaire, 
is now well-nigh a pauper. At the mill constant 
watchfulness, and the best appliances for extinguishing 
fires are necessary, to defend the owner from the attack 
of the necessary fire to furnish power; or the servant 
becomes master and sweeps away hundreds of thousands 
of dollars of property by a single spark. A tug pass¬ 
ing along the river may leave a spark in the dry saw¬ 
dust and the wind fan it into a flame. 

The fire record for 1882 shows a loss of over $5,500,- 
000 upon lumber mills, including shingle and planing 
mills, or so much capital absolutely destroyed beyond 
recall. Insurance may and does mitigate the force of 
the blow to the owner who avails himself of it. 

Too little snow in the woods adds to the expense of 
hauling logs to the stream, as wagon trucks must be 
used or snow hauled and placed upon the tracks. 

Too much snow, and the work of loading, beating 

© 7 © 



tracks and hauling is largely increased. Too little 
water and the logs are not floated, or if so, the lum¬ 
berman can only get them down to the main river by 
damming the current here and there. Too much 
water, and many of his logs go rambling off' into the 
forests, and get linng up, or may bring such a pressure 
as to break the booms, and then the logs of a score or 
half a hundred lumbermen go down the river in a wild 
stampede, worse than that of a herd of Texas steel’s 
upon the prairie. 

The latter may be gathered up and driven back, but 
the logs cannot. For the men, death or mutilation is 
ever close at hand from falling trees, broken, flying 
branches, on the drive, in the jam, and at the mill. 

A hardy, breezy, hearty set, as a rule, are our lum¬ 
bermen, as befits men who have borne their full share 
in the fight with nature, and in the wonderful develop¬ 
ment of industrial pursuits in the past century. 

The saw-mill is first heard of in Germany, in the 
fourth century, though we have no means of knowing 
that the Germans first applied the use of machinery to 
the saw and used water power. 

We also find saw-mills in the island of Maderia in 
1420, or seventy years before Columbus made the dis¬ 
covery of America. 

«/ 

From references by an old traveler, they were used 
in Norway in 1530. 

The first mill in this country seems to have been 
erected in 1633, in Massachusetts, many years before 
their trial in England. One was put up about 1663, 
near London, by a Dutchman, but he was forced to 
dismantle and remove it, on account of the indignation 
of the working classes, who feared it would deprive the 
sawyers of their labor. The English of that day seem, 
even among the higher classes, to have clung to the 
clay floor. 

In 1700 another was tried, but the builder had to 
remove it. Another, in 1767, was destroyed by a mob, 
and it was not until just one century ago, that they 
were firmly established in use. 

At that time every stream in the settled part of New 
England, and in several other of the colonies, were 
turning any quantity of water wheels. 

Indeed, in 1750, Dr. Douglas says, “ New England 
abounds in saw-mills of cheap and slight work; they 
generally carry only one saw, and one man and a boy 
may, in twenty-four hours, saw 4,000 feet of white 
pine boards.” 

One mill, at Bay City, some years ago, cut 361,000 
feet in twelve hours. Another, last year, cut 18,000,- 
000 feet of lumber, and from the exhaust steam made 































n 



OUR LUMBER INTERESTS. 


20,000 bushels of salt, besides selling 1 his slabs at one 
dollar per cord. 

Such production is possible only where the white 
pine is found in abundance, the principal supply of 
which comes from Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, 
Pennsylvania and Maine. The Northwestern district, 
as it is called, or the states of Minnesota, Wisconsin 
and Michigan, produced the following amounts for the 
ten years from 1873 to 1882, inclusive* 


Lumber. 

1873 . 3,993,780,000 

1874 . 3,77)1,300,000 

1875 . 3.908.553,000 

1870 3,879,040,000 

1877 3,595,333,490 

187s!. 3.629,472,759 

1879 . 4,800,943,000 

1880 . 5,051,295,000 

1881 . 0,708,856,749 

1882 . 7,504,737,864 

Total.47,549,323,874 

As 5 M shingles are estimated as 1,000 



Shingles. 

2,277,443,550 

2,473,210,555 

2,515,838,240 

2,900,530,725 

2,700.750.755 

2.561.490.750 

2.859.112.750 
2,972,912,160 
3,540,006.817 
4,094,277,058 

28,907,575,960 

feet of lum¬ 



ber, the total production of these three states for ten 
fears would be, lumber, 47,549,323,874; shingles as 
11 umber, 5,781,515,192; total, 53,330,839,066. 

I Next to the white pine in usefulness and in amount 
L the yellow, or Georgia pine, readily distinguished 
rom any other variety by the length of its bright 
Teen leaves, which measure ten to fifteen inches in 


length. It extends southward from North Carolina, 
and is especially abundant in Georgia and Florida. 

Along the sea-board and for a distance inland of from 
fifteen to thirty miles, the pine is very scattering, and 
nearly worthless for building purposes. 

The supply is found between the base of the moun¬ 
tains and the sea-coast. It is much harder and stronger 




V 4 

i* iv Sfr 



























































































































362 


OUR LUMBER INTERESTS. 


than the white pine, hikes a fine polish, and when 
varnished and oiled, makes a splendid wood for interiors 
and floors. It is especially adapted for ship building. 
It is rapidly gaining upon the northern market, where 
durability, strength under lateral pressure and fine 
natural finish is desired. 

Whenever the tree is injured and vegetation ceases, 
the wood becomes surcharged with resin and forms the 
“ fat pine ” of song and story. 

According to the census reports of 1880, the six 
states of North and South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, 
Alabama and Mississippi had 2,635 saw-mills, giving 
employment to 12,346 men and 330 women and chil¬ 
dren, who produced 1,547,614,000 feet of lumber, 57,- 
918,000 shingles, and 96,077,000 lath. These added 
over ten million dollars to the production of the six 
states. 

These figures make but a small show alongside of 
the production of Michigan, Wisconsin and Minnesota, 
but they do show the enterprise now being developed 
in those states. 

The manufacture of yellow pine has some advanta¬ 
ges, the most prominent of which results from the 
moderate climate. Another is that the lands are fail- 
grazing lands as well as pine forest . 

Oxen used in hauling the logs may be unyoked and 
turned loose to graze, and be kept in good order. In 
answer to inquiries addressed to a gentleman who had 
been south on a prospecting tour, he said that he 
intended to unite grazing and lumbering, as the yellow 
pine forests were free from underbrush. He had 
already bought, and was bargaining for more land, and 
should stock it with both sheep and cattle, while get¬ 
ting off his lumber. 

CALIFORNIA REDWOOD. 

Another tree now being quite extensively used for 
lumber is the California redwood. This is almost 
exclusively found in California, as but a few clumps of 
it grow north of the Oregon line. 

Redwood grown on marshy, wet ground is compara¬ 
tively valueless. It is apt to be swelled or hollow- 
butted, and more or less rotten. But that grown on 
rolling or rising land is free from blemish. Redwood 
will not bear a heavy lateral strain, and is valueless for 
uses requiring lightness and strength to support 
weight. It also has the queer peculiarity of shrinking 
endwise. 

Redwood grows to an immense size, and logs four¬ 
teen feet in diameter are not uncommon. At the mill 
such logs are first attacked at the center and cut in two 


by a muley saw. Each half is then read)' for the 
“double circulars” and the gang. The average diame¬ 
ter of redwood logs runs from six to eight feet, and of 
white pine would be called mammoths. 

OREGON AND WASHINGTON TERRITORY. 

The great western supply of pine comes from this 
state and territory, and is furnished by the sugar pine, 
growing in groves, of which many of the trees reach 
the hight of two hundred feet with a diameter of ten 
feet, while isolated specimens increase that hight over 
a hundred feet and double ihe diameter. The western 
yellow pine, which is the most widely distributed, as 
well as the most abundant et any of the pines of the 
Pacific coast, and often reaches the hight of one 
hundred feet, furnishes a heav) resinous wood, less 
valuable than the sugar pine, and the mountain pine, 
which closely resembles the white pine of the Atlantic 
and Mississippi valley states. 

The lumber industry of the Pacific coast is only in 
its infancy, but the near completion of the Northern 
Pacific railroad, with branch roadr of that and the 
Union Pacific, will open up a large te'-ritory for both 
manufacture and sale of lumber. We fibjoin the sta¬ 
tistics of 1880: 


Lumber. Shingles. Lath. 

California. 304,795,000 138.718,000 2,420,000 

Oregon. 177,171,000 5.040,000 18,245,000 

Washington Territory 160,176,000 3,610,000 6,550,000 

Total. 642,142,000 147,368,000 ?7,215.000 


Much has been said and written as to the speedy 
exhaustion and complete cessation of lumber supply, 
especially of the white pine. 

A Chicago daily now before us, shows by argument, 
figures and map, that, “ Twenty-five years ago, the 
supply of pine timber was believed inexhaustible. 
Ten years ago it was thought it would outlast the 
present century; now the most hopeful predict its 
extinction within a dozen years. The white pine har¬ 
vest is nearly over, and it will not be long before the 
woodsman stands, ax in hand, beside the last tree, his 
occupation gone.” He then demonstrates, to his own 
satisfaction, that “six years more and the Chicago 
district will be exhausted.” 

We heard just such predictions fifteen years ago. 
But while it is a fact that much, if not a great majority 
of the best and most accessible pine, has been mar¬ 
keted, yet the end is not just yet. The forests have 
been skimmed over. A lumberman whose log hunters 
declared a certain tract exhausted, visited it himself, 
and last winter established his camps on the deserted 











































OUR LUMBER INTERESTS 


363 


ground of seven years ago, and secured a little larger 
cut of logs than he did seven years before. 

Two brothers bought a farm two and one-half miles 
from Ludington, Michigan, of what was supposed to 
be cleared land. This winter they have hauled into 
the town and sold 100,000 feet of good logs, which 
brought them $750, and they say they shall make a 
better winter’s crop next year. 

In Massachusetts, over a million feet of second- 
growth pine lumber was cut last year, and a gentle¬ 
man tells us that he owns 600,000,000 feet in that state 
of pure virgin forest, not touched by the logger’s axe. 

It is true that the “river route,” as described in the 
commencement of this article, has perhaps seen its flush 
times. Yet the raft and boom will do duty for many 
a coming year. 

RAILROAD LOGGING. 

Meanwhile a new way of supplying the mill with 

logs has come into 

© 

extensive use, and 
that is the logging 
rai lroad.. The 1 um¬ 
ber country being 
comparatively lev¬ 
el (we are speaking 
now chiefly for 
Michigan, Minne¬ 
sota and Wiscon¬ 
sin) the work of 
grading the rail¬ 
road track is very 
slight. 

Ties are therefor 
the cutting, and it 
is estimated that to build a good, fair track, equip with 
good locomotive, especially adapted for the work, and 
also the necessary flat cars, only makes the expense of 
hauling from 25 to 40 cents per thousand for a haul of 
from five to eight miles, and some lumbermen claim 
that as compared with the loss of logs by the old 
methods, the logging railroad is not only more eco¬ 
nomical as to timber, but fully as cheap for the manu¬ 
facturer, besides bringing into market any quantity of 
timber that could not otherwise have been reached. 

This has certainly put away the “day of evil things” 
predicted by correspondents, who generally get their 
figures of standing pine from men with large stocks of 
lumber now on hand. Meantime let us try to get a 
comprehensible idea ot the census figuies. 

If some youngster wants to know how the lumber 


cut in these United States would look in one pile, let 
him look at some neighbor’s farm, containing a lull 
section, or 640 acres of land, and then think, it he can, 
of seeing it piled solidly with lumber, without a hole 
anywhere, higher than an ordinary three-story brick 
block or a very high barn with a basement, and he will 
have some idea of the amount of lumber cut in the 25,708 
saw-mills of this nation, except that he would have to 
borrow 80 acres from a neighbor to complete piling 
the whole of it. 

If he wanted to dispose of the shingles and lath cut 
in the same year, he would cover three more 80-acre 
lots to the same hight. If in a city or town, he can 
imagine one hundred and twenty ordinary blocks or 
squares and the streets between all solidly covered as 
high as a large three-story building, with the lumber 
alone, and then by putting the shingles and lath on 
top of that pile, he would get his pile up to the top of 
a five-story building. Loaded upon cars, it would 

make a solid train 
extending over a 
third of the way 
around the earth. 

Such figures are 
hard to get an idea 
of that we can 
grasp, but that is 
true of nearly all 
the great indus¬ 
tries of our time. 
They all reach fig¬ 
ures that are be¬ 
yond comprehen¬ 
sion, and illustra¬ 
tion bv familiar 
objects must be selected befdre we get them out of the 

region of the intangible. 

© © 

LUMBERMAN’S EXCHANGE. 

At a very early period in the history of the western 
lumber trade, Chicago became the center of distribu¬ 
tion for a wide range of territory. The astonishing and 
far-reaching development of her railroad system, her 
commanding position for grain shipments, soon placed 
Chicago as the great business mart of the west. 

Recognizing this fact, believing that the lumber 
trade of the city were to be ever increasing, and that 
clashing interests would tend to demoralize dealers and 
retard not only their own interests, but also those of 
the whole lumber business, and also those of the city, 
a few lumbermen, in the year 1859, organized the 



PORTER'S LOGGING LOCOMOTIVE. 




































































364 


OUR LUMBER INTERESTS. 


“ Lumberman’s Board of Trade and Exchange of Chi¬ 
cago,” with the following declared objects, as shown in 
the preamble to their rules and by-laws: 

“Having a desire to advance the commercial char¬ 
acter, and promote the general lumbei interest of the 
city of Chicago and the Northwest, and wishing to 
inculcate just and equitable principles in trade, estab¬ 
lish and maintain uniformity in the commercial usages 
of the city, acquire, preserve and disseminate valuable 
business information, and, with a view to avoid and 
adjust, as far as practicable, the controversies and mis¬ 
understandings which are apt to arise between indi¬ 
viduals engaged in trade when they have no acknowl¬ 
edged rules to guide them—we, the members of the 
Lumberman’s Exchange of Chicago, by virtue of the 
power vested in us by the preceding charter, do hereby 
agree to be governed by the following rules and by¬ 
laws.” 

Under their charter, they proceeded to appoint 
inspectors to examine, measure and inspect lumber, 
timber, shingles, wood, etc., and to prescribe rules 
and fix grades by which such inspectors should be 
governed. 

It was also one of the articles of their incorporation 
that, as among themselves, the certificate of their 
inspectors should be evidence between buyer and seller 
as to grade, quantity, quality or character of lumber 
so inspected and graded. 

A committee of arbitration consisting of five mem¬ 
bers was appointed “ to investigate and decide all 
disputes and difficulties of a financial, mercantile 
or commercial character which may be submitted 
to it.” 

An appeal could be taken from the decision of 
the committee of arbitration to the committee of 
appeals. 

It was the duty of this committee to review such 
written evidence and decisions of the arbitration com¬ 
mittee as had been demurred to, and the decisions of 
the committee on appeals was to be binding. 

After a short life of one year this institution “hiber¬ 
nated,” or took to winter quarters, and laid dormant 
for several years. Grades and inspections ran wild. 
Each dealer graded as he saw fit. The “common” 
of one yard was “third clear” of another, and the 
exchange was reorganized in 1866, under A. Carter as 
president. For several years after that it dragged out 
a puny existence. 


Then came the great fire of 1871, and the immense 
inpour of lumber to rebuild the city and supply the 
country trade as well. 

The annual lumber cut began to appal those who 
took any interest in the matter at all, and a general 
call was made for “light.” 

The new Lumberman’s Exchange of Chicago began 
to assume strength. Membership began to increase 
and its grades became generally recognized. It now 
numbers 156 members, and its influence is felt not only 
in all English-speaking countries, but wherever for¬ 
estry is recognized as a subject of national importance 
and legislation. 

The exchange holds a monthly meeting of its board 
of directors to fix rates, hear reports of committees, 
listen to complaints, etc. 

In the dull season the exchange holds lunch meet¬ 
ings, which have grown to be of no little importance, 
as cultivating social, friendly amenities. 

A lunch is furnished by some firm, and is succeeded 
by a season of speech-making, in which the members do 
not confine themselves to lumber alone, but discuss 
and criticise the finances and government of city and 
county, in their usual free and easy manner. 

The lunches have done much to bring out the strong 
social feelings and real regard of the members of the 
exchange for each other, despitq the keenness of their 
competition outside. 

If there is any call to which the “ man of boards” 
is quicker to respond than to any other, it is the cry of 
distress. Instinctively his hand reaches for his pocket- 
book, as the burned-out Huron district of Michigan, 
the yellow-fevered patients of the South, the tornado- 
swept citizens of Grinnell, Iowa, and the victims of 
water at Braidwood coal mines, and along the Ohio 
river, can testify. 

The total receipts of forest products at Chicago, 
during the year 1882, aggregate, as shown by the books 
of the exchange, 2,116,341,000 feet of lumber and 
260,906,494 shingles, while the sales ran up to about 
$50,000,000. In addition to this there were received 
59,737,000 lath, 2,462,866 cedar posts, 3,644,711 rail¬ 
road ties, 67,092 cords of wood, 22,160 cords of bark, 
24,255 cords of slabs, and 250,867 telegraph poles, 
making in all about $54,000,000. These figures throw 
a stronger light upon the magnitude of the lumber 
interests of Chicago than pages of rhetoric could 
possibly do. 












































COOKERY RECIPES. 


365 


t i 




1*^ COOKERY RECIPES^ 

1 


^ll gHl gllimiggiligEllllggllgggglgg 



Ale to Mull. —Take a pint of good strong ale, and pour 
it into a saucepan with three cloves and a little nutmeg; 
sugar to your taste. Set it over the fire, and when it boils 
take it off to cool. Beat up the yolks of four eggs exceed¬ 
ingly well; mix them first with a little cold ale, then add 
them to the warm ale, and pour it in and out of the pan 
several times. Set it over a slow fire, beat it a little, take 
it off again ; do this three times until it is hot, then serve 
it with dry toast. 

Ale, Spiced. —Is made hot, sweetened with sugar and 
spiced with grated nutmeg, and a hot toast is served in it. 
This is the wassail drink. 

Beef Tea. —Cut a pound of fleshy beef in thin slices; 
simmer with a quart of water twenty minutes, after it has 
once boiled and been skimmed. Season if approved. 

Beef Tea. —To one pound of lean beef add one and one- 
half tumblers of cold water; cut the beef in small pieces, 
cover, and let it boil slowly for ten minutes, and add a little 
salt after it is boiled. Excellent. 

Beef Tea. —Cut lean, tender beef into small pieces, put 
them into a bottle, cork and set in a pot of cold water, 
then put on the stove and boil for one hour. Season to 
taste. 

Black Currant Cordial.— To every four quarts of 
black currants, picked from the stems and lightly bruised, 
add one gallon of the best whisky; let it remain four 
months, shaking the jar occasionally, then drain off the 
liquor and strain. Add three pounds of loaf sugar and a 
quarter of a pound of best cloves, slightly bruised ; bottle 
w’ell and seal. 

Boston Cream (a Summer Drink).—Make a syrup of 
four pounds of white sugar with four quarts of water; boil; 
when cold add four ounces of tartaric acid, one and a half 
ounces of essence of lemon, and the whites of six eggs 
beaten to a stiff froth; bottle. A wine-glass of the cream 
to a tumbler of water, with sufficient cartionate of soda to 
make it effervesce. 

Champagne Cup. —One quart bottle of champagne, 
two bottles of soda-water, one liqueur-glass of brandy, two 
tablespoons of powdered sugar, a few thin strips of cucum¬ 
ber rind; make this just in time for use, and add a large 
piece of ice. 

Chocolate. —Scrape Cadbury’s chocolate fine, mix with 
a little cold water and the yolks of eggs well beaten ; add 
this to equal parts of milk and water, and boil well, being 
careful that it does not burn. Sweeten to the taste, and 
serve hot. 

Coffee —Is a tonic and stimulating beverage, of a whole¬ 
some nature. Use the best. For eight cups use nearly 
eight cups of water; put in coffee as much as you like, 
boil a minute and take off, and throw in a cup of cold 
water to throw the grounds to the bottom; in five minutes 
it will be very clear. 

Or, beat one or two eggs, which mix with ground coffee 
to form a ball; nearly fill the pot with cold water, simmer 


gently for half an hour, having introduced the ball; clo 
not bo l, or you will destroy the aroma. 

Coffee. —The following is a delicious dish either for sum¬ 
mer breakfast or dessert : Make a strong infusion of Mocha 
coffee; put it in a porcelain bowl, sugar it properly and add 
to it an equal portion of boiled milk, or one-third thequan. 
tity of rich cream. Surround the bowl with pounded ice- 

Currant Wine. —One quart currant juice, three pounds 
of sugar, sufficient water to make a gallon. 

Egg Gruel. —Boil eggs from one to three hours until 
hard enough to grate; then boil new milk and thicken 
with the egg, and add a little salt. Excellent in case of 
nausea. 

Lemon Syrup. —Pare off the yellow rind of the lemon, 
slice the lemon and put a layer of lemon and a thick layer 
of sugar in a deep plate; cover close with a saucer, and 
set in a warm place. This is an excellent remedy for a 
cold. 

Lemonade. —Tak a quart of boiling water, and add to 
it five ounces of lump-sugar, the yellow rind of the lemon 
rubbed off with a bit of sugar, and the juice of three 
lemons. Stir all together and let it stand till cool. Two 
ounces of cream of tartar may be used instead of the 
lemons, water being poured upon it. 

Raspberry Vinegar. —Fill a jar with red raspberries 
picked from the stalks. Pour in as much vinegar as it 
will hold. Let it stand ten days, then strain it through a 
sieve. Don’t press the berries, just let the juice run 
through. To every pint add one pound loaf sugar. Boil 
it like other syrup; skim, and bottle when cold. 

Summer Drink. —Boil together for five minutes two 
ounces of tartaric acid, two pounds white sugar, three 
lemons sliced, two quarts of water; when nearly cold add 
the whites of four eggs beaten to a froth, one tablespoon¬ 
ful of flour and half an ounce of wintergreen. Two table¬ 
spoonfuls in a glass of water make a pleasant drink; for 
those who like effervescence add as much soda as a ten- 
cent piece will hold, stirring it briskly before drinking. 

Blackberry Syrup. —To one pint of juice put one 
pound of white sugar, one-half ounce of powdered cinna¬ 
mon, one-fourth ounce mace, and two teaspoons cloves; 
boil all together for a qarter of an hour, then strain the 
syrup, and add to each pint a glass of French brandy. 

Tea. —When the water in the teakettle begins to boil, 
have ready a tin tea-steeper; pour into the tea-steeper just 
a very little of the boiling water, and then put in tea, 
allowing one teaspoon of tea to each person. Pour over 
this boiling water until the steeper is a little more than 
half full; cover tightly and let it stand where it will keep 
hot, but not to boil. Let the tea infuse for ten or fifteen 
minutes, and then pour into the tea-urn, adding more 
boiling water, in the proportion of one cup of water for 
every teaspoon of dry tea which has been infused. Have 
boiling water in a water-pot, and weaken each cup of tea 























































366 


COOKERY RECIPES. 


as desired. Do not use water for tea that has been boiled 
long. Spring water is best for tea, and filtered water next 
best. 

Iced Tea a la Russe .—To each glass of tea add the 
juice of half a lemon* fill up the glass with pounded ice, 
and sweeten. 

General Directions for Making 1 Bread.— In the 

composition of good bread, there are three important 
requisites: Good flour, good yeast, [and here let us 
recommend Gillett's Magic Yeast Cakes. They keep 
good for one year in any climate, and once used you will 
not do without it. All grocers keep it] and strength to 
knead it well. Flour should be white and dry, crumbling 
easily again after it is pressed in the hand. 

A very good method of ascertaining the quality of yeast 
will be to add a little flour to a very small quantity, setting 
it in a warm place. If in the course of ten or fifteen min¬ 
utes it raises, it will do to use. 

When you make bread, first set the sponge with warm 
milk or water, keeping it in a warm place until quite 
light. Then mold this sponge, by adding flour, into one 
large loaf, kneading it well. Set this to rise again, and 
then when sufficiently light mold it into smaller loaves, 
let it rise again, then bake. Care should be taken not to 
get the dough too stiff with flour; it should be as soft as it 
can be to knead well. To make bread or biscuits a nice 
color, wet the dough over top with water just before put¬ 
ting it into the oven. Flour should always be sifted. 

Brown Bread, for those who can eat corn-meal: Two 
cups Indian meal to one cup flour; one-half teacup syrup, 

cups milk; 1 teaspoon salt; 3 teaspoons of Gillette bak¬ 
ing powder. Steam an hour and a half. To be eaten hot. 
It goes very nicely with a corn-beef dinner. 

Brown Bread. —Stir together wheat meal and cold 
water (nothing else, not even salt) to the consistency of a 
thick batter. Bake in small circular pans, from three 
to three and a half inches in diameter, (ordinary tin patty¬ 
pans do very well) in a quick, hot oven. It is quite 
essential that it be baked in this sized cake, as it is upon 
this that the raising depends. [In this article there are 
none of the injurious qualities of either fermented or 
superfine flour bread; and it is so palpably wholesome food, 
that it appeals at once to the common sense of all who are 
interested in the subject.] 

Brown Bread —Take part of the sponge that has been 
prepared for your white bread, warm water can be added, 
mix it with graham flour (not too stiff). 

Boston Brown Bread. —To make one loaf:—Rye meal 
unsifted, half a pint; Indian meal sifted, one pint; sour 
milk, one pint; molasses, half a gill. Add a teaspoonful 
of salt, one teaspoonful of soda dissolved in a little hot 
water; stir well, put in a greased pan, let it rise one hour, 
and steam four hours. 

Boston Brown Bread.— One and one-half cups of 
graham flour, two cups of corn meal,,one-half cup of 
molasses, one pint of sweet milk, and one-half a teaspoon 
of soda; steam three hours. 

. Corn Bread.— One-half pint of buttermilk, one-half 
pint of sweet milk; sweeten the sour milk with one-half 
teaspoon of soda; beat two eggs, whites and yolks to¬ 
gether; pour the milk into the eggs, then thicken with 
about nine tablespoons of sifted corn meal. Put the pan 
on the stove with a piece of lard the size of an egg; when 
melted pour it in the batter; this lard by stirring it will 
grease 'the pan to bake in; add a teaspoon of salt. 

Excellent Bread.— Four potatoes mashed fine, four 
teaspoons of salt, two quarts of lukewarm milk, one-half 
cake Gillette magic yeast dissolved in one-half cup of 


warm water, flour enough to make a pliable dough; mold 
with hands well greased with lard; place in pans, and 
when sufficiently light, it is ready for baking. 

French Bread. —With a quarter of a peck of fine flour 
mix the yolks of three and whites of two eggs, beaten and 
strained, a little salt, half a pint of good yeast that is not 
bitter, and as much milk, made a little warm, as will work 
into a thin light dough. Stir it about, but don't knead 
it. Have ready three quart wooden dishes, divide the 
dough among them, set to rise, then turn them out into 
the oven, which must be quick. Rasp when done. 

Graham Bread. —For one loaf, take two cups of white 
bread sponge, to which add two tablespoons of brown 
sugar, and graham flour to make a stiff batter; let it rise, 
after which add graham flour sufficient to knead, but not 
very stiff; then put it in the pan to rise and bake. 

Italian Bread. —Make a stiff dough, with two pounds 
of fine flour, six of white powdered sugar, three or four 
eggs, a lemon-peel grated, and two ounces of fresh butter. 
If the dough is not firm enough, add more flour and 
sugar. Then turn it out, and work it well with the hand, 
cut it into round long biscuits, and glaze them with white 
of egg. 

Rice and Wheat Bread.— Simmer a pound of rice in 
two quarts of water till soft; when it is of a proper 
warmth, mix it well with four pounds of flour, and yeast, 
and salt as for other bread; of yeast about four large 
spoonfuls; knead it well; then set to rise before the fire. 
Some of the flour should be reserved to make up the 
loaves. If the rice should require more water, it must be 
added, as some rice swells more than others. 

Sago Bread. —Boil two lbs. of sago in three pints of 
water until reduced to a quart, then mix with it half a 
pint of yeast, and pour the mixture into fourteen lbs. of 
flour. Slake into bread in the usual way. 

Steamed Bread. —Two cups corn meal; 1 cup graham 
flour; \ cup N. 0. molasses; salt and teaspoonful of soda. 
Mix soft with sour milk, or make with sweet milk and 
Gillett's baking powder. Put in tight mold in kettle of 
water; steam three hours or more. This is as nice as Bos¬ 
ton brown bread. 

Use this receipt with flour instead of graham; add a 
cup of beef suet, and it makes a nice pudding in the win¬ 
ter. Eat with syrup or cream. 

Biscuits. —Mix a quart of sweet milk with half a cup 
of melted butter; stir in a pinch of salt, two teaspoonfuls 
of baking powder and flour enough for a stiff batter. 
Have the oven at a brisk heat. Drop the batter, a spoon¬ 
ful in a place, on buttered pans. They will bake in fifteen 
minutes. 

Cream Biscuits. —Three heaping tablespoons of sour 
cream; put in a bowl or vessel containing a quart and fill 
two-thirds full of sweet milk, two teaspoons cream tartar, 
one teaspoon of soda, a little salt; pour the cream in the 
flour, mix soft and bake in a quick oven. 

French Biscuits. —Two cups of butter, two cups of 
sugar, one egg (or the whites of two), half a cup of sour 
milk, half a teaspoon of soda; flour to roll; sprinkle with 
sugar. 

Rye Biscuits. —Two cups of rye meal, one and a half 
cups flour, one-third cup molasses, one egg, a little salt, 
two cups sour milk, two even teaspoons saleratus. 

Soda Biscuits. —To each quart of flour add one table¬ 
spoon of shortening, one-half teaspoon of salt, and three 
and a half heaping teaspoons of Gillett’s baking powder; 
mix baking powder thoroughly through the flour, then 
add other ingredients. Do not knead, and bake quickly. 
To use cream tartar and soda, take the same proportions 














































COOKERY RECIPES. 


367 


without the baking powder, using instead two heaping 
teaspoons cream tartar and one of soda. If good they 
will bake in five minutes. 

Tea Biscuits. —One cup of hot water, two of milk, 
three tablespoons of yeast; mix thoroughly; after it is 
risen, take two-thirds of a cup of butter and a little sugar 
and mold it; then let it rise, and mold it into small 
cakes. 

Bannocks. —One pint corn meal, pour on it boiling 
water to thoroughly wet it. Let it stand a few minutes; 
add salt and one egg and a little sweet cream, or a table¬ 
spoon melted butter. Make into balls and fry in hot 
lard. 

Breakfast Cakes. —One cup milk, one pint flour, 
three eggs, piece butter size of an egg, two teaspoons 
cream tartar, one teaspoon soda, one tablespoon butter. 

Buckwheat Cakes. —One quart buckwheat flour, 
four tablespoons yeast, one tablespoon salt, one handful 
Indian meal, two tablespoons molasses, not syrup. Warm 
water enough to make a thin batter; beat very well and set 
in a warm place. If the batter is the least sour in the 
morning, add a little soda. 

Quick Buckwheat Cakes. —One quart of buckwheat 
flour, one-half a teacup of corn meal or wheat flour, a little 
salt, and two tablespoons of syrup. Wet these with cold 
or warm water to a thin batter, and add, lastly, four good- 
tablespoons of Gillette baking powder. 

Spanish Buns. —Five eggs well beaten; cut up in a cup 
of warm new milk half a pound of good butter, one pound 
of sifted flour, and a wineglassful of good yeast; stir these 
well together; set it to rise for an hour, in rather a warm 
place; when risen, sift in half a pound of white sugar, and 
half a grated nutmeg; add one wineglass of wine and 
brandy, mixed, one wineglass of rose-water, and one cup¬ 
ful of currants, which have been cleaned thoroughly. 
Mix these well, pour it into pans, and set it to rise again 
for half an hour. Then bake one hour. Icing is a great 
improvement to their appearance. 

Bath Buns. —Take 1 lb. of flour, put it in a dish, and 
make a hole in the middle, and pour in a dessert spoonful 
of good yeast; pour upon the yeast half a cupful of warm 
milk, mix in one-third of the flour, and let it rise an hour. 
When it has risen, put in 6 ozs. of cold butter, 4 eggs, and 
a few caraway seeds; mix all together with the rest of the 
flour. Put it in a warm place to rise. Flatten it with the 
hand on a pasteboard. Sift 6 ozs. of loaf sugar, half the 
size of a pea; sprinkle the particles over the dough; roll 
together to mix the sugar; let it rise in a warm place about 
20 minutes. Make into buns, and lay on buttered tins; 
put sugar and 9 or 10 comfits on the tops, sprinkle them 
with water; bake in a pretty hot oven. 

Graham Gems. —One quart of sweet milk, one cup 
syrup, one teaspoon soda, two teaspoons cream tartar, little 
salt; mix cream tartar in graham flour, soda in milk, and 
make it as stiff with the flour as will make it drop easily 
from the spoon into muffin rings. 

Brown Griddle Cakes. —Take stale bread, soak in 
water till soft, drain off water through colander, beat up 
fine with fork, to one quart of the crumb batter, add one 
quart each milk and flour, and four eggs well beaten. 
Mix, bake in a griddle. 

Wheat Gems. —One pint milk, two eggs, flour enough 
to make a batter not very stiff, two large spoons melted 
butter, yeast to raise them, a little soda and salt. Bake in 
gem irons. 

Johnnie Cake. —One pint of corn meal, one teacup of 
flour, two eggs, one pint of sweet milk, one tablespoon of 
molasses, one tablespoon of melted butter, a little salt, one 


teaspoon of soda, one teaspoon of cream of tartar; bake in 
square tins. 

Mush. —Indian or oatmeal mush is best made in the 
following manner: Put fresh water in a kettle over the 
fire to boil, and put in some salt; when the water boils, 
stir in handful by handful corn or oatmeal until thick 
enough for use. In order to have excellent mush, the 
meal should be allowed to cook well, and long as possible 
while thin, and before the final handful is added. 

Fried Mush. —When desired to be fried for breakfast, 
turn into an earthen dish and set away to cool. Then cut 
in slices when you wish to fry; dip each piece in beaten 
eggs and fry on a hot griddle. 

Muffins. —One tablespoonful of butter, two tablespoons 
sugar, two eggs—stir altogether; add one cup of sweet 
milk, three teaspoons of baking powder, flour to make a 
stiff batter. Bake twenty minutes in a quick oven. 

Engdish Pancakes. —Make a batter of two teacups of 
flour, four eggs, and one quart of milk. Add, as a great 
improvement, one tablespoonful of brandy with a little 
nutmeg scraped in. Make the sixe of frying pan. 
Sprinkle a little granulated sugar over the pancake, roll it 
up, and send to the table hot. 

Pop Overs. —Three cups of milk and three cups flour, 
three eggs, a little salt, one tablespoon melted butter put 
in the last thing; two tablespoons to a puff. 

Rolls. —To the quantity of light bread-dough that you 
would take for twelve persons, add the white of one egg 
well beaten, two tablespoons of white sugar, and two 
tablespoons of butter; work these thoroughly together; 
roll out about half an inch thick; cut the size desired, and 
spread one with melted butter and lay another upon the 
top of it. Bake delicately when they have risen. 

French Rolls. —One quart flour, add two eggs, one 
half-pint milk, tablespoon of yeast, kneed it well; let rise 
till morning. Work in one ounce of butter, and mold in 
small rolls. Bake immediately. 

Rusks. —Milk enough with one-half cup of yeast to 
make a pint; make a sponge and rise, then add one and a 
half cups of white sugar, three eggs, one-half cup of 
butter; spice to your taste; mold, then put in pan to rise. 
When baked, cover the tops with sugar dissolved in milk. 

Waffles. —One quart of sweet or sour milk, four eggs, 
two-thirds of a cup of butter, half a teaspoonful of salt, 
three teaspoonfuls of baking-powder; flour enough to make 
a nice batter. If you use sour milk leave out the baking- 
powder, and use two teaspoons soda. Splendid. 

Yeast. —In reference to yeast, we advise the use of 
Magic Y r east Cakes; it keeps good a year, and works quick¬ 
er and better than other yeasts. 

Suggestions in Making 1 Cake. —It is very desirable 
that the materials be of the finest quality. Sweet, fresh 
butter, eggs, and good flour are the first essentials. The 
process of putting together is also quite an important- 
feature, and where other methods are not given in this 
work by contributors, it would be well for the young 
housekeeper to observe the following directions: 

Never allow the butter to oil, but soften it by putting 
in a moderately warm place before you commence other 
preparations for your cake; then put it into an earthen 
dish—tin, if not new, will discolor your cake as you stir 
it—and add your sugar; beat the butter and sugar to a 
cream, add the yolks of the eggs, then the milk, and lastly 
the beaten whites of the eggs and flour. Spices and liquors 
may be added after the yolks of the eggs are put in, and 
fruit should be put in with the flour. 






































368 


COOKERY RECIPES. 


The oven should be pretty hot for small cakes, and 
moderate for larger. To ascertain if a large cake is suffi¬ 
ciently baked, pierce it with a broom-straw through the 
center; if done, the straw will come out free from 
dough 5 if not done, dough will adhere to the straw. 
Take it out of the tin about fifteen minutes after it is 
taken from the oven (not sooner), and do not turn it over 
on the top to cool. 

Frosting’. —One pint granulated sugar, moisten thor¬ 
oughly with water sufficient to dissolve it when heated ; 
let it "boil until it threads from the spoon, stirring often; 
while the sugar is boiling, beat the whites of two eggs till 
they are firm; then when thoroughly beaten, turn them 
into a deep dish, and when the sugar is boiled, turn it 
over the whites, beating all rapidly together until of the 
right consistency to spread over the cake. Flavor with 
lemon, if preferred. This is sufficient for two loaves. 

Frosting*, for Cake.— One cup frosting-sugar, two 
tablespoons of water boiled together; take it off the 
stove, and stir in the white of one egg beaten to a stiff 
froth ; stir all together well, then frost your cake with it, 
and you will never want a nicer frosting than this. 

Chocolate Frosting 1 . —Whites of two eggs, one and 
one-half cups of fine sugar, six great spoons of grated 
chocolate, two teaspoons of vanilla ; spread rather thickly 
between layers and on top of cake. Best when freshly 
made. It should be made like any frosting. 

Icing*. —The following rules should be observed where 
boiled icing is not used : 

Put the whites of your eggs in a shallow earthern dish, 
and allow at least a quarter of a pound or sixteen table¬ 
spoons of the finest white sugar for each egg. Take part 
of the sugar at first and sprinkle over the eggs; beat 
them for about half an hour, stirring in gradually the rest 
of the sugar ; then add the flavor. If you use the juice 
of a lemon, allow more sugar. Tartaric and lemon-juice 
whitens icing. It may be shaded a pretty pink with 
strawberry-juice or cranberry syrup, or colored yellow by 
putting the juice and rind of a lemon in a thick muslin 
bag, and squeezing it hard into the egg and sugar. 

If cake is well dredged with flour after baking, and 
then carefully wiped before the icing is put on, it will not 
run, and can be spread more smoothly. Put frosting on 
to the cake in large spoonfuls, commencing over the cen¬ 
ter ; then spread it over the cake, using a large knife, 
dipping it occasionally in cold water. Dry the frosting 
on the cake in a cool, dry place. 

Ice-Cream Icing*, for White Cake.— Two cups pul¬ 
verized white sugar, boiled to a thick syrup; add three 
teaspoons vanilla; when cold, add the whites of two 
eggs well beaten, and flavored with two teaspoons of citric 
acid. 

Icing*, for Cakes. —Take ten whites of eggs whipped 
to a stiff froth, with twenty large spoonfuls of orange- 
flower water. This is to be laid smoothly on the cakes 
after they are baked. Then return them to the oven for 
fifteen minutes to harden the icing. 

Icing*. —One pound pulverized sugar, pour over one 
tablespoon cold water, beat whites of three eggs a little, 
not to a stiff froth ; add to the sugar and water, put in a 
deep bowl, place in a vessel of boiling water, and heat. 
It will become thin and clear, afterward begin to thicken. 
When it becomes quite thick, remove from the fire and 
stir while it becomes cool till thick enough to spread with 
a knife. This will frost several ordinary-sized cakes. 

Almond Cake. —Take ten eggs, beaten separately, the 
yolks from the whites ; beat the yolks with half a pound 
of white sugar; blanch a quarter of a pound of almonds 


by pouring hot water on them, and remove the skins; 
pound them in a mortar smooth ; add three drops of oil of 
bitter almonds; and rose-water to prevent the oiling 
of the almonds. Stir this also into the eggs. Half a 
pound of sifted flour stirred very slowly into the eggs; 
lastly, stir in the whites, which must have been whipped 
to a stiff froth. Pour this into the pans, and bake imme¬ 
diately three-quarters of an hour. 

Cocoanut Cake. —Whip the whites of ten eggs, grate 
two nice cocoanuts, and add them ; sift one pound of 
white sugar into half a pound of sifted flour; stir this 
well; add a little rose-water to flavor ; pour into pans, and 
bake three-fourths of an hour. 

Cocoanut Drops. —One pound each grated cocoanut 
and sugar; four well beaten eggs ; four tablespoonfuls of 
flour, mix well, drop on pan, and. bake. 

Cocoanut Jumbles. —Take one cup butter, two cups 
sugar, three eggs well whipped, one grated cocoanut, 
stirred in lightly with the flour, which must be sufficient to 
stiffen to the required consistency. Bake one to know 
when enough flour is added. 

Coffee Cake. —Take three eggs, tw r o cups brown sugar, 
one cup strong coffee, quarter of cup of butter, three 
cups flour, one teaspoonful cream tartar, half teaspoonful 
each soda and ground cinnamon and cloves, half a nutmeg 
grated, one cup of raisins, stoned ; beat butter and sugar 
to a cream, then add eggs beaten, coffee, flour sifted, and 
cream tartar, well mixed with it. Spices and raisins, 
then soda dissolved in sufficient warm water to absorb it. 
Thoroughly mix, and bake in round tins. 

Cookies. —Two cups bright brown sugar, one cup but¬ 
ter, half cup sweet milk, two eggs, one teaspoonful soda, 
flour enough to roll out. 

Composition Cake. —Five eggs, three cups sugar, two 
cups butter, five cups flour, one wine-glass brandy, one 
nutmeg grated, half pound each raisins and currants, 
three teaspoonfuls Gillett’s baking powder. 

Corn Starch Cake. —Two cups pulverized sugar, one 
cup butter, cup corn starch, two cups sifted flour, seven 
eggs (whites beaten very light), one teaspoon soda, two 
teaspoons cream tartar (or two teaspoons baking powder 
instead of soda and cream tartar), flavor with lemon. In 
putting this together, beat butter and sugar to a light 
cream, dissolve corn starch in a cup of sweet milk, leav¬ 
ing enough of the milk to dissolve the soda if it is used, 
put cream of tartar or baking powder in the flour, beat 
the whites of the eggs separate when the butter and sugar 
are ready, put all the ingredients together first, leaving 
the eggs and flour to the last. 

Cream Cake. —Half pint cream, one tablespoon butter 
rubbed into one tablespoon flour. Put the cream on the 
fire. When it boils stir in the butter and flour mixed, 
add half a tea cup sugar, two eggs very light, flavor with 
vanilla. Spread between cakes, and frost or sugar top of 
cake to please fancy. 

Cinnamon Cake. —Take two cups of brown sugar, 
one cup of butter, three-quarters cup of milk, half cup of 
vinegar, four eggs, large tablespoon of cinnamon, four 
cups of flour, one teaspoon of soda, two teaspoons cream 
tartar, mix all but vinegar and soda, then add vinegar, 
then soda, bake in large tin or patty pans. 

Currant Cake. —Take two pounds of flour, half a 
pound of butter rubbed in the flour, half a pound of moist 
sugar, a few caraway seeds, three or four tablespoonfuls of 
yeast, and a pint of milk made a little warm. Mix all 
together, and let it stand an hour or two at the fire to rise; 
then beat it up with three eggs and a half pound of 












































COOKERY RECIPES. 




currants. Put it into a tin, and bake two hours in a mod¬ 
erate oven. 

Cup Cake. —Cream half a cup of butter, and four cups 
of sugar by beating; stir in five well-beaten eggs; dissolve 
one teaspoonful of soda in a cup of good milk or cream, 
and six cups of sifted flour; stir all well together, and 
bake in tins. 

Delicate Cake. —Mix two cups of sugar, four of flour, 
half cup butter, half cup sweet milk, the whites of seven 
eggs, two teaspoons oream tartar, one teaspoon soda, rub 
the cream tartar in the flour and other ingredients, and 
flavor to suit the taste. 




Delicious Swiss Cake. —Beat the yolks of five eggs 
and one pound of sifted loaf sugar well together; then sift 
in one pound of best flour, and a large spoonful of anise 
seed; beat these together for twenty minutes; then whip 
to a stiff froth the five whites, and add them; beat all 
well; then roll out the paste an inch thick, and cut them 
with a molded cutter rather small; set them aside till the 
next morning to bake. Rub the tins on which they are 
baked with yellow wax; it is necessary to warm the tins to 
receive the wax; then let them become cool, wipe them, 
and lay on the cakes. Bake a light brown. 

Doughnuts. —One and a half cup of sugar; half cup 
sour milk, two teaspoons soda, little nutmeg, four eggs, 
flour enough to roll out. 

Drop Cake. —To one pint cream, three eggs, one 
pinch of salt, thicken with rye till a spoon will stand 
upright in it, then drop on a well buttered iron pan which 
must be hot in the oven. 

Drop Cookies. —Whites of two eggs, one large cup of 
milk, one cup of sugar, one-half cup of butter, two tea¬ 
spoonfuls baking-powder, flavor with vanilla, rose, or nut¬ 
meg; flour enough for thick batter, beat thoroughly, drop 
in buttered pans, dust granulated sugar on top, and bake 
with dispatch. 

Fruit Cake. —Take one pint each of sour milk and 
sugar, two eggs, half pint melted butter, two teaspoons 
even full of soda, dissolve in milk flour enough to roll out 
into shape, and fry in hot lard. 

Fried Cakes. —Three eggs, one cup of sugar, one pint 
of new milk, salt, nutmeg, and flour enough to permit the 
spoon to stand upright in the mixture; add two teaspoon¬ 
fuls of Gillette baking powder and beat until very light. 
Drop by the dessert-spoonful into boiling lard. These 
will not absorb a bit of fat, and are the least pernicious of 
the doughnut family. 

Fruit Cake. —Take four pounds of brown sugar, four 
pounds of good butter, beaten to cream; put four pounds 
of sifted flour into a pan; whip thirty-two eggs to a fine 
froth, and add to the creamed butter and sugar; then take 
six pounds of cleaned currants, four pounds of stoned 
rasins, two pounds of cut citron, one pound of blanched 
almonds, crushed, but not pounded, to a paste—a large 
cup of molasses, two large spoonfuls of ground ginger, 
half an ounce of pounded mace, half an ounce of grated 
nutmeg, half an ounce of pounded and sifted cloves, and 
one of cinnamon. Mix these well together, then add four 
large wineglasses of good French brandy, and lastly, stir 
in the flour; beat this well, put it all into a stone jar, 
cover very closely, for twelve hours; then make into six 
loaves, and bake in iron pans. These cakes will keep a 
year, if attention is paid to their being put in a tin case, 
and covered lightly in an airy place. They improve by 
keeping. 

Ginger Drop Cake. —Cup each sugar, molasses, lard 
and boiling water, one teaspoon soda, half teaspoon cream 




tartar, stir in flour until it is as thick as cake, add sugar 
and salt. 

Ginger Snaps. —Take one cup each of sugar, molasses, 
butter, half cup sour milk, two teaspoons cream tartar, 
one teaspoon soda, flour enough to roll out, cut into size 
desired and bake. 

Ginger Snaps. —Two cups of New Orleans molasses, 
one cup of sugar, one of butter, one teaspoonful of soda, 
one of cloves, one of black pepper, and two tablespoons of 
ginger. These will keep good a month if you wish to keep 
them. 

Graham Cakes. —Half a cup of butter, one-half cup 
sugar, one egg, one teacup sour milk, one-half teaspoon 
soda. Make a stiff batter by adding graham flour. 

Good Graham Cakes. —Two cups sweet milk, one 
cup sweet cream, the white of one egg beaten to froth, 
half a spoonful of salt, dessert spoonful baking powder, 
stir in stiffened graham flour until quite thick, bake in 
muffin-rings or gem-tins, until well browned on top. 

Indian Breakfast Patties. —To one pint of Indian 
meal add one egg, and a little salt, pour boiling water 
upon it, and fry brown immediately in pork fat. Cut 
open and put butter between, and send to the table hot. 

Jumbles. —Stir together till of alight brown color, one 
pound sugar, one-half pound butter, then add eight eggs 
beaten to a froth, add flour enough to make them stiff 
enough to roll out, flavor with lemon, cut in rings half an 
inch thick, bake in quick oven. 

Kisses. —Beat the whites of four eggs to a froth, stir 
into them half pound powdered white sugar; flavor with 
lemon, continue to beat it until it will be in a heap; lay 
the mixture on letter-paper, in the size and shape of half 
an egg, an inch apart, then lay the paper on hard wood 
and place in the oven without closing it, when they begin 
to look yellowish take them out and let them cool three or 
four minutes, then slip a thin knife carefully under and 
turn them into your left hand, take another and join the 
two by the sides next the paper, then lay them in a dish 
handling them gently. They may be batted a little 
harder, the soft inside taken out and jelly substituted. 

Light Fruit Cake .—Take one cup butter, two cups 
sugar, four of flour, four eggs, one teaspoon cream tartar, 
half teaspoon soda, one cup sweet milk, one pound cur¬ 
rants, half pound citron. 

Marble Cake, Light Part. —One and a half cups 
white sugar, half cup butter, half cup sweet milk, one tea¬ 
spoon cream tartar, half teaspoon soda, whites of four 
eggs, two and half cups flour. 

Dark Part. —One cup brown sugar, half cup each mo¬ 
lasses, butter and sour milk, one teaspoon cream tartar, 
one teaspoon soda, two and a half cups flour, yolks four 
eggs, half teaspoon cloves, allspice and cinnamon. 

Molasses Cookies. —Three cups New Orleans molas¬ 
ses, one cup butter, one-half cup lard, one heaped tea¬ 
spoon soda, one tablespoon ginger, one cup hot water. 
Roll thick. Better after standing. 

Muffins. —Take two cups flour, one cup milk, half cup 
sugar, four eggs, one-half teaspoon each of soda and cream 
tartar, one tablespoon butter. Bake in rings. 

Graham ILuffins. —Mix one pint sweet milk, sift your 
flour, then take half pound each Graham and wheat flour, 
five or six spoonfuls melted butter, two half spoons bak¬ 
ing powder. Bake in rings in very quick oven. 

Nut Cake. —Mix each two tablespoons of butter and 
sugar, two eggs, one cup milk, three cups flour, one tea¬ 
spoon cream tartar, half teaspoon soda, pint of nuts or 
almonds. Nuts may be sliced or not as suits taste. 

















































370 


COOKERY RECIPES. 


Oat Cakes. —Mix fine and coarse oatmeal in equal pro¬ 
portions; add sugar, caraway-seeds, a dust of salt to three 
pounds of meal, a heaping teaspoonful of carbonate of 
soda; mix all thoroughly together, then add enough 
boiling water to make the whole a stiff paste; roll 
out this paste quite thin, and sprinkle meal on a griddle. 
Lay the cakes on to bake, or toast them quite dry in a 
Dutch oven in front of the fire; they should not scorch, 
but gradually dry through. 

Orange Cake, the Most Delicate and Delicious 
Cake there is.— Grated rind of one orange; two cups 
sugar; whites of four eggs and yolks of five; one cup sweet 
milk; one cup butter; two large teaspoonfuls baking pow¬ 
der, to be sifted through with the flour; bake quick in 
jelly tins. Filling : Take white of the one egg that was 
left; beat to a froth, add a little sugar and the iuice of the 
orange, beat together, and spread between the layers. If 
oranges are not to be had, lemons will do instead. 

Plain Fruit Cake. —One pound each butter beaten to 
a cream, sifted sugar, sifted flour, twelve eggs, whites and 
yolks, beaten separately. Two pounds currants, three 
pounds of stoned raisins chopped, one nutmeg, a little 
cinnamon and other spices, half pint wine and brandy 
mixed, one pound citron cut in slices and stuck in the 
batter after it is in the tin. Bake slowly two to three hours. 

Plain Cake. —Flour, three-quarters of a pound; sugar, 
the same quantity; butter, four ounces; one egg and two 
tablespoonfuls of milk. Mix all together and bake. 

Puffs. —Two eggs beaten very light; one cup of milk, 
one cup of flour, and a pinch of salt. The gems should be 
heated while making the puffs, which are then placed in a 
quick oven. 

Plum Cake. —Six eggs well beaten, one pound of sugar, 
the same of flour, butter and currants, four ounces of can¬ 
died peel, two tablespoonfuls of mixed spice. When it is 
all mixed, add one teaspoonful of carbonate of soda, and 
one of tartaric acid. Beat it all up quickly and bake 
directly. 

Pound Cake. —Take four and a half cups flour, 3 cups 
each butter and sugar. Ten eggs, yolks and whites beaten 
separately. Mix. 

Pork Cake. —Take one pound salt pork chopped fine, 
boil a few minutes in half pint water, one cup molasses, 
two cups sugar, three eggs, two teaspoons soda, cinnamon, 
cloves, nutmeg to taste, one pound raisins chopped fine, 
flour to make a stiff batter. 

Rich Shortbread. —Two pounds of flour, one pound 
butter, and quarter pound each of the following ingredi¬ 
ents :—Candied orange and lemon peel, sifted loaf sugar, 
blanched sweet almonds and caraway comfits. Cut the 
peel and almonds into thin slices, and mix them with one 
pound and a half of flour and the sugar. Melt the butter, 
and when cool, pour it into the flour, mixing it quickly with 
a spoon. Then with the hands mix it, working in the re¬ 
mainder of the flour; give it one roll out till it is an inch 
thick, cut it into the size you wish, and pinch round the 
edges. Prick the top with a fork, and stick in some cara¬ 
way comfits; put it on whitepaper, and bake on tins in a 
slow oven. 

Seed Cake. —Take half a pound of butter and three- 
fourths of a pound of sugar, creamed; three eggs, beaten 
lightly, and two tablespoonfuls of picked and bruised cara¬ 
way seed; dissolve half a teaspoonful of soda in a cup of 
new milk; mix these well together until they are about the 
consistency of cream; then sift in two pounds of flour, mix 
well with a knife, and roll them out into thin cakes, about 
an inch in thickness. Bake in a quick oven. 


Sponge Cake. —Take sixteen eggs; separate the whites 
from the yolks; beat them very lightly; sift into the yolks 
one pound of flour, adding a few drops of essence of almond 
or lemon, to flavor with; then add one pound and a quarter 
of pulverized loaf sugar; beat this well with a knife; then 
add the whites whipped to a stiff froth. Have ready the 
pans, and bake. 

Sponge Cake, white. —One and one-third coffee cups 
of sugar; one coffee cup flour; whites of ten eggs; beateggs 
and sugar as if for frosting; add flour by degrees and bake. 

Snow Cake. —Take one pound arrow-root, half pound 
white sugar, half pound butter, the whites of six eggs, 
flavor with lemon, beat the butter to a cream, stir in the 
sugar and arrow-root, whisk the whites of the eggs to a 
stiff froth, beat for twenty minutes. Bake one hour. 

Washington Cake. —One cup of sugar; i cup of but¬ 
ter; £ cup sweet milk; 2 eggs; 2 cups flour; 2 teaspoons 
baking powder. Bake in layers as jelly cake. Jelly part: 
One pint of grated apples; 1 egg; 1 cup of sugar; grated 
rind and juice of one lemon; put in a vessel of some kind, 
and boil; put it on the cakes hot. 

Waffles. —Take one quart milk, two eggs; beat the 
whites and yolks separately; four tablespoons melted but¬ 
ter, two teaspoons Gillett’s baking powder, flour to make a 
stiff batter. Bake in Avaffle irons. 

Alpine Snow. —Wash cup of rice, cook till tender in a 
covered dish to keep it white, Avhen nearly done add cup 
rich milk, salt to taste, stir in the beaten yolks of two eggs, 
allow it to simmer for a moment, then place in a dish, beat 
the Avhites in two tablespoons fine sugar. Put the rice in 
little heaps upon the tin, intermingling with pieces of red 
jelly, eat with fine sugar and cream. 

Apple Charlotte. —Take two pounds of apples, pare 
and core and slice them into a pan and add one pound 
loaf sugar, juice of three lemons and the grated rind of 
one, let these boil until they become a thick mass. Turn 
into a mould and serve it cold with thick custard or cream. 

Apple Cream. —One cup thick cream, one cup sugar, 
beat till very smooth; then beat the whites of two eggs and 
add; stew apples in water till soft; take them from the 
water with a fork; steam them if you prefer. Pour the 
cream over the apples when cold. 

Apple Custard. —Pare tart apples, core them, put them 
into a deep dish witha small piece of butter, and one tea¬ 
spoon of sugar and a little nutmeg, in the opening of each 
apple, pour in water enough to cook them, Avhen soft cool 
them and pour over an unbaked custard so as to cover them 
and bake until the custard is done. 

Apple Fancy. —Pare and core apples, stew with sugar 
and lemon peels, beat four eggs to a froth, add a cupful of 
grated bread crumbs, a little sugar and nutmeg, lay the 
apples in the bottom of a dish and cover with the bread 
crumbs, laying a few pieces of butter over the top, bake in 
a quick oven, when done turn out upside down on a fiat 
dish, scatter fine sugar over the top of apples, boil potatoes 
and beat fine with cream, large piece butter and salt, drop 
on tin, make smooth on top, score with knife, lay a thin 
slice of butter on top, then put in oven till brown. 

Apple Fritters. —One pint milk, three eggs, salt to 
taste, as much flour as will make a batter, beat yolks and 
Avhites of eggs separately, add yolks to milk, stir in the 
whites when mixing the batter, have tender apples, pare, 
core, and cut in large thin slices, around the apple, to be 
fried in hot lard, ladle batter into spider, lay slice of apple 
in centre of each quantity of batter, fry light brown. 

Apple Snow Balls. —Pare six apples, cut them into 
quarters, remove the cores, reconstruct the position of the 
apples, introduce into the cavities one clove and a slice of 

















































COOKERY RECIPES. 

371 


lemon peel, have six small pudding cloths at hand and 
cover the apples severally in an upright position with rice, 
tying them up tight, then place them in a large saucepan 
of scalding water and boil one hour, on taking them up 
open the top and add a little grated nutmeg with butter 
and sugar. 

Arrow-Root Blane-Mange. —Put two tablespoonfuls 
of arrow-root to a quart of milk, and a pinch of salt. Scald 
the milk, sweeten it, and stir in the arrow-root, which must 
first be wet up with some of the milk. Boil up once. 
Orange-water, rose-water or lemon-peel may be used to 
flavor it. Pour into molds to cool. 

Arrow-Root Custard. —Arrow-root, one tablespoon¬ 
ful; milk, 1 pint; sugar, 1 tablespoonful, and 1 egg. Mix 
the arrow-root with a little of the milk, cold; when the 
milk boils, stir in the arrow-root, egg and sugar, previously 
well beaten together. Let it scald, and pour into cups to 
cool. To flavor it, boil a little ground cinnamon in the 
milk. 

Arrow-Root Jelly. —To a dessert-spoonful of the pow¬ 
der, add as much cold water as will make it into a paste, 
then pour on half a pint of boiling water, stir briskly and 
boil it a few minutes, when it will become a clear smooth 
jelly; a little sugar and sherry wine may be added for de¬ 
bilitated adults; but for infants, a drop or two of essence 
of caraway seeds or cinnamon is preferable, wine being 
very liable to become acid in the stomachs of infants, and 
to disorder the bowels. Fresh milk, either alone or diluted 
with water, may be substituted for the water. 

Baked Apples. —Take a dozen tart apples, pare and 
core them, place sugar and small lump of butter in centre 
of each, put them in a pan with half pint of water, bake 
until tender, basting occasionally with syrup while baking, 
when done, serve with cream. 

Chocolate Cream Custard.—Scrape quarter pound 
chocolate, pour on it one teacup boiling water, and stand 
it by fire until dissolved, beat eight eggs light, omitting 
the whites of two, and stir them by degrees into a quart 
of milk alternately with the chocolate and three table¬ 
spoons of white sugar, put the mixture into cups and bake 
10 minutes. 

Charlotte Russe. —Whip one quart rich cream to a 
stiff froth, and drain well on a nice sieve. To one scant 
pint of milk add six eggs beaten very light; make very 
sweet; flavor high with vanilla. Cook over hot water till 
it is a thick custard. Soak one full ounce Coxe’s gelatine 
in a very little water, and warm over hot water. When the 
custard is very cold, beat in lightly the gelatine and the 
whipped cream. Line the bottom of your mold with 
buttered paper, and the sides with sponge cake or lady- 
fingers fastened together with the white of an egg. Fill 
with the cream, put in a cold place or in summer on ice. 
To turn out dip the mold for a moment in hot water. In 
draining the whipped cream, all that drips through can be 
re-whipped. 

Cocoa Snow. —Crate the white part of a cocoanut and 
mix it with white sugar, serve with whipped cream, or not, 
as desired. 

Cream and Snow. —Make a rich boiled custard, and 
put it in the bottom of a dish; take the whites of eight 
eggs, beat with rose-water, and a spoonful of fine sugar, 
till it be a strong froth; put some milk and water into a 
stew-pan; when it boils take the froth off the eggs, and lay 
it on the milk and water; boil up once; take off carefully 
and lay it on the custard. 

Baked Custards. —Boil a pint of cream with some 
mace and cinnamon; and when it is cold, take four yolks 
and two whites of eggs, a little rose and orange-flower 


water, sack, nutmeg, and sugar to your palate. Mix them 
well, and bake it in cups. 

Or, pour into a deep dish, with or without lining or rim 
of paste; grate nutmeg and lemon peel over the top, and 
bake in a slow oven about thirty minutes. 

Gooseberry Cream. —Boil them in milk till soft; beat 
them, and strain the pulp through a coarse sieve. Sweeten 
cream with sugar to your taste; mix with the pulp; when 
cold, place in glasses for use. 

Imperial Cream. —Boil a quart of cream with the thin 
rind of a lemon; stir till nearly cold; have ready in a dish 
to serve in, the juice of three lemons strained with as much 
sugar as will sweeten the cream; pour it into the dish from 
a large tea-pot, holding it high, and moving it about to 
mix with the juice. It should be made from 6 to 12 hours 
before it is served. 

Jumballs. —Flour, lib.; sugar, 1 lb.; make into a light 
paste with whites of eggs beaten fine; add £ pint of cream; 
i lb. of butter, melted; and 1 lb. of blanched almonds, well 
beaten; knead all together, with a little rose-water; cut 
into any form; bake in a slow oven. A little butter may 
be melted with a spoonful of white wine and throw fine 
sugar over the dish. 

Lemon Puffs. —Beat and sift 1 pound of refined sugar; 
put into a bowl, with the juice of two lemons, and mix 
them together; beat the white of an egg to a high froth; 
put it into the bowl; put in 3 eggs with two rinds of lemon 
grated; mix it well up, and throw sugar on the buttered 
papers; drop on the puffs in small drops, and bake them 
in a moderately heated oven. 

Lemon Tarts. —Pare the rinds of four lemons, and boil 
tender in two waters, and beat fine. Add to it 4 ounces 
of blanched almonds, cut thin, 4 ozs. of lump sugar, the 
juice of the lemons, and a little grated peel. Simmer to a 
syrup. When cold, turn into a shallow tin tart dish, lined 
with a rich thin puff paste, and lay bars of the same over, 
and bake carefully. 

Macaroons. —Blanch 4 ozs. of almonds, and pound 
with 4 spoonfuls of orange-flower water; whisk the whites 
of four eggs to a froth, then mix it, and 1 lb. of sugar, 
sifted with the almonds to a paste; and laying a sheet of 
wafer-paper on a tin, put it on in different little cakes, 
the shape of macaroons. 

Oatmeal Custard.— Take two teaspoons of the finest 
Scotch oatmeal, beat it up into a sufficiency of cold water 
in a basin to allow it to run freely. Add to it the yoke of 
a fresh egg, well worked up; have a pint of scalding new 
milk on the fire, and pour the oatmeal mixture into it, 
stirring it round with a spoon so as to incorporate the 
whole. Add sugar to your taste, and throw in a glass of 
sherry to the mixture, with a little grated nutmeg. Pour 
it into a basin, and take it warm in bed. It will be found 
very grateful and soothing in cases of colds or chills. 
Some persons scald a little cinnamon in the milk they use 
for the occasion. 

Orange Crumpets.— Cream, 1 pint; new milk, lpint; 
warm it, and put in it a little rennet or citric acid; when 
broken, stir it gently; lay it on a cloth to drain all night, 
and then take the rinds of three oranges, boiled, as for 
preserving, in three different waters; pound them very fine, 
and mix them with the curd, and eight eggs in a mortar, 
a little nutmeg, the juice of a lemon or orange, and sugar 
to your taste; bake them in buttered tin pans. When 
baked put a little wine and sugar over them. 

Orange Custards.— Boil the rind of half a Seville 
orange very tender; beat it very fine in a mortar; add a 
spoonful of the best brandy, the juice of a Seville orange, 
4 ozs. loaf sugar, and the yolks of four eggs; beat all 









































372 


COOKERY RECIPES. 


together ten minutes; then pour in gradually a pint of 
boiling cream; keep heating them until they are cold; put 
them into custard cups, and set them in an earthen dish 
of hot water; let them stand until they are set, take out, 
and stick preserved oranges on the top, and serve them 
hot or cold. 

Pommes Au Riz. —Peel a number of apples of a good 
sort, take out the cores, and let them simmer in a syrup of 
clarified sugar, with a little lemon peel. Wash and pick 
some rice, and cook it in milk, moistening it therewith little 
by little, so that the grains may remain whole. Sweeten 
it to taste; add a little salt and a taste of lemon-peel. 
Spread the rice upon a dish, mixing some apple preserve 
with it, and place the apples upon it, and fill up the va¬ 
cancies between the apples with some of the rice. Place 
the dish in the oven until the surface gets brown, and 
garnish with spoonfuls of bright colored preserve or jelly. 

Raspberry Cream. —Mash the fruit gently, and let it 
drain; then sprinkle a little sugar over, and that will pro¬ 
duce more juice; put it through a hair sieve to take out 
the seeds; then put the juice to some cream, and sweeten 
it; after which, if you choose to lower it with some milk, 
it will not curdle; which it would if put to the milk be¬ 
fore the cream; but it is best made of raspberry jelly, in¬ 
stead of jam, when the fresh fruit cannot be obtained. 

Rice Fritters. —One pint of cooked rice, half cup of 
sweet milk, two eggs, a tablespoon of flour, and a little salt. 
Have the lard hot in the skillet, allow a tablespoon to each 
fritter, fry brown on each side, then turn same as griddle 
cakes. If you find the rice spatters in the fat, add a very 
little more flour. You can judge after frying one. 

Rice Croquettes. —Make little balls or oblong rolls of 
cooked rice; season with salt, and pepper if you like; dip 
in egg; fry in hot lard. 

Rice Custards. —Boil 3 pints of new milk with a bit 
of lemon-peel, cinnamon, and three bay leaves; sweeten; 
then mix a large spoonful of rice flour into a cup of cold 
milk, very smooth; mix it with the yolks of four eggs well 
beaten. Take a basin of the boiling milk, and mix with 
the cold that has the rice in it; add the remainder of the 
boiling milk; stir it one way till it boils; pour immediate¬ 
ly into a pan; stir till cool, and add a spoonful of brandy, 
or orange-flower 'water. 

Rice Flummery. —Boil with a pint of new milk, a bit 
of lemon-peel, and cinnamon; mix with a little cold milk, 
as much rice flour as will make the whole of a good con¬ 
sistence, sweeten and add a spoonful of peach-water, or a 
bitter almond beaten; boil it, observing it does not burn; 
pour it into a shape or a pint basin, taken out the spice. 
When cold, turn the flummery into a dish, and serve with 
cream, milk, or custard round; or put a teacupful of cream 
into half a pint of new milk, a glass of white wine, half a 
lemon squeezed, and sugar. 

Rock Cream. —Boil a teacupful of rice till quite soft 
in new milk and then sweeten it with sugar, and pile it 
on a dish, lay on it current jelly or preserved fruit, beat 
up the whites of five eggs with a little powdered sugar and 
flour, add to this when beaten very stiff about a tablespoon 
of rich cream and drop it over the* rice. 

Strawberry and Apple Souffle.— Stew the apple with 
a little lemon-peel; sweeten them, then lay them pretty 
high round the inside of a dish. Make a custard of the 
yolks of two eggs, a little cinnamon, sugar and milk. 
Let it thicken over a slow fire, but not boil; when ready, 
pour it in the inside of the apple. Beat the whites of the 
eggs to a strong froth, and cover the whole. Throw over it 
a good deal of pounded sugar, and brown it to a fine brown. 
Any fruit made of a proper consistence does for the walls, 
strawberries, when ripe, are delicious. 


Strawberry Short-Cake. —First prepare the berries 
by picking; after they have been well washed—the best 
way to wash them is to hold the boxes under the faucet 
and let a gentle stream of water run over and through 
them, then drain, and pick them into an earthen bowl; 
now take the potato-masher and bruise them and cover 
with a thick layer of white sugar; now set them aside till 
the cake is made. Take a quart of sifted flour; half a cup 
of sweet butter; one egg, well beaten; three teaspoonfuls 
of baking-powder, and milk enough to make a rather stiff 
dough; knead well, and roll with a rolling-pin till about 
one inch thick; bake till a nice brown, and when done, 
remove it to the table; turn it out of the pan; with a light, 
sharp knife, cut it down lengthwise and crossways; now 
run the knife through it, and lay it open for a few 
moments, just to let the steam escape (the steam ruins the 
color of the berries); then set the bottom crust on the 
platter; cover thickly with the berries, an inch and a half 
deep; lay the top crust on the fruit; dust thickly with 
powdered sugar, and if any berry juice is left in the bowl, 
pour it round the cake, not over it, and you will have a 
delicious short-cake. 

Snow Cream. —To a quart of cream add the whites of 
three eggs, cut to a stiff froth, add four spoonfuls of sweet 
wine, sugar to taste, flavor with essence of lemon. Whip 
all to a froth, and as soon as it forms take it off and serve 
in glasses. 

Stewed Fig’s. —Take four ounces of fine sugar, the thin 
rind of a large lemon, and a pint of cold water, when the 
sugar is dissolved, add one pound turkey figs, and place 
the stew-pan over a moderate fire where they may heat and 
swell slowly and stew gently for two hours, when they are 
quite tender, add the juice of one lemon, arrange them in 
a glass dish and serve cold. 

Spanish Cream. —Dissolve in pint of rose-water, 1 
oz. of isinglass cut small; run it through a hair sieve ; 
add the yolks of three or four eggs, beaten and mixed 
with half a pint of cream, and two sorrel leaves. Pour 
it into a deep dish, sweeten with loaf sugar powdered. 
Stir it till cold, and put it into molds. Lay rings round 
in different colored sweetmeats. Add, if you like, a little 
sherry, and a lump or two of sugar, rubbed well upon the 
rind of a lemon to extract the flavor. 

Whipped Cream. —To one quart of good cream, put a 
few drops of bergamot water, a little orange-flower water, 
and £ lb. of sugar. When it is dissolved, whip the cream 
to a froth, and take it up with a skimmer ; drain on a 
sieve, and if for icing, let it settle half an hour before you 
put it into cups or glasses. Use that which drops into 
the dish under the sieve, to make it froth the better, add¬ 
ing two whites of eggs. Colored powdered sugar may, if 
you like, be sprinkled on the top of each. 

Asparagus Omelet.— Boil a dozen of the largest and 
finest asparagus heads you can pick ; cut off all the green 
portion, and chop it in thin slices; season with a small 
teaspoonful of salt, and about one-fourth of that quan¬ 
tity of soluble cayenne. Then beat up six eggs in a 
sufficient quantity of new milk to make a stiffish batter. 
Melt in the frying-pan a quarter of a pound of good, 
clean dripping, and just before you pour on the batter 
place a small piece of butter in the center of the pan. 
When the dripping is quite hot, pour on half your batter, 
and as it begins to set, place on ft the asparagus tops, and 
cover over with the remainder. This omelet is generally 
served on a round of buttered toast, with the crusts re¬ 
moved. The batter is richer if made of cream. 

Buttered Eggs. —Beat four or five eggs, yolks and 
whites together, put a quarter of a pound of butter in a 
basin, and then put that in boiling water, stir it till 












































COOKERY RECIPES. 



melted, then pour the butter and the eggs into a sauce¬ 
pan ; keep a basin in your hand, just hold the sauce-pan 
in the other over a slow part of the fire, shaking it one 
way, as it begins to warm; pour it into a basin, and back, 
then hold it again over the fire, stirring it constantly in 
the saucepan, and pouring it into the basin, more perfectly 
to mix the egg and butter until they shall be hot without 
boiling. 

Serve on toasted bread ; or in a basin, to eat with salt 
fish, or red herrings. 

Corn-Oysters. —Take a half dozen ears of sweet corn 
(those which are not too old); with a sharp knife split 
each row of the corn in the center of the kernel length¬ 
wise ; scrape out all the pulp ; add one egg, well beaten, a 
little salt, one tablespoonful of sweet milk; flour enough 
to make a pretty stiff batter. Drop in hot lard, and fry 
a delicate brown. If the corn is quite young, omit the 
milk, using as little flour as possible. 

Cheese Omelet. —Mix to a smooth batter three table¬ 
spoonfuls of fine flour, with half a pint of milk. Beat 
up well the yolks and whites of four eggs, a little salt, and 
a quarter of a pound of grated old English cheese. Add 
these to the flour and milk, and whisk all the ingredients 
together for half an hour. Put three ounces of butter 
into a frying-pan, and when it is boiling pour in the 
above mixture, fry it for a few minutes, and then turn it 
carefully ; when it is sufficiently cooked on the other side, 
turn it on to a hot dish and serve. 

Irish Stew. —Take a loin of mutton, cut it into chops, 
season it with a very little pepper and salt, put it into a 
saucepan, just cover it with water, and let it cook half an 
hour. Boil two dozen of potatoes, peel and mash them, 
and stir in a cup of cream while they are hot ; then line a 
deep dish with the potatoes, and lay in the cooked mutton 
chops, and cover them over with the rest of the potatoes ; 
then set it in the oven to bake. Make some gravy of the 
broth in which the chops were cooked. This is a very 
nice dish. 

Irish Stew. —Cut off the fat of part of a loin of mut¬ 
ton, and cut it into chops. Pare, wash, and slice very 
thin some potatoes, two onions, and two small carrots; 
season with pepper and salt. Cover with water in a 
stew-pan, and stew gently till the meat is tender, and the 
potatoes are dissolved in the gravy. It may be made of 
beef-steaks, or mutton and beef mixed. 

Macaroni, Dressed Sweet.— Boil 2 ozs. in a pint 
of milk, with a bit of lemon peel, and a good bit of cin¬ 
namon, till the pipes are swelled to their utmost size with¬ 
out breaking. Lay them on a custard-dish, and pour a 
custard over them hot. Serve cold. 

Macaroni, as Usually Served. —Boil it in milk, or a 
weak veal broth, flavored with salt. When tender, put it 
into a dish without the liquor, with bits of butter and 
grated cheese, and over the top grate more, and put a lit¬ 
tle more butter. Put the dish into a Dutch oven, a 
quarter of an hour, and do not let the top become hard. 

Omelet. —Six eggs beaten separately, beaten hard, two 
teaspoons of corn starch, two tablespoons milk, whites of 
eggs, put in slow at last. Fry in butter. 

Rumbled Egg'S. —This is very convenient for invalids, 
or a light dish for supper. Beat up three eggs with two 
ounces of fresh butter, or well-washed salt butter ; add a 
teaspoonful of cream or new milk. Put all in a sauce¬ 
pan and keep stirring it over the fire for nearly five min¬ 
utes, until it rises up like scuffle, when it should be 
immediately dished on buttered toast. 

Poached Eggs. —Break an egg into a cup, and put it 
gently into boiling water; and when the white looks quite 




set, which will be in about three or four minutes, take it 
up with an egg slice, and lay it on toast and butter, or 
spinach. Serve them hot; if fresh laid, they will poach 
well, without breaking. 

Savory Potato-Cakes. —Quarter of a pound of grated 
ham, one pound of mashed potatoes, and a little suet, 
mixed with the yolks of two eggs, pepper, salt and nut¬ 
meg. Roll it into little balls, or cakes, and fry it a light 
brown. Sweet herbs may be used in place of ham. Plain 
potato cakes are made with potatoes and eggs only. 

Tomato Toast. —Remove the stem and all the seeds 
from the tomatoes; they must be ripe, mind, not over 
ripe; stew them to a pulp, season with butter, pepper 
and salt; toast some bread (not new bread), butter it, and 
then spread the tomato on each side, and send it up to 
table, two slices on each dish, the slices cut in two ; and 
the person who helps it must serve with two half-slices, 
not attempt to lift the top slice, otherwise the appearance 
of the under slice will be destroved. 


HOW TO COOK FISH . . 


OF DIFFERENT KINDS 


How to Choose Anchovies. —They are preserved in 
barrels, with bay-salt; no other fish has the fine flavor of 
the anchovy. The best look red and mellow, and the 
bones moist aDd oily; the flesh should be high flavored, 
the liquor reddish, and have a fine smell. 

Baked Black Bass. —Eight good-sized onions chopped 
fine ; half that quantity of bread crumbs ; butter size of 
hen’s egg; plenty of pepper and salt; mix thoroughly 
with anchovy sauce until quite red. Stuff your fish with 
this compound and pour the rest over it, previously 
sprinkling it with a little red pepper. Shad, pickerel and 
trout are good the same way. Tomatoes can be used in¬ 
stead of anchovies, and are more economical. If using 
them, take pork in place of butter, and chop fine. 

Boiled White Fish. —Lay the fish open ; put it in a 
dripping pan with the back down; nearly cover with 
water ; to one fish put two tablespoons salt, cover tightly 
and simmer (not boil) one-half hour ; dress with gravy, 
butter and pepper; garnish with sliced eggs. 

For sauce use a piece of butter the size of an egg, one 
tablespoon of flour, one half pint boiling water; boil a 
few minutes, and add three hard boiled eggs, sliced. 

Fresh Broiled White Fish. —Wash and drain the 
fish: sprinkle with pepper and lay with the inside down 
upon the gridiron, and broil over fresh bright coals. 
When a nice brown, turn for a moment on the other side, 
then take up and spread with butter. This is a very nice 
way of broiling all kinds of fish, fresh or salted. A little 
smoke under the fish adds to its flavor. This may be made 
by putting two or three cobs under the gridiron. 

To Boil Codfish. —If boiled fresh, it is watery; but it 
is excellent if salted, and hung for a day, to give it firmness. 
Wash and clean the fish well, and rub salt inside of it; tie 
it up, and put it on the fire in cold water; throw a handful 
of salt into the fish-kettle. Boil a small fish 15 minutes; 
a large one 30 minutes. Serve it without the smallest 
speck and scum; drain. Garnish it with lemon, horse¬ 
radish, the milt, roe, and liver. Oyster or shrimp sauce 
may be used. 

Chowder. —Five pounds of codfish cut in squares; fry 
plenty of salt pork cut in thin slices; put a layer of pork 
in your kettle, then one of fish; one of potatoes in thick 
slices, and one of onions in slices; plenty of pepper and 















































374 


COOKERY RECIPES. 


salt; repeat as long as your materials last, and finish with 
a layer of Boston crackers or crusts of bread. Water suffi¬ 
cient to cook with, or milk if you prefer. Cook one-half 
hour and turn over on your platter, disturbing as little as 
possible. Clams and eels the same way. 

Clam Fritters. —Twelve clams chopped or not, one 
pint milk, three eggs, add liquor from clams; salt and 
pepper, and flour enough for thin batter. Fry in hot lard. 

Clam Stew.— Lay the clams on a gridiron over hot 
coals, taking them out of the shell as soon as open, saving 
the juice; add a little hot water, pepper, a very little salt 
and butter rolled in flour sufficient for seasoning; cook for 
five minutes and pour over toast. 

Eels, to Stew. —Of the above fish, that of the “silver” 
kind is preferable to its congener, and, therefore, ought to 
be procured for all cuisine purposes. Take from three to 
four pounds of these eels, and let the same be thoroughly 
cleansed, inside and out, rescinding the heads and tails 
from the bodies. Cut them into pieces three inches in 
length each, and lay them down in a stew pan, covering 
them with a sufficiency of sweet mutton gravy to keep 
them seething over a slow fire, when introduced into the 
pan, for twenty minutes. Add to the liquor, before you 
place your eels into it, a quarter of an ounce of whole 
black pepper, quarter of an ounce of allspice, with one or 
two pieces of white ginger. Thicken with a light admix¬ 
ture of flour and butter, stirring it carfully round, adding 
thereto, at the same time, one gill of good portwine, and 
half a gill of sweet ketchup. Lemon-peel and salt may be 
added in accordance with your taste. 

How to Keep Fish Sound. —To prevent meat, fish, 
etc., going bad, put a few pieces of charcoal into the 
sauce-pan wherein the fish or flesh is to be boiled. 

How to Render Boiled Fish Firm.— Add a little 
saltpetre to the salt in the water in which the fish is to be 
boiled; a quarter of an ounce to one gallon. 

Fish Balls. —Bone, cooked fresh, or salt fish, add 
double the quantity of mashed potatoes, one beaten egg, 
a little butter, pepper and salt to taste. Make in cakes or 
balls; dredge with flour and fry in hot lard. 

Potted Fish. —Take out the back-bone of the fish; for 
one weighing two pounds take a tablespoon of allspice and 
cloves mixed; these spices should be put into bags of not 
too thick muslin; put sufficient salt directly upon each 
fish; then roll in cloth, over which sprinkle a little cay¬ 
enne pepper; put alternate layers of fish, spice and sago 
in an earthen jar; cover with the best cider vinegar; cover 
the jar closely with a plate and over this put a covering of 
dough, rolled out to twice the thickness of pie crust. 
Make the edges of paste, to adhere closely to the sides of 
the jar, so as to make it air-tight. Put the jar into a pot of 
cold water and let it boil from three to five hours, accord¬ 
ing to quantity. Ready when cold. 

How to Broil or Roast Fresh Herring’s. —Scale, 
gut and wash; cut off the heads; steep them in salt and 
vinegar ten minutes; dust them with flour, and broil them 
over or before the fire, or in the oven. Serve with melted 
butter and parsley. 

Herrings are nice jarred, and done in the oven, with 
pepper, cloves, salt, a little vinegar, a few bay-leaves, and 
a little butter. 

How to Fry Fresh Herring’s.— Slice small onions, 
and lay in the pan with the herrings; add a little butter, 
and fry them. Perhaps it is better to fry the onions sep¬ 
arately with a little parsley, and butter or drip. 

How to Pot Herring'S.— Clean, cut off the heads, and 
lay them close in an earthen pot. Strew a little salt be¬ 
tween every layer; put in cloves, mace, whole pepper. 


cayenne and nutmeg; fill up the jar with vinegar, water, 
and a quarter of a pint of sherry, cover, tie down; bake in 
an oven, and when cold pot it for use. A few anchovies 
and bay leaves intermixed will improve the flavor much. 

Buttered Lobsters. —Pick the meat out, cut it, and 
warm with a little brown gravy, nutmeg, salt, pepper and 
butter, with a little flour. If done white, a little white 
gravy and cream. 

Curry of Lobster. —Take them from the shells, and 
lay into a pan, with a small piece of mace, three or four 
spoonfuls of veal gravy, and four of cream; rub smooth 
one or two teaspoonfuls of curry-powder, a teaspoonful of 
flour, and an ounce of butter, simmer an hour; squeeze 
half a lemon in, and add salt. 

Lobster Chowder. —Four or five pounds of lobster, 
chopped fine; take the green part and add to it four 
pounded crackers; stir this into one quart of boiling milk; 
then add the lobster, a piece of butter one-half the size of 
an egg, a little pepper and salt, and bring it to a boil. 

How to Boil Mackerel.— Rub them with vinegar; 
when the water boils, put them in with a little salt, and 
boil gently 15 minutes. Serve with fennel and parsley 
chopped, boil, and put into melted butter, and gooseberry 
sauce. 

Salt Mackerel. —Soak the fish for a few hours in luke¬ 
warm water, changing the water several times; then put 
into cold water loosely tied in cloths, and let the fish come 
to a boil, turning off the water once, and pouring over the 
fish hot water from the tea-kettle; let this just come to a 
boil, then take them out and drain them, lay them on a 
platter, butter and pepper them, and place them for a few 
moments in the oven. Serve with sliced lemons, or with 
any fish sauce. 

How to Fry Oysters. —Use the largest and best 
oysters; lay them in rows upon a clean cloth and press 
another upon them, to absorb the moisture; have ready 
several beaten eggs; and in another dish some finely 
crushed crackers: in the frying pan heat enough butter to 
entirely cover the oysters; dip the oysters first into the 
eggs, then into the crackers, rolling it or them over, that 
they may become well incrusted; drop into the frying pan 
and fry quickly to a light brown. Serve dry and let the 
dish be warm. A chafing dish is best. 

Oyster Patties. —Make some rich puff paste and bake 
it in very small tin patty pans; when cool, turn them out 
upon a large dish; stew some large fresh oysters with a 
few cloves, and a little mace and nutmeg; then add the 
yolk of one egg, boiled hard and grated; add a little butter, 
and as much of the oyster liquor as will cover them. When 
they have stewed a little while, take them off the pan and 
set them to cool. When quite cold, lay two or three oysters 
in each shell of puff paste. 

Oysters, stewed. —In all cases, unless shell oysters, 
wash and drain; mix half a cup of butter and a tablespoon 
of corn starch; put with the oysters in a porcelain kettle; 
stir until they boil; add two cups of cream or milk; salt 
to taste; do not use the liquor of the oysters in either stew¬ 
ing or escaloping. 

Oysters Stewed. —Scald the oysters in their own liquor, 
then take them out, beard them, and strain the liquor care¬ 
fully from the grit. Put into a stewpan an ounce of butter, 
with sufficient flour dredged in to dry it up; add the 
oyster liquor, and abladeof pounded mace, a little cayenne, 
and a very little salt to taste; stir it well over a brisk fire 
with a wooden spoon, and when it comes to the boil, throw 
in your oysters, say a dozen and a half or a score, and a 
good tablespoonful of cream, or more, if you have it at 
hand. Shake the pan over the fire, and let it simmer for 









































COOKERY RECIPES. 


375 



one or two minutes, but not any longer, and do not let it 
boil, or the fish will harden. Serve in a hot dish, garnished 
with sippets of toasted bread. Some persons think that 
the flavor is improved by boiling a small piece of lemon- 
peel with the oyster liquor, taking it out, however, 
before the cream is added. 

Oysters Scolloped. —Beard and trim your oysters, 
and strain the liquor. Melt in a stewpan, with a dredging 
of flour sufficient to dry it up, an ounce of butter, and 
two tablespoonfuls of white stock, and the same of cream; 
the strained liquor and pepper, and salt to taste. Put in 
the oysters and gradually heat them through, but be sure 
not to let them boil. Have your scallop-shells buttered, 
lay in the oysters, and as much liquid as they will hold; 
cover them well over with bread-crumbs, over which spread, 
or drop, some tiny bits of butter. Brown them in the 
oven, or before the fire, and serve while very hot. 

Oysters, To Pickle. —Take two hundred of the plump¬ 
est, nicest oysters to be had, open them, saving the liquor, 
remove the beards, put them, with the liquor, into a stewpan, 
and let them simmer for twenty minutes over a very gentle 
fire, taking care to skim them well. Take the stewpan off 
the fire, take out the oysters, and strain the liquor through 
a fine cloth, returning the oysters to the stewpan. Add 
to a pint of the hot liquor half an ounce of mace, and half 
an ounce of cloves; give it a boil, and put it in with the 
oysters, stirring the spice well in amongst them. Then 
put in about a spoonful of salt, three-quarters of a pint of 
white-wine vinegar, and one ounce of whole pepper, and 
let the oysters stand until they are quite cold. They will 
be ready for use in about twelve or twenty-four hours; if 
to be kept longer they should be put in wide-mouthed 
botttles, or stone jars, and well drawn down with bladder. 
It is very important that they should be quite cold before 
they are put into the bottles, or jars. 

Salmon, To Boil. —Clean it carefully, boil it gently 
with salt and a little horse radish; take it out of the water 
as soon as done. Let the water be warm if the fish be split. 
If underdone it is very unwholesome. Serve with shrimp, 
lobster, or anchovy sauce, and fennel and butter. 

Salmon, To Marinate. —Cut the salmon in slices; take 
off the skin and take out the middle bone; cut each slice 
asunder; put into a saucepan and season with salt, pepper, 
6 cloves, a sliced onion, some whole chives, a little sweet 
basil, parsley, and a bay leaf; then squeeze in the juice of 
three lemons, or use vinegar. Let the salmon lie in the 
marinate for two hours; take it out; dry with a cloth; dredge 
with flour, and fry brown in clarified butter; then lay a 
clean napkin in a dish; lay the slices upon it; garnish with 
fried parsley. 

Salt Cod, To Dress. —Soak the cod all night in 2 parts 
water, and one part vinegar. Boil; and break into flakes 
on the dish; pour over it boiled parsnips, beaten in a mortar, 
and then boil up with cream, and a large piece of butter 
rolled in a bit of flour. It may be served with egg-sauce in¬ 
stead of parsnip, or boiled and served without flaking with 
the usual sauce. 

All Salt Fish may be done in a similar way. Pour egg- 
sauce over it, or parsnips, boiled and beaten fine with butter 
and cream. 

Howto Boil Sturgeon— Water,2 quarts; vinegar, 1 pint; 
a stick of horseradish; a little lemon-peel, salt, pepper, a 
bay leaf. In this boil the fish; when the fish is ready to 
leave the bones, take it up; melt lb. of butter; add an 
anchovy, some mace, a few shrimps, good mushroom ketch¬ 
up, and lemon juice; when it boils, put in the dish; serve 
with the sauce; garnish with fried oysters, horseradish 
and lemon. 



How to Broil Sturgeon. —Cut slices, rub beaten eggs 
over them, and sprinkle them with crumbs of bread, 
parsley, pepper and salt; wrap them in white paper, and 
broil gently. Use for sauce, butter, anchovy and soy. 

How to Dress Fresh Sturgeon. —Cut slices, rub egg 

over them, then sprinkle with crumbs of bread, parsley, 
pepper, salt; fold them in paper, and broil gently. Sauce; 
butter, anchovy and soy. 

How to Roast Sturgeon. —Put a piece of butter, 
rolled in flour, into a stewpan with four cloves, a bunch of 
sweet herbs, two onions, some pepper and salt, half a pint 
of water and a glass of vinegar. Set it over the fire till 
hot; then let it become lukewarm, and steep the fish in it 
an hour or two. Butter a paper well, tie it round, and 
roast it without letting the spit run through. Serve with 
sorrel and anchovy sauce. 

Trout, a-la-Genevoise —Clean the fish w T ell; put it 
into the stewpan, adding half champagne and half sherry 
wine. Season it with pepper, salt, an onion, a few cloves 
stuck in it, and a small bunch of parsley and thyme; put 
in it a crust of French bread; set it on a quick fire. When 
done take the bread out, bruise it and thicken the sauce: 
add flour and a little butter, and boil it up. Lay the fish 
on the dish, and pour the sauce over it. Serve it with 
sliced lemon and fried bread. 

How to Broil Trout —Wash, dry, tie it, to cause it to 
keep its shape; melt butter, add salt, and cover the trout 
with it. Broil it gradually in a Dutch oven, or in a com¬ 
mon oven. Cut an anchovy small, and chop some capers. 
Melt some butter with a little flour, pepper, salt, nutmeg, 
and half a spoonful of vinegar. Pour it over the trout and 
serve it hot. 


HOW TO CHOOSE . 

. . AND COOK GAME 

How to Choose Ducks —A young duck should have 
supple feet, breast and belly hard and thick. A tame duck 
has dusky yellow feet. They should be picked dry, and 
ducklings scalded. 

Howto Roast Ducks. —Carefully pick, and clean the 
inside. Boil two or three onions in two waters; chop them 
very small. Mix the onions with about half the quantity 
of sage leaves, bread crumbs finely powdered, a spoonful 
of salt, and a little cayenne paper; beat up the yolk of an 
egg, and rub the stuffing well together. With a brisk fire 
roast about 35 minutes. Serve with gravy sauce. 

How to Stew Ducks. —Lard two young ducks down 
each side the breast; dust with flour; brown before the 
fire; put into a stewpan with a quart of water, a pint of port 
wine, a spoonful of walnut ketchup, the same of browning, 
one anchovy, a clove of garlick, sweet herbs and cayenne 
pepper. Stew till they are tender, about half an hour; 
skim and strain, and pour over the duck. 

Howto Hash Partridge. —Cutup the partridges as 
for eating; slice an onion into rings; roll a little butter in 
flour; put them into the tossing pan, and shake it over 
the fire till it boils; put in the partridge with a little port 
wine and vinegar; and when it is thoroughly hot, lay it on 
the dish with sippets round it; strain the sauce over the 
partridge, and lay on the onion in rings. 

How to Pot Partridge. —Clean them nicely; and sea¬ 
son with mace, allspice, white pepper and salt, in fine 
powder. Rub every part well; then lay the breast down¬ 
ward in a pan, and pack the birds as closely as you possi¬ 
bly can. Put a good deal of butter on them; then cover 










































376 


COOKERY RECIPES. 


he pan with a coarse flour paste and a paper over, tie it 
close, and bake. When cold, put the birds into pots, and 
cover with butter. 

How to Roast Partridge. —Roast them like a turkey, 
and when a little under roasted, dredge them with flour, 
and baste them with butter; let them go to table with a 
fine froth; put gravy sauce in the dish, and bread sauce 
on the table. 

How to Stew Partridge.—Truss as for roasting; stuff 
the craws, and lard them down each side of the breast; 
roll a lump of butter in pepper, salt and beaten mace, 
and put them inside; sew up the vents; dredge them well 
and fry a light brown; put them into a stewpan with a 
quart of good gravy, a spoonful of sherry wine, the same 
of mushroom ketchup, a teaspoonful of lemon pickle, and 
a little mushroom powder, one anchovy, half a lemon, a 
sprig of sweet marjoram; cover the pan close, and stew 
half an hour; take out, and thicken the gravy; boil a lit¬ 
tle, and pour it over the partridge, and lay round them 
artichoke buttons, boiled, and cut in quarters, and the 
yolks of four hard eggs, if agreeable. 

How to Roast Pheasant. —Roast them as turkey; and 
serve with a fine gravy (into which put a very small bit of 
garlic) and bread sauce. When cold, they may be made 
into excellent patties, but their flavor should not be over¬ 
powered by lemon. 

How to Roast Plovers. —Roast the green ones in the 
same way as woodcocks and quails, without drawing, and 
serve on a toast. Grey plovers may be either roasted or 
stewed with gravy, herbs and spice. 

How to Fricassee Quails. —Having tossed them up 
in a sauce-pan with a little melted butter and mushrooms, 
put in a slice of ham, well beaten, with salt, pepper, 
cloves and savory herbs; add good gravy, and a glass of 
sherry; simmer over a slow fire; when almost done, thicken 
the ragout with a good cullis, (i. e. a good broth, strained, 
gelatined, etc.) or with two or three eggs, well beaten up 
in a little gravy. 

How to Roast Quails. —Roast them without drawing 
and serve on toast. Butter only should be eaten with 
them, as gravy takes off the fine flavor. The thigh and 
the back are the most esteemed. 

How to Roast Rabbits. —Baste them with butter, and 
dredge them with flour; half an hour will do them at a 
brisk fire; and if small, twenty minutes. Take the livers 
with a bunch of parsley, boil them, and chop them very 
fine together; melt some butter, and put half the liver and 
parsley into the butter; pour it into the dish, and garnish 
the dish with the other half; roast them to a fine light 
brown. 

How to Make Rabbit Taste Like a Hare.— Choose 
one that is young, but full grown; hang it in the skin 
three or four days; then skin it, and lay it, without wash- 
ing, in a seasoning of black pepper and allspice in a very 
fine powder, a glass of port wine, and the same quantity 
of vinegar. . Baste it occasionally for 40 hours, then stuff 
it and roast it as a hare, and with the same sauce. Do 
not wash off the liquor that it was soaked in. 

How to Roast Snipes— Do not draw them. Split 
them; flour them, and baste with butter. Toast a slice of 
bread brown; place it in the dish under the birds for the 
trail to drop on. When they are done enough, take up, 
and lay them on the toast; put good gravy in the dish. 
Serve with butter, and garnish with orange or lemon. 

Snipe Pie— Bone 4 snipes, and truss them. Put in 
their insides finely chopped bacon, or other forcemeat; put 
them in the disli with the breast downwards, and put 
forcemeat balls around them. Add gravy made of butter, 


and chopped veal and ham, parsley, pepper and shalots. 
Cover with nice puff paste; close it well to keep in the 
gravy. When nearly done, pour in more gravy, and a lit¬ 
tle sherry wine. Bake two or three hours. 

How to Fry Venison —Cut the meat into slices, and 
make a gravy of the bones; fry it of a light brown, and 
keep it hot before the fire; put butter rolled in flour into 
the pan, and stir it till thick and brown; add \ lb. of loaf 
sugar powdered, with the gravy made from the bones, and 
some port wine. Let it be as thick as cream; squeeze in a 
lemon; warm the venison in it; put it in the dish, and 
pour the sauce over it. 


HOW TO MAKE ICE CREAMS 
WATER-ICE AND JELLIES 

To Mold Ices —Fill your mold as quicly as possible 
with the frozen cream, wrap it up in paper, and bury it in 
ice and salt, and let it remain for an hour or more to 
harden. For dishing, have the dish ready, dip the mold 
in hot water for an instant, wipe it, take off the top and 
bottom covers, and turn it into the dish. This must be 
done expeditiously. In molding ices, it is advisable not 
to have the cream too stifly frozen before putting it into 
the mold. 

lee Cream —Take two quarts milk, one pint cream, 
three eggs beaten very light, and two teaspoons of arrow- 
root; boil in one-half pint milk, strain eggs, arrow-root, and 
flavor to suit, then freeze. 

Ginger Ice Cream —Bruise six ounces of the best pre¬ 
served ginger in a mortar; add the juice of one lemon, 
half a pound of sugar, one pint of cream. Mix well; 
strain through a hair sieve; freeze. One quart. 

Italian lee Cream —Rasp two lemons on some sugar, 
which, with their juice, add to one pint of cream, one 
glass of brandy, half a jiound of sugar; freeze. One 
quart. 

Lemon Ice Cream —Take one pint of cream, rasp two 
lemons on sugar; squeeze them, and add the juice with 
half a pound of sugar. Mix; freeze. One quart. 

Pine-Apple Ice Cream —Take one pound of pine¬ 
apple, when peeled, bruise it in a marble mortar, pass it 
through a hair sieve, add three-quarters of a pound of 
powdered sugar, and one pint of cream. Freeze. 

Raspberry and Currant Ice Cream— Take one 
pound of raspberries, half a pound of red currants, three- 
quarters of a pound of sugar, and one pint of cream. 
Strain, color and freeze. One quart. 

Strawberry Ice Cream— Take two pounds of fresh 
strawberries, carefully picked, and, with a wooden spoon, 
rub them through a hair seive, and about half a pound of 
powdered sugar, and the juice of one lemon; color with a 
few drops of prepared cochineal; cream, one pint; then 
freeze. This will make a reputed quart. When fresh 
strawberries are not in season take strawberry jam, the 
juice of two lemons, cream, to one quart. Color, strain, 
and freeze. Milk may be substituted for cream, and 
makes good ices. If too much sugar is used, the ices will 
prove watery, or, perhaps not freeze at all. 

Vanilla Ice Cream —Pound one stick of vanilla, or 
sufficient to flavor it to palate, in a mortar, with half a 
pound of sugar; strain through a sieve upon the yolks of 
two eggs, put it into a stewpan, with half a pint of milk; 
simmer over a slow fire, stirring all the time, the same as 
custard; when cool add one pint of cream and the juice of 
one lemon; freeze. One quart. 



















































COOKERY RECIPES. 







Cherry Water-Ice —One lb. cherries, bruised in a 
mqrtar with the stones; add the juice of two lemons, half 
a pint of water, one pint of clarified sugar, one glass of 
noyeau, and a little color; strain; freeze. One quart. 

Lemon Water-Ice. —Take two lemons, and rasp them 
on sugar, the juice of six lemons, the juice of one orange, 
one pint of clarified sugar, and half a pint of water. Mix; 
strain through a hair sieve; freeze. One quart. 

Melon Water-Ice. —Half a lb. of ripe melon pounded 
in a mortar, two ounces of orange-flower water, the juice 
of two lemons, half a pint of water, and one pint of clari¬ 
fied sugar; strain; freeze. One quart. 

Strawberry or Raspberry Water-Ice. —One pound 
of scarlet strawberries or raspberries, half a pound currants, 
half a pint of water, one pint of clarified sugar, and a little 
color; strain and freeze. One quart. 

Apple Jelly. —Cut the apples and boil in water to 
cover, boil down, then strain, and take a pound of sugar to 
a pint of juice, then boil fifteen minutes hard. 

Apple Jelly. —Cut off all spots and decayed places on 
the apples; quarter them, but do not pare or core them; 
put in the peel of as many lemons as you like, about two 
to six or eight dozen of the apples; fill the preserving-pan, 
and cover the fruit with spring water; boil them till they 
are in pulp, then pour them into a jelly-bag; let them strain 
all night, do not squeeze them. To every pint of juice put 
one pound of white sugar; put in the juice of the lemons 
you had before pared, but strain it through muslin. You 
may also put in about a teaspoonful of essense of lemon; 
let it boil for at least twenty minutes; it will look redder 
than at first; skim it well at the time. Put it either in 
shapes or pots, and cover it the next day. It ought to be 
quite stiff and very clear. 

Apple Jelly. —Prepare twenty golden pippins; boil 
them in a pint and a half of water from the spring till quite 
tender; then strain the liquor through a colander. To every 
pint put a pound of fine sugar: add cinnamon, grated or¬ 
ange or lemon; then boil to a jelly. 

Another. —Prepare apples as before, by boiling and 
straining; have ready half an ounce of isinglass boiled in 
half a pint of water to a jelly; put this to the apple-water 
and apple, as strained through a coarse sieve; add sugar, 
a little lemon-juice and peel; boil all together, and put into 
a dish. Take out the peel. 

Calf’s Foot Lemon Jelly —Boil four quarts of water 
with three calf’s feet, or two cow heels, till half wasted; 
take the jelly from the fat and sediment, mix with it the 
juice of a Seville orange and twelve lemons, the peels of 
three ditto, the whites and shells of twelve eggs, sugar to 
taste, a pint of raisin wine, 1 oz. of coriander seeds, £ oz. 
of allspice, a bit of cinnamon, and six cloves, all bruised, 
after having mixed them cold. The jelly should boil fifteen 
minutes without stirring; then clear it through a flannel 
bag. 

Cherry Jelly. —Cherries, 5 lbs.; stone them; red cur¬ 
rants, 2 lbs.; strain them, that the liquor may be clear; 
add 2 lbs. of sifted loaf sugar, and 2 ozs. of isinglass. 

Chocolate Caramel —One pint milk, half pound but¬ 
ter, half pound Cadburry’s chocolate, three pounds sugar, 
two spoons vanilla. Boil slowly until brittle. 

Currant Jelly, Red or Black— Strip the fruit, and in 
a stone jar stew them in a saucepan of water or on the fire; 
strain off the liquor, and to every pint weigh 1 lb. of loaf 
sugar; put the latter in large lumps into it, in a stone or 
China vessel, till nearly dissolved; then put it into a pre¬ 
serving-pan; simmer and skim. When it will jelly on a 
plate put it in small jars or glasses. 

Green Gooseberry Jeily —Place the berries in hot 
water on a slow fire till they rise to the surface; take off; 




cool with a little water, add also a little vinegar and salt to 
green them. In two hours drain, and put them in cold 
water a minute; drain, and mix with an equal weight of 
sugar; boil slowly 20 minutes; sieve, and put into glasses. 

Iceland Moss Jelly —Moss, | to 1 oz.; water, 1 quart. 
Simmer down to pint. Add fine sugar and a little lemon 
juice. It may be improved with % ounce of isinglass. The 
moss should first be steeped in cold water an hour or two. 

Isinglass Jelly —Boil one ounce of isinglass in a quart 
of water, with p ounce of Jamaica pepper-corns or cloves, 
and a crust of bread, till reduced to a pint. Add sugar. 
It keeps well, and may be taken in wine and water, milk, 
tea, soup, etc. 

Lemon jelly Cake —Take four eggs, one cup sugar, 
butter the size of an egg, one and a half cups flour, half cup 
sweet milk, two teaspoons of baking powder. Jelly.—One 
grated lemon, one grated apple, one egg, one cup sugar, 
beat all together, put in a tin and stir till boils. 

Lemon Jelly — Take one and a half packages of gelatine, 
one pint cold water, soak two hours, then add two teacups 
sugar, one pint boiling water; stir all together, add the 
juice of two lemons or one wineglass wine, strain through 
a cloth, and put in a mold. 

Orange Jelly —It may be made the same as lemon 
jelly, which see. Grate the rind of two Seville and of two 
China oranges, and two lemons; squeeze the juice of three 
of each, and strain, and add to the juice a quarter of a 
pound of lump sugar, a quarter of a pint of water, and 
boil till it almost candies. Have ready a quart of isinglass 
jelly made with two ounces; put to it the syrup, boil it 
once up; strain off the jelly, and let it stand to settle as 
above, before it is put into the mold. 

Quince Jelly —Cut in pieces a sufficient quantity of 
quinces; drawoff the juice by boiling them in water, in 
which they ought only to swim, no more. When fully 
done drain, and have ready clarified sugar, of which put 
one spoonful to two of the juice; bring the sugar to the 
souffle; add the juice, and finish. When it drops from the 
skimmer it is enough; take it off, and pot it. 

Jelly of Siberian Crabs —Takeoff the stalks, weigh 
and wash the crabs. To each one and a half pounds, add 
one pint of water. Boil them gently until broken, but do 
not allow them to fall to a pulp. Pour the whole through 
a jelly-bag, and when the juice is quite transparent weigh 
it; put it into a clean preserving-pan, boil it quickly for 
ten minutes, then add ten ounces of fine sugar to each 
pound of juice; boil it from twelve to fifteen minutes, skim 
it very clean, and pour into molds. 

Siberian Crab-Apple Jelly —Mash the crab apples, 
take off stems and heads, put in pot, cover with water, let 
them boil to a pulp, then turn them in a flannel bag, and 
leave all night to strain, then add one pound of sugar to a 
pint of juice, boil ten to fifteen minutes, skim and put in 
jelly glasses. 

Siberian Crab Jelly —Fill a large flannel bag with 
crabs. Put the bag in a preserving-pan of spring water, 
and boil for about seven hours; then takeout the bag, and 
fill it so that all the syrup can run through, and the water 
that remains in the pan; and to each pint of syrup add one 
pound of loaf sugar, and boil for about an hour, and it will 
be a clear, bright red jelly. 


Telegraph wires have to be renewed every five or seven 
years. The Western Union Telegraph Company exchange 
about one thousand tons of old wire for new every year. 
The new wire costs from seven to eight cents per pound, 
and for the old about one-eighth of a cent a pound is 
allowed. 





* £5 























































378 


COOKEKY KECIPES. 


HOW TO SELECT . . 

. . AND COOK MEATS 

How to Dress Bacon and Beans —When you dress 
beans and bacon, boil the bacon by itself, and the beans by 
themselves, for the bacon will spoil the color of the beans. 
Always throw some salt into the water and some parsley 
nicely picked. When the beans are done enough, which 
you will know bv their being tender, throw them into a 
colander to drain. Take up the bacon and skin rt; throw 
some raspings of the bread over the top, and if you have a 
salamander, make it red hot, and hold it over it to brown 
the top of the bacon; if you have not one, set it before the 
fire to brown. Lay the beans in the dish, and the bacon 
in the middle on the top, and send them to table, with but¬ 
ter in a tureen. 

Corned Beef —Make the following pickle: Water, 2 
gallons; salt, 2$ lbs.; molasses, £ lb.; sugar, 1 lb.; saltpe¬ 
tre, ozs.; pearlash, £ oz. Boil all together; skim, and 
pour the pickle on about 25 lbs. of beef. Let it stay in a 
few days. Boil in plenty of water when cooked to remove 
the salt, and eat with it plenty of vegetables. It is nice to 
eat cold, and makes excellent sandwiches. 

Rolled Beef —Hang three ribs three or four days ; take 
out the bones from the whole length, sprinkle it with salt, 
roll the meat tight and roast it. Nothing can look nicer. 
The above done with spices, etc., and baked as hunters’ 
beef is excellent. 

Beef, Rolled to equal Hare— Take the inside of a 
large sirloin, soak it in a glass of port wine and a glass of 
vinegar mixed, for forty-eight hours; have ready a very 
fine stuffing, and bind it up tight. Roast it on a hanging 
spit; and baste it with a glass of port wine, the same 
quantity of vinegar, and a teaspoonful of pounded all¬ 
spice. Larding it improves the look and flavor; serve 
with a rich gravy in the dish; currant-jelly and melted 
butter in tureens. 

Round of Beef —Should be carefully salted and wet 
with the pickle for eight or ten days. The bone should 
be cut out first, and the beef skewered and tied up to 
make it quite round. It may be stuffed with parsley, if 
approved, in which case the holes to admit the parsley 
must be made with a sharp pointed knife, and the parsley 
coarsely cut and stuffed in tight. As soon as it boils, it 
should be skimmed; and afterwards kept boiling very 
gently. 

Beef Steak, Stewed — Peel and chop two Spanish 
onions, cut into small parts four pickled walnuts, and put 
them at the bottom of a stewpan; add a teacupful of 
mushroom ketchup, two teaspoonfuls of walnut ditto, one 
of shalot, one of Chile vinegar, and a lump of butter. 
Let the rump-steak be cut about three-quarters of an inch 
thick, and beat it flat with a rolling-pin, place the meat 
on the top of the onions, etc., let it stew for one hour and 
a half, turning it every twenty minutes. Ten minutes 
before serving up, throw a dozen oysters with the liquor 
strained. 

Beef Steak and Oyster Sauce— Select a good 
tender rump-steak, about an inch thick, and broil it care¬ 
fully. Nothing but experience and attention will serve in 
broiling a steaks; one thing, however, is always to be re¬ 
membered, never malt or season broiled meat until cooked 
Have the gridiron clean and hot, grease it with either but¬ 
ter, or good lard, before laying on the meat, to prevent 
its sticking or marking the meat; have clear, bright coals 
and turn it frequently. When cooked, cover tightly, and 


have ready nicely stew T ed oysters; then lay the steak in a 
hot dish and pour over some of the oysters. Serve the 
rest in a tureen. Twenty-five oysters will make a nice 
sauce for a steak. 

Fricassee of Cold Roast Beef— Cut the beef into very 
thin slices ; shred a handful of parsley very small, cut an 
onion into quarters, and put all together into a stewpan, 
with a piece of butter, and some strong broth ; season with 
salt and pepper, and simmer very gently a quarter of an 
hour; then mix into it the yolks of two eggs, a glass of 
port wine, and a spoonful of vinegar; stir it quickly, rub 
the dish with shalot, and turn the fricassee into it. 

Brawn —Clean a pig’s head, and rub it over with salt 
and a little saltpetre, and let it lie two or three days ; then 
boil it until the bones will leave the meat; season with 
salt and pepper, and lay the meat hot in a mold, and 
press and weigh it down for a few hours. Boil another 
hour, covering. Be sure and cut the tongue, and lay the 
slices in the middle, as it much improves the flavor. 

Calf’s Liver and Bacon —Cut the liver into slices, and 
fry it first, then the bacon; lay the liver in the dish, and 
the bacon upon it; serve it up with gravy, made in the 
pan with boiling water, thickened with flour and butter, 
and lemon juice; and, if agreeable, a little parsley and 
onion may be chopped into it, or a little boiled parsley 
strewed over the liver. Garnish with slices of lemon. 

Nice Form of Cold Meats —Remains of boiled ham, 
mutton, roast beef, etc., are good chopped fine with hard 
boiled eggs, two heads of lettuce, a bit of onion, and sea¬ 
soned with mustard, oil, vinegar, and, if needed, more 
salt. Fix it smoothly in a salad dish, and adorn the edges 
with sprigs of parsley or leaves of curled lettuce. Keep 
by the ice or in a cool place until wanted. 

Fried Ham and Egg’S —Cut thin slices, place in the 
pan, and fry carefully. Do not burn. When done break 
the eggs into the fat; pepper slightly; keep them whole; do 
not turn them. 

Ham Rashers may be served with spinach and poached 
eggs. 

To Cook Ham —Scrape it clean. Do not put into cold 
nor boiling water. Let the water become warm; then put 
the ham in. Simmer or boil lightly for five or six hours; 
take out, and shave the rind off. Rub granulated sugar 
into the whole surface of the ham, so long as it can be 
made to receive it. Place the ham in a baking-dish with 
a bottle of champagne or prime cider. Baste occasionally 
with the juice, and let it bake an hour in a gentle heat. 

A slice from a nicely cured ham thus cooked is enough 
to animate the ribs of death. 

Or, having taken off the rind, strew bread crumbs or 
raspings over it, so as to cover it; set it before the fire, or 
in the oven till the bread is crisp and brown. Garnish 
with carrots, parsley, etc. The water should simmer all 
the time, and never boil fast. 

Ham and Chicken, in Jelly —This is a nice dish for 
supper or luncheon. Make with a small knuckle of veal 
some good white stock. When cold, skim and strain it. 
Melt it, and put a quart of it into a saucepan with the 
well beaten whites of three eggs; a dessert-spoonful of 
Chili, or a tablespoonful of tarragon vinegar, and a little 
salt. Beat the mixture well with a fork till it boils; let it 
simmer till it is reduced to a little more than a pint; strain 
it; put half of it into a mold; let it nearly set. Cut the 
meat of a roast chicken into small thin pieces; arrange it 
in the jelly with some neat little slices of cold boiled ham, 
and sprinkle chopped parsley between the slices. When it 
has got quite cold, pour in the remainder of the jelly, and 
stand the mold in cold water, or in a cool place, so that it 














































COOKERY RECIPES. 


379 




sets speedily. Dip the mold in boiling water to turn it 
out. Do not let it remain in the water more than a min¬ 
ute, or it will spoil the appearance of the dish. Garnish 
with a wreath of parsley. 

Leg 1 of Lamb —Should be boiled in a cloth to look as 
white as possible. The loin fried in steaks and served 
round, garnished with dried or fried parsley; spinach to 
eat with it; or dressed separately or roasted. 

Loin of Mutton —Take off the skin, separate the 
joints with the chopper; if a large size, cut the chine-bone 
with a saw, so as to allow it to be carved in smaller pieces; 
run a small spit from one extremity to the other, and affix 
it to a larger spit, and roast it like the haunch. A loin 
weighing six pounds will take one hour to roast. 

Observations on Meat— In all kinds of provisions, 
the best of the kind goes the farthest; it cuts out with 
most advantage, and affords most nourishment. Round 
of beef, fillet of veal, and leg of mutton, are joints of 
higher price; but as they have more solid meat, they 
deserve the preference. But those joints which are infe¬ 
rior may be dressed as palatably. 

In loins of meat, the long pipe that runs by the bone 
should be taken out, as it is apt to taint; as also the ker¬ 
nels of beef. Do not purchase joints bruised by the blows 
of drovers. 

Save shank bones of mutton to enrich gravies or soups. 
When sirloins of beef, or loins of veal or mutton, come 
in, part of the suet may be cut off for puddings, or to 
clarify. 

Dripping will baste anything as well as butter; except 
fowls and game; and for kitchen pies, nothing else should 
be used. 

The fat of a neck or loin of mutton makes a far lighter 
pudding than suet. 

Frosted meat and vegetables should be soaked in cold 
water two or three hours before using. 

If the weather permit, meat eats much better for hang¬ 
ing two or three days before it is salted. 

Roast-beef bones, or shank bones of ham, make fine 
peas-soup; and should be boiled with the peas the day 
before eaten, that the fat may be taken off. 

Boiled Leg of Mutton —Soak well for an hour or two 
in salt and water; do not use much salt. Wipe well and 
boil in a floured cloth. Boil from two hours to two hours 
and a half. Serve with caper sauce, potatoes, mashed 
turnips, greens, oyster sauce, etc. 

t^^To preserve the gravy in the leg, do not put it in 
the water till it boils; for the sudden contact with water 
causes a slight film over the surface, which prevents the 
escape of the gravy, which is abundant when carved. 

How to Hash Mutton. —Cut thin slices of dressed 
mutton, fat and lean; flour them; have ready a little onion 
boiled in two or three spoonfuls of water; add to it a 
little gravy and the meat seasoned, and make it hot, but 
not to boil. Serve in a covered dish. Instead of onion, 
a clove, a spoonful of current jelly, and half a glass of 
port wine will give an agreeable flavor of venison, if the 
meat be fine. 

Pickled cucumber, or walnut cut small, warm in it for 
change. 

How to Prepare Pig’s Cheek for Boiling. —Cut off 

the snout, and clean the head; divide it, and take out the 
eyes and the brains; sprinkle the head with salt, and let it 
drain 24 hours. Salt it with common salt and saltpetre; 
let it lie nine days if to be dressed without stewing with 
peas, but less if to be dressed with peas, and it must be 
washed first, and then simmer till all is tender. 

Pig’s Feet and Ears. —Clean carefully, and soak some 
hours, and boil them tender; then take them out; boil 


some vinegar and a little salt with some of the water, and 
when cold put it over them. When they are to be dressed, 
dry them, cut the feet in two, and slice the ears; fry, and 
serve with butter, mustard and vinegar. They may be 
either done in batter, or only floured. 

Pork, Loin Of. —Score it, and joint it, that the chops 
may separate easily; and then roast it as a loin of mutton. 
Or, put it into sufficient water to cover it; simmer till 
almost enough; then peel off the skin, and coat it with 
yolk of egg and bread crumbs, and roast for 15 or 20 
minutes, till it is done enough. 

How to Pickle Pork. —Cut the pork in such pieces as 
will lie in the pickling tub; rub each piece with saltpetre; 
then take one part bay salt, and two parts common salt, 
and rub each piece well; lay them close in the tub, and 
throw salt over them. 

Some use a little sal prunnella, and a little sugar. 

Pork Pie, to Eat Cold. — Raise a common boiled 
crust into either a round or oval form, which you choose, 
have ready the trimmings and small bits of pork cut off a 
sweet bone, when the hog is killed, beat it with a rolling-pin, 
season with pepper and salt, and keep the fat and lean sep¬ 
arate, put it in layers quite close to the top, lay on the lid, 
cut the edge smooth, round, and pinch it; bake in a slow- 
soaking oven, as the meat is very solid. Observe, put no 
bone or water in the pork pie; the outside pieces will be 
hard if they are not cut small and pressed close. 

How to Roast a Leg of Pork. —Choose a small leg of 
fine young pork; cut a slit in the knuckle with a sharp 
knife; and fill the space with sage and onion chopped, 
and a little pepper and salt. When half done, score the 
skin in slices, but don’t cut deeper than the outer rind. 

Apple sauce and potatoes should be served to eat with it. 

Pork Rolled Neck of. —Bone it; put a forcemeat of 
chopped sage, a very few crumbs of bread, salt, pepper and 
two or three berries of allspice over the inside; then roll 
the meat as tight as you can, and roast it slowly, and at a 
good distance at first. 

Chine of Pork. —Salt three days before cooking Wash 
it well; score the skin, and roast with sage and onions finely 
shred. Serve with apple sauce.—The chine is often sent 
to the table boiled. 

How to Collar Pork. —Bone a breast or spring of pork; 
season it with plenty of thyme, parsley and sage; roll it 
hard; put in a cloth, tie both ends, and boil it; then press 
it; when cold, take it out of the cloth, and keep it in its 
own liquor. 

Pork as Lamb. —Kill a young pig of four or five months 
old: cut up the forequarter for roasting as you do lamb, 
and truss the shank close. The other parts will make del¬ 
icate pickled pork; or steaks, pies, etc. 

Pork Sausages. —Take 6 lbs. of young pork, free from 
gristle, or fat; cut small and beat fine in a mortar. Chop 
6 lbs. of beef suet very fine; pick off the leaves of a hand- 
full of sage, and shred it fine; spread the meat on a clean 
dresser, and shake the sage over the meat; shred the rind 
of a lemon very fine, and throw it, with sweet herbs, on 
the meat; grate two nutmegs, to which put a spoonful of 
pepper, and a large spoonful of salt; throw the suet over, 
and mix all well together. Put it down close in the pot; 
and when you use it, roll it up with as much egg as will 
make it roll smooth. 

Sausage Rolls. —One pound of flour, half a pound of 
the best lard, quarter of a pound of butter, and the yolks 
of three eggs well beaten. Put the flour into a dish, make 
a whole in the middle of it, and rub in about one ounce of 
the lard, then the yolks of the eggs, and enough water to 
mix the whole into a smooth paste. Roll it out about an 


































380 


COOKERY RECIPES. 


inch thick; flour your paste and board. Put the butter 
and lard in a lump into the paste, sprinkle it with flour, 
and turn the paste over it; beat it with a rolling-pm until 
you have got it flat enough to roll; roll it lightly until veiy 
thin; then divide your meat and put it into two layers of 
paste, and pinch the ends. Sausage rolls are now usually 
made small. Two pounds of sausage meat will be required 
for this quantity of paste, and it will make about two and 
a half dozen of rolls. Whites of the eggs should be beaten 
a little, and brushed over the rolls to glaze them. They 
will require from twenty minutes to half an hour to bake, 
and should be served on a dish covered with a neatly-fold 
napkin. 

Spiced Beef. —Take a round of an ox; or young heifer, 
from 20 to 40 lbs. Cut it neatly, so that the thin flank end 
can wrap nearly round. Take from 2 to 4 ounces salpetre, 
and 1 ounce of coarse sugar, and two handfuls of common 
salt. Mix them well together and rub it all over. The 
next day salt it well as for boiling. Let it lie from two to 
three weeks, turning it every two or three days. Take out 
of the pickle, and wipe it dry. Then take cloves, mace, 
well powdered, a spoonful of gravy, and rub it well into 
the beef. Roll it up as tightly as possible; skewer it, and 
tie it up tight. Pour in the liquor till the meat is quite 
saturated, in which state it must be kept. 

Stewed Beef. —Take five pounds of buttock, place it in 
a deep dish; half a pint of white wine vinegar, three bay 
leaves, two or three cloves, salt and pepper; turn it over 
twice the first day, and every morning after for a week or 
ten days. Boil half a pound or a quarter of a pound of 
butter, and throw in two onions, chopped very small, four 
cloves, and some pepper-corns; stew five hours till tender 
and a nice light brown. 

How to Boil Tongue. —If the the tongue be a dry one, 
steep in water all night. Boil it three hours. If you prefer 
it hot, stick it with cloves. Clear off the scum, and add 
savory herbs when it has boiled two hours; but this is op¬ 
tional. Rub it over with the yolk of an egg; strew over it 
bread crumbs; baste it with butter; set it before the fire 
till it is of a light brown. When you dish it up, pour a 
little brown gravy, or port wine sauce mixed the same way 
as for venison. Lay slices of currant jelly around it. 

How to Fricassee Tripe. —Cut into small square 
pieces. Put them into the stewpan with as much sherry 
as will cover them, with pepper, ginger, a blade of mace, 
sweet herbs and an onion. Stew 15 minutes. Take out 
the herbs and onion, and put in a little shred of parsley, the 
juice of a small lemon, half an anchovy cut small, a gill 
of cream and a little butter, or yolk of an egg. Garnish 
with lemon. 

How to Fry Tripe. —Cut the tripe into small square 
pieces; dip them in yolks of eggs, and fry them in good 
dripping, till nicely brown; take out and drain, and serve 
with plain melted butter. 

Veal Cutlets, Maintenon. —Cut slices about three 
quarters of an inch thick, beat them with a rolling-pin, 
and wet them on both sides with egg; dip them into a sea¬ 
soning of bread-crumbs, parsley, thyme, knotted marjo¬ 
ram, pepper, salt and a little nutmeg grated; then put 
them in papers folded over, and broil them; and serve with 
a boat of melted butter, with a little mushroom ketchup. 

Veal Cutlets. —Another way.—Prepare as above, and 
fry them; lay into a dish, and keep them hot; dredge a 
little flour, and put a bit of butter into thepan; brown it, 
then pour some boiling water into it and boil quickly'; 
season with pepper, salt and ketchup and pour over 
them. 


Another Way.—Prepare as before, and dress the cut¬ 
lets in a dutch oven; pour over them melted butter and 
mushrooms. 

Fillet of Veal. —Veal requires a good, bright fire for 
roasting. Before cooking, stuff with a force-meat, com¬ 
posed of 2 ozs. of finely-powdered bread crumbs, half a 
lemon-peel chopped fine, half a teaspoonful of salt, and 
the same quantity of mixed mace and cayenne pepper, 
powdered parsley, and some sweet herbs; break an egg, 
and mix all well together. Baste your joint with fresh 
butter, and send it to table well browned. A nice bit of 
bacon should be served with the|fillet of veal, unless ham is 
provided. 

Veal Patties. —Mince some veal that is not quite done 
with a little parsley, lemon-peel, a scrape of nutmeg, and 
a bit of salt; add a little cream and gravy just to moisten 
the meat; and add a little ham. Do not warm it till the 
patties are baked. 

Veal Pie. —Take some of the middle, or scrag, of a 
small neck; season it; and either put to it, or not, a few 
slices of lean bacon or ham. If it is wanted of a high 
relish, add mace, cayenne, and nutmeg, to the salt and 
pepper; and also force-meat and eggs; and if you choose, 
add truffles, morels, mushrooms, sweet-bread, cut into 
small bits, and cocksy-combs blanched, if liked. Have a 
rich gravy ready, to pour in after baking.—It will be very 
good without any of the latter additions. 

Common Veal Pie. —Cut a breast of veal into pieces; 
season with pepper and salt, and lay them in the dish. 
Boil hard six or eight yolks of eggs, and put them into 
different places in the pie; pour in as much water as will 
nearly fill the dish; put on the lid, and bake.— Lamb Pie 
may be done this way. 

Stewed Veal. —Cut the veal as for small cutlets; put 
into the bottom of a pie-dish a layer of the veal, and 
sprinkle it with some finely-rubbed sweet basil and chopped 
parsley, the grated rind of one lemon with the juice, half 
a nut-meg, grated, a little salt and pepper; and cut into 
very small peices a large spoonful of butter; then another 
layer of slices of veal, with exactly the same seasoning as 
before; and over this pour one pint of Lisbon wine and 
half a pint of cold water; then cover it over very thickly 
with grated stale bread; put this in the oven and bake 
slowly for three-quarters of an hour, and brown it. Serve 
it in a pie-dish hot. 

Breast of Veal stuffed —Cut off the gristle of a breast 
of veal, and raise the meat off the bones, then lay a good 
force-meat, made of pounded veal, some sausage-meat, 
parsley, and a few shalots chopped very fine, and well 
seasoned with pepper, salt, and nutmeg; then roll the 
veal tightly, and sew it with fine twine to keep it in 
shape, and prevent the force-meat escaping; lay some 
slices of fat bacon in a stew-pan, and put the veal roll on 
it; add some stock, pepper, salt, and a bunch of sweet 
herbs; let it stew three hours, then cut carefully out the 
twine, strain the sauce after skimming it well, thicken it 
with brown flour; let it boil up once, and pour it over the 
veal garnish with slices of lemon, each cut in four. A fillet 
of veal first stuffed with force-meat can be dressed in the 
same manner, but is must first be roasted, so as to brown 
it a good color; and force-meat balls, highly seasoned, 
should be served round the veal. 

. . HOW TO MAKE PIES 

—---OF VARIOUS KINDS 

Beef-Steak Pie —Prepare the steaks as stated under 
Beefsteaks, and when seasoned and rolled with fat in each, 

























































COOKERY RECIPES. 


381 


put them in a dish with puff paste round the edges; put 
a little water in the dish, and cover it with a good crust. 

Chicken Pie —Cut the chicken in pieces, and boil 
nearly tender. Make a rich crust with an egg or two to 
make it light and puffy. Season the chicken and slices of 
ham with pepper, salt, mace, nutmeg, and cayenne. Put 
them in layers, first the ham, chicken, force-meat balls, 
and hard eggs in layers. Make a gravy of knuckle of veal, 
mutton bones, seasoned with herbs, onions, pepper, etc. 
Pour it over the contents of the pie, and cover with paste, 
bake an hour. 

Coeoanut Pie —Take a teacup of coaconut, put it 
into a coffee-cup, fill it up with sweet milk, and let it 
soak a few hours. When ready to bake the pie, take two 
tablespoonfuls of flour, mix with milk, and stir in three- 
fourths of a cup of milk (or water); place on the stove, 
and stir until it thickens. Add butter the size of a wal¬ 
nut, while warm. When cool, add a little salt, two eggs, 
saving out the white of one for the top. Sweeten to taste. 
Add the coeoanut, beating well. Fill the crust and bake. 
When done, have the extra white beaten ready to spread 
over the top. Return to the oven and brown lightly. 

Cream Pie —Take eight eggs, eight ounces pounded 
sugar, eight ounces flour, put all together into a stew-pan 
with two glasses of milk, stir until it boils, then add quar¬ 
ter pound of butter, and quarter pound of almonds, 
chopped fine; mix well together, make paste, roll it out 
half an inch tliich, cut out a piece the size of a teaplate, 
put in a baking tin, spread out on it the cream, and lay 
strips, of paste across each way and a plain broad piece 
around the edge, egg and sugar the top and bake in a 
quick oven. 

Fish Pie —Pike, perch and carp may be made into 
very savory pies if cut into fillets, seasoned and baked in 
paste, sauce made of veal broth, or cream put in before 
baking. 

Game Pie —Divide the birds, if large, into pieces or 
joints. They may be pheasants, partridges, etc. Add a 
little bacon or ham. Season well. Cover with puff paste, 
and bake carefully. Pour into the pie half a cupful of 
melted butter, the juice of a lemon, and a glass of sherry, 
when rather more than half baked. 

Giblet Pie —Clean the giblets well; stew with a little 
water, onion, pepper, salt, sweet herbs, till nearly done. 
Cool, and add beef, veal or mutton steaks. Put the liquor 
of the stew to the giblets. Cover with paste, and when 
the pie is baked, pour into it a large teacupful of cream. 

Lamb Pasty —Bone the lamb, cut it into square pieces; 
season with salt, pepper; cloves, mace, nutmeg, and 
minced thyme; lay in some beef suet, and the lamb upon 
it, making a high border about it; then turn over the 
paste close, and bake it. When it is enough, put in 
some claret, sugar, vinegar, and the yolks of eggs, beaten, 
together. To have the sauce only savory, and not sweet, 
let it be gravy only, or the baking of bones in claret. 

Salmon Pie.—Grate the rind of one small lemon, or 
half <1 large one; beat the yolks of 2 eggs; 4 tablespoons 
of sugar; beat all together; add to this pint of cold 
water, with l\ tablespoons of flour in it; rub smooth so 
there will be no lumps; beat the whites of two eggs to a 
stiff froth; stir this in your pie-custard before you put it in 
the pan. Bake with one crust, and bake slowly. 

Salmon Pie —Grate the rind of a lemon into the yolks 
of three fresh eggs; beat for five minutes, adding three 
heaping tablespoonfuls of granulated sugar; after squeez¬ 
ing in the juice of the lemon add half a teacupful of water; 
mix all thoroughly, and place in a crust the same as made 
for custard pie; place in oven and bake slowly. Take the 


whites of the three eggs, and beat to a stiff froth, adding 
two tablespoonfuls of pulverized sugar, and juice of half a 
lemon; after the pie bakes and is cool, place the frosting on 
top, and put into a hot oven to brown. 

Mince-Meat —There are various opinons as to the result 
of adding meat to the sweet ingredients used in making 
this favorite dish. Many housewives think it an improve¬ 
ment, and use either the under-cut of a well-roasted sur- 
loin of beef or a boiled fresh ox-tongue for the purpose. 
Either of these meats may be chosen with advantage, and 
one pound, after it has been cooked, will be found suffi¬ 
cient; this should be freed from fat, and well mince. In 
making mince-meat, each ingredient should be minced 
separately and finely before it is added to the others. For 
a moderate quantity, take two pounds of raisins (stoned), 
the same quantity of currants, well washed and dried, 
ditto of beef suet, chopped fine, one pound of American 
apples, pared and cored, two pounds of moist sugar, half 
a pound of candied orange-peel, and a quarter of a pound 
of citron, the grated rinds of three lemons, one grated 
nutmeg, a little mace, half an ounce of salt, and one 
teaspoonful of ginger. After having minced the fruit 
separately, mix all well together with the hand; then add 
half a pint of French brandy and the same of sherry. 
Mix well with a spoon, press it down in jars, and cover it 
with a bladder. 

Good Mince Pies. —Six pounds beef; 5 pounds suet; 5 
pounds sugar; 2 ounces allspice; 2 ounces cloves; f pound 
cinnamon; \ pint molasses; pounds seedless raisins; 2 
pounds currants; \ pound citron chopped fine; 1 pound 
almonds, chopped fine; 2 oranges; 1 lemon-skin, and all 
chopped fine; 2 parts chopped apples to one of meat; 
brandy and cider to taste. 

Mock Mince Pies. —One teacup of bread; one of vine¬ 
gar; one of water; one of raisins; one of sugar; one of 
molasses; one half-cup of butter; one teaspoon of cloves; 
one of nutmeg; one of cinnamon. The quantity is suffi¬ 
cient for three pies. They are equally as good as those 
made in the usual way, 

Potato Pasty. —Boil and peel and mash potatoes as 
fine as possible; mix them with salt, pepper, and a good 
bit of butter. Make a paste; roll it out thin like a large 
puff, and put in the potato; fold over one half, pinching 
the edges. Bake in a moderate oven. 

Potato Pie. —Skin some potatoes and cut them in 
slices; season them; and also some mutton, beef, pork or 
veal, and a lump of butter. Put layers of them and of 
the meat. A few eggs boiled and chopped fine improves it. 

Veal and Ham Pie. —Cut about one pound and a half 
of veal into thin slices, as also a quarter of a pound of 
cooked ham; season the veal rather highly with white 
pepper and salt, with which cover the bottom of the dish; 
then lay over a few slices of ham, then the remainder of 
the veal, finishing with the remainder of the ham; add a 
wineglassful of water, and cover with a good paste, and 
bake; a bay-leaf will be an improvement. 

Vinegar Pie. —Five tablespoons vinegar, five sugar, 
two flour, two water, a little nutmeg. Put in dish and 
bake. 


HOW TO MAKE PRESERVES 

OF VARIOUS KINDS 

Apple Jam.—Fill a wide jar nearly half full of water; 
cut the apples unpeeled into quarters, take out the core, 
then fill the jar with the apples; tie a paper over it, and 
put it into a slow oven. When quite soft and cool, pulp 



































382 


COOKERY RECIPES. 



them through a sieve. To each pound of pulp put tlnee- 
quarters of a pound of crushed sugar, and boil it gently 
until it will jelly. Put it into large tart dishes or jars. 
It will keep for five or more years in a cool, dry place. 
If for present use, or a month hence, half a pound ol 

sugar is enough. 

Apple Marmalade. —Scald apples till they will pulp 
from the core; then take an equal weight of sugar in large 
lumps, just dip them in water, and boil it till it can be 
well skimmed, and is a thick syrup, put to it the pulp, 
and simmer it on a quick fire a quarter of an hour, Grate 
a little lemon-peel before boiled, but if too much it will 

be bitter. , , in 

Barberry Jam.— The barberries for this preserve should 

be quite ripe, though they should not be allowed to hang 
until they begin to decay. Strip them from the stalks; 
throw aside such as are spotted, and for one pound of 
fruit allow eighteen onnces well-refined sugar; boil this, 
with about a pint of water to every four pounds, until it 
becomes white, and falls in thick masses from the spoon; 
then throw in the fruit, and keep it stirred over a brisk 
fire for six minutes only; take off the scum, and pour it 
into jars or glasses. Sugar four and a half pounds; 
water a pint and a quarter, boil to candy height; barberries 
four pounds; six minutes. 

How to Preserve Black Currants.— Get the currants 
when they are dry, and pick them; to every li lbs. of 
currants put 1 lb. of sugar into a preserving pan, with as 
much juice of currants as will dissolve it; when it boils 
skim it, and put in the currants, and boil them till they 
are clear; put them into a jar, lay brandy paper over them, 
tie them down, and keep in a dry place. A little rasp¬ 
berry juice is an improvement. 

Cherry Jam. —Pick and stone 4 lbs. of May-duke 
cherries; press them through a sieve; then boil together 
half a pint of red currant or raspberry juice, and f lb. of 
white sugar, put the cherries into them while boiling; add 
1 lb. of fine white sugar. Boil quickly 35 minutes, jar, 
and cover well. 

Cherry Marmalade. —Take some very ripe cherries; 
cut off the stalks and take out the stones; crush them and 
boil them well; put them into a hand sieve, and force them 
through with a spatula, till the whole is pressed through 
and nothing remains but the skins; put it again upon the 
fire to dry; when reduced to half weigh it, and add an 
equal weight of sugar; boil again; and when it threads be¬ 
tween the fingers, it is finished. 

How to Preserve Currants for Tarts. —Let the 

currants be ripe, dry and well picked. To every 1^ lbs. of 
currants put 1 lb. of sugar into a preserving pan with as 
much juice of currants as will dissolve it; when it boils 
skim it, and put in the currans; boil till clear; jar, and put 
brandy-paper over; tie down; keep in a dry place. 

How to Preserve Grapes.— Into an air-tight cask 
put a layer of bran dried in an oven; upon this place a 
layer of grapes, well dried, and not quite ripe, and so on 
alternately till the barrel is filled; end with bran, and close 
air-tight; they will keep 9 or 10 months. To restore them 
to their original freshness, cut the end off each bunch 
stalk, and put into wine, like flowers. Or, 

Bunches of grapes may be preserved through winter by 
inserting the end of the stem into a potato. The bunches 
should belaid on dry straw, and turned occasionally. 

Howto Preserve Green Gages.— Choose the largest 
when they begin to soften; split them without paring; 
strew upon them part of the sugar. Blanch the kernels 
with a sharp knife. Next day pour the syrup from the 
fruit, and boil it with the other sugar six or eight minutes 
gently; skim and add the plums and kernels. Simmer 


till clear, taking off the scum; put the fruit singly into 
small pots, and pour the syrup and kernels to it. To 
candy it, do not add the syrup, but observe the directions 
given for candying fruit; some may be done each way. 

Green Gage Jam. —Peel and take out the stones. To 
1 lb. of pulp put | lb. loaf sugar; boil half an hour; add 
lemon juice. 

Transparently Beautiful Marmalade.— Take 3 lbs. 
bitter oranges; pare them as you would potatoes; cut the 
skin into fine shreds, and put them into a muslin bag; 
quarter all the oranges; press out the juice. Boil the pulp 
and shreds in three quarts of water hours, down to 
three pints; strain through a hair sieve. Then put six 
pounds of sugar to the liquid, the juice and the shreds, the 
outside of two lemons grated, and the insides squeezed in; 
add three cents worth of isinglass. Simmer altogether 
slowly for 15 or 20 minutes. 

Tomato Marmalade.— Take ripe tomatoes in the 
height of the season; weigh them, and to every pound of 
tomatoes add one pound of sugar. Put the tomatoes into 
a large pan or small tub, and scald them with boiling 
water, so as to make the skin peel off easily; When you 
have entirely removed the skin, put the tomatoes (without 
any water) into a preserving kettle, wash them, and add 
the sugar, with one ounce of powdered ginger to every 
three pounds of fruit, and the juice of two lemons, the 
grated rind of three always to every three pounds of fruit. 
Stir up the whole together, and set it over a moderate fire. 
Boil it gently for twoor three hours; till the whole becomes 
a thick, smooth mass, skimming it well, and stirring it to 
the bottom after every skimming. When done, put it 
warm into jars, and cover tightly. This will be found a 
very fine sweetmeat. 

How to Preserve Green Peas. —Shell, and put them 
into a kettle of water when it boils; give them twoor three 
warms only, and pour them in a colander. Drain, and 
turn them out on a cloth, and then on another to dry per¬ 
fectly. When dry bottle them in wide mouthed bottles; 
leaving only room to pour clarified mutton suet upon 
them an inch thick, and for the cork. Rosin it down; 
and keep in the cellar, or in the earth, as directed for 
gooseberries. When they are to be used, boil them till 
tender, with a bit of butter, a spoonful of sugar, and a bit 
of mint. 

How to Preserve Green Peas for Winter Use.— 

Carefully shell the peas; then place them in the canister, 
not too large ones; put in a small piece of alum, about the 
size of a horse-bean to a pint of peas. When the canister 
is full of peas, fill up the interstices with water, and solder 
on the lid perfectly air-tight, and boil the canisters for 
about twenty minutes; then remove them to a cool place, 
and by the time of January they will be found but little 
inferior to fresh, new-gathered peas. Bottling is not so 
good; at least, we have not found it so; for the air gets in, 
the liquid turns sour, and the peas acquire a bad taste. 

How to Keep Preserves.— Apply the white of an 
egg, with a brush, to a single thickness of white tissue 
paper, with which covers the jars, lapping over an inch or 
two. It will require no tying, as it will become, when 
dry, inconceivably tight and strong, and impervious to 
the air. 

Quinces for the Tea-table. — Bake ripe quinces 
thoroughly; when cold, strip off the skins, place them in a 
glass dish, and sprinkle with white sugar, and serve them 
with cream. They make a fine looking dish for the tea- 
table, and a more luscious and inexpensive one than the 
same fruit made into sweetmeats. Those who once taste 
the fruit thus prepared, will probably desire to store away 
a few bushels in the fall to use in the above manner. 




















































COOKERY RECIPES. 


383 


Pickled Pears. —Three pounds of sugar to a pint of 
vinegar, spice in a bag and boil, then cook the pears in 
the vinegar till done through. 

Boiled Pears. —Boil pears in water till soft, then add 
one pound of sugar to three pounds of fruit. 

Pickled Citron. —One quart vinegar, two pounds 
sugar, cloves and cinnamon each one tablespoon, boil the 
citron tender in water, take them out and drain, then put 
them in the syrup and cook till done. 

How to Preserve Raspberries. —Take raspberries 
that are not too ripe, and put them to their weight in 
sugar, with a little water. Boil softly, and do not break 
them; when they are clear, take them up, and boil the 
syrup till it be thick enough; then put them in again, and 
when they are cold, put them in glasses or jars. 

Raspberry Jam. —One pound sugar to four pounds 
fruit, with a few currants. 

Spiced Currants. —Six pounds currants, four pounds 
sugar, two tablespoons cloves and two of cinnamon, and 
one pint of vinegar; boil two hours until quite thick. 

Stewed Pears —Pare and halve or quarter a dozen 
pears, according to their size; carefully remove the cores, 
but leave the sloths on. Place them in a clean baking-jar, 
with a closely fitting lid; add to them the rind of one 
lemon, cut in strips, and the juice of half a lemon, six 
cloves, and whole allspice, according to discretion. Put 
in just enough water to cover the whole, and allow half a 
pound of loaf-sugar to every pint. Cover down close, and 
bake in a very cool oven for five hours, or stew them very 
gently in a lined saucepan from three to four hours. 
When done, lift them out on a glass dish without breaking 
them; boil up the syrup quickly for two or three minutes; 
let it cool a little, and pour it over the pears. A little 
cochineal greatly enhances the appearance of the fruit; 
you may add a few drops of prepared cochineal; and a little 
port wine is often used, and much improves the flavor. 

Howto Preserve Whole Strawberries— Take equal 
weights of the fruit and refined sugar, lay the former in 
a large dish, and sprinkle half the sugar in fine powder 
over, give a gentle shake to the dish that the sugar may 
touch the whole of the fruit; next day make a thin syrup 
with the remainder of the sugar, and instead of water 
allow one pint of red currant juice to every pound of straw¬ 
berries; in this simmer them until sufficiently jellied. 
Choose the largest scarlets, or others when not dead ripe. 

How to Preserve Strawberries in Wine— Put a 

quantity of the finest large strawberries into a gooseberry- 
bottle, and strew in three large spoonfuls of fine sugar; fill 
up with Madeira wine or fine sherry. 

Preserved Tomatoes —One pound of sugar to one 
pound of ripe tomatoes boiled down; flavor with lemon. 


. . . HOW TO BOIL, BAKE AND STEAM 

- - - PUDDINGS . . 

Amber Pudding 1 —Put a pound of butter into a sauce¬ 
pan, with three quarters of a pound of loaf sugar finely 
powdered; melt the butter, and mix well with it; then add 
the yolks of fifteen eggs well beaten, and as much fresh 
candied orange as will add color and flavor, to it, being 
first beaten to a fine paste. Line the dish with paste for 
turning out; and when filled with the above, lay a crust 
over, as you would a pie, and bake in a slow oven. It is as 
good cold as hot. 

Baked Apple Pudding —Pare and quarter four large 
apples; boil them tender with the rind of a lemon, in so 


little water, that when done, none may remain; beat them 
quite fine in a mortar; add the crumbsof a small roll, four 
ounces of butter melted, the yolks of five, and whites of 
three eggs, juice of half a lemon, and sugar to taste; beat 
all together, and lay it in a dish with paste to turn out. 

Boiled Apple Pudding— Suet, 5 ozs.; flour, 8 ozs.; 
chop the suet very fine, and roll it into the flour. Make 
it into a light paste with water. Roll out. Pare and core 
8 good sized apples; slice them; put them on the paste, 
and scatter upon them % lb. of sugar; draw the paste round 
the apples, and boil two hours or more, in a well floured 
cloth. Serve with melted butter sweetened. 

Swiss Apple Pudding —Butter a deep dish; put into 
it a layer of bread crumbs; then a layer of finely chopped 
suet; a thick layer of finely chopped apples, and a thick 
layer of sugar. Repeat from the first layer till the dish is 
full, the last layer to be finger biscuits soaked in milk. 
Cover it till nearly enough; then uncover, till the top is 
nicely browned. Flavor with cinnamon, nutmeg, etc., as 
you please. Bake from 30 to 40 minutes. 

Apple and Sago Pudding— Boil a cup of sago in 
boiling water with a little cinnamon, a cup of sugar, 
lemon flavoring; cut apples in thin slices, mix them with 
the sago; after it is well boiled add a small piece of butter; 
pour into a pudding dish and bake half an hour. 

Apple Pudding —Pare and stew three pints of apples, 
mash them, and add four eggs, a quarter of a pound of 
butter, sugar and nutmeg, or grated lemon. Bake it on 
a short crust. 

Apple Potatoe Pudding.— Six potatoes boiled and 
mashed fine, add a little salt and piece of butter, size of 
an egg, roll this out with a little flour, enough to make a 
good pastry crust which is for the outside of the dump¬ 
ling, into this put peeled and chopped apples, roll up like 
any apple dumpling, steam one hour, eat hot with liquid 
sauce. 

Arrow-root Pudding.— Take 2 teacupfuls of arrow- 
root, and mix it with half a pint of cold milk; boil another 
half pint of milk, flavoring it with cinnamon, nutmeg or 
lemon peel, stir the arrowroot and milk into the boiling 
milk. When cold, add the yolks of 3 eggs beaten into 3 
ozs. of sugar. Then add the whites beaten to a stiff 
broth, and bake in a buttered dish an hour. Ornament 
the tops with sweetmeats, or citron sliced. 

Aunt Nelly’s Pudding— Half a pound of flour half 
pound of treacle, six ounces of chopped suet, the juice 
and peel of one lemon, 4 tablespoonfuls of cream, two or 
three eggs. Mix and beat all together. Boil in a basin 
(previously well buttered) four hours.—For sauce, melted 
butter, a wine-glassful of sherry, and two or three table¬ 
spoonfuls of apricot jam. 

Baked Indian Pudding.— Two quarts sweet milk; 1 
pint New Orleans molasses; 1 pint Indian meal; 1 table¬ 
spoonful butter ; nutmeg or cinnamon. Boil the milk ; 
pour it over the meal and molasses ; add salt and spice ; 
bake three hours. This is a large family pudding. 

Batter, to be used with all Sorts of Roasting 
Meat.—Melt good butter; put to it three eggs, with the 
whites well beaten up, and warm them together, stirring 
them continually. With this you may baste any roasting 
meat, and then sprinkle bread crumbs thereon; and so 
continue to make a crust as thick as you please. 

Batter, for Frying Fruit, Vegetables, etc.— Cut 

four ounces of fresh butter into small pieces, pour on it 
half a pint of barley water, and when dissolved, add a pint 
of cold water; mix by degrees with a pound of fine dry 
flour, and a small pinch of salt. Just before it is used, 































384 


COOKERY RECIPES. 


stir into it the whites of two egg s beaten to a solid froth ; 
use quickly, that the batter may be light. 

Beef Steak Pudding 1 .—Take some fine rump steaks; 
roll them with fat between; and if you approve a little 
shred onion. Lay a paste of suet in a basin, and put in 
the chopped steaks ; cover the basin with a suet paste, and 
pinch the edges to keep the gravy in. Cover with a cloth 
tied close, let the pudding boil slowly for two hours. 

Baked Beef Steak Pudding 1 .— Make a batter of milk, 
two eggs and flour, or, which is much better, potatoes 
boiled and mashed through a colander ; lay a little of it at 
the bottom of the dish ; then put in the steaks very well 
seasoned ; pour the remainder of the batter over them, and 
b a k e it 

4 Beefsteak Pudding 1 ,— Prepare a good suet crust, and 
line a cake-tin with it; put in layers of steak with onions, 
tomatoes, and mushrooms, chopped fine, a seasoning of 
pepper, salt and cayenne, and half a cup of water before 
you close it. Bake from an hour and a half to two hours, 
according to the size of the pudding and serve very hot. 

Black Cap Pudding 1 .— Make a batter with milk, flour 
and eggs ; butter a basin ; pour in the batter, and 5 or 6 
ounces of well-cleaned currants. Cover it with a cloth 
well floured, and tie the cloth very tight. Boil nearly one 
hour. The currants will have settled to the bottom; 
therefore dish it bottom upwards. Serve with sweet sauce 
and a little rum. 

Oswego Blanc Mange. —Four tablespoonfuls or three 
ounces of Oswego prepared corn to one quart of milk. Dis¬ 
solve the corn to some of the milk. Put into the remainder 
of the milk four ounces of sugar, a little salt, apiece of lemon 
rind, or cinnamon stick, and heat to near boiling. Then 
add the mixed corn, and boil (stirring it briskly) four 
minutes ; take out the rind, and pour into a mold or cup, 
and keep until cold. When turned out, pour round it any 
kind of steived or preserved fruits, or a sauce of milk and 
sugar. 

Nice Blane-Mange. —Swell four ounces of rice in 
water ; drain and boil it to a mash in good milk, with 
sugar, a bit of lemon peel, and a stick of cinnamon. Take 
care it does not burn, and when quite soft pour it into 
cups, or into a shape dipped into cold water. When cold 
turn it out, garnish with currant jelly, or any red pre¬ 
served fruit. Serve with cream or plain custard. 

Boiled Batter Pudding 1 . —Three eggs, one ounce of 
butter, one pint of milk, three tablespoonfuls of flour, a 
little salt. Put the flour into a basin, and add sufficient 
milk to moisten it; carefully rub down all the lumps with 
a spoon, then pour in the remainder of the milk, and stir 
in the butter, which should be previously melted ; keep 
beating the mixture, add the eggs and a pinch of salt, and 
when the batter is quite smooth, put into a well-buttered 
basin, tie it down very tightly, and put it into boiling 
water ; move the basin about for a few-minutes after it is 
put into the water, to prevent the flour settling in any 
part, and boil for one hour and a quarter. This pudding 
may also be boiled in a floured cloth that has been wetted 
in hot water; it will then take a few minutes less than 
when boiled in a basin. Send these puddings very quickly 
to table, and serve with sweet sauce, wine-sauce, stewed 
fruit, or jam of any kind ; when the latter is used, a little 
of it may be placed round the dish in small quantities, as 
a garnish. 

Bread and Butter Pudding.— Butter a dish well, lay 
in a few slices of bread and butter, boil one pint of milk, 
pour out over two eggs well beaten, and then over the 
bread and butter, bake over half hour. 

Simple Bread Pudding.— Take the crumbs of a stale 
roll, pour over it one pint of boiling milk, and set it by to 


cool. When quite cold, beat it up very fine with two ' 
ounces of butter, sifted sugar sufficient to sweeten it; 
grate in half a nutmeg, and add a pound of well-washed 
currants, beat up four eggs separately, and then mix them 
up with the rest, adding, if desired, a few strips of can¬ 
died orange peel. All the ingredients must be beaten up 
together for about half an hour, as the lightness of the 
pudding depends upon that. Tie it up in a cloth, and 
boil for an hour. When it is dished, pour a little white 
wine sauce over the top. 

Christmas Plum Pudding. —Suet, chopped small, six 
ounces; raisins, stoned, etc., eight ounces ; bread crumbs, 
six ounces ; three eggs, a wine glass of brandy, a little nut¬ 
meg and cinnamon pounded as fine as possible, half a 
teaspoonful of salt, rather less than half pint milk, fine 
sugar, four ounces ; candied lemon, one ounce; citron 
half an ounce. Beat the eggs and spice well together; 
mix the milk by degrees, then the rest of the ingredients. 

Dip a fine, close, linen cloth into boiling water, and put 
in a sieve (hair), flour it a little, and tie up close. Put 
the pudding into a saucepan containing six quarts of boil¬ 
ing water ; keep a kettle of boiling water alongside, and fill 
up as it wastes. Be sure to keep it boiling at least six 
hours. Serve with any sauce ; or arrow-root with brandy. 

Christmas Pudding. —Suet 1} lbs., minced small; 
currants, lbs., raisins, stoned, £ lb.; sugar, 1 lb. ; ten 
eggs, a grated nutmeg ; 2 ozs. citron and lemon peel ; 1 
oz. of mixed spice, a teaspoonful of grated ginger, lb. 
of bread crumbs, lb. of flour, 1 pint of milk, and a wine 
glassful of brandy. Beat first the eggs, add half the 
milk, beat all together, and gradually stir in all the milk, 
then the suet, fruit, etc., and as much milk to mix it very 
thick. Boil in a cloth six or seven hours. 

Cottage Pudding. —One pint sifted flour, three table¬ 
spoons melted butter, 2 eggs, one cup sweet milk, two tea¬ 
spoonfuls cream tartar, one teaspoon soda, mix and bake. 

Cream Pudding. —Cream, 1 pint; the yolks of seven 
eggs, seven tablespoonfuls of flour, 2 tablespoonfuls of 
sugar, salt, and a small bit of soda. Rub the cream with 
the eggs and flour ; add the rest, the milk last, just before 
baking, and pour the whole into the pudding dish. Serve 
with sauce of wine, sugar, butter, flavored as you like. 

Crumb Pudding. —The yolks and whites of three eggs, 
beaten separately, one ounce moist sugar, and sufficient 
bread crumbs to make it into a thick but not stiff mixture ; 
a little powdered cinnamon. Beat all together for five min¬ 
utes, and bake in a buttered tin. When baked, turn it 
out of the tin, pour two glasses of boiling wine over it, and 
serve. Cherries, either fresh or preserved, are very nice 
mixed in the pudding. 

Damson Pudding. —Four or five tablespoonfuls of 
flour, three eggs beaten, a pint of milk, made into batter. 
Stone l-£ lbs., of damsons, put them and 6 ozs. of sugar 
into the batter, and boil in a buttered basin for one hour 
and a half. 

Egg Pudding.—It is made chiefly of eggs. It is nice 
made thus:—Beat well seven eggs ; mix well with 2 ozs. of 
flour, pint and a half of milk, a little salt; flavor with nut¬ 
meg, lemon juice, and orange-flour water. Boil 1^ hours 
in a floured cloth. Serve with wine sauce sweetened. 

Excellent Family Plum Pudding.— Grate three-quar¬ 
ters of a pound of a stale loaf, leaving out the crusts ; chop 
very fine three-quarters of a pound of firm beef suet (if you 
wish your pudding less rich, half a pound will do) ; mix 
well together with a quarter of a pound of flour ; then add / 
a pound of currants, well washed and well dried ; half a l 
pound of raisins, stoned, and the peel of a lemon, very < 
finely shred and cut ; four ounces of candied peel, either G 


— 


















































COOKERY RECIPES. 


385 


lemon, orange or citron, or all mingled (do not cut your 
peel too small or its flavor is lost); six ounces of sugar, a 
small teaspoonful of salt, three eggs, well beaten ; mix all 
thoroughly together with as much milk as suffices to bring 
the pudding to a proper consistency, grate in a small nut¬ 
meg, and again stir the mixture vigorously. If you 
choose, add a small glass of brandy. Butter your mold 
or basin, which you must be sure to fill quite full, or the 
water will get in and spoil your handiwork; have your 
pudding cloth scrupulously clean a^id sweet, and of a 
proper thickness ; tie down securely, and boil for seven or 
even eight hours. 

Extra Pudding’.— Cut light bread into thin slices. 
Form into the shape of a pudding in a dish. Then add a 
layer of any preserve, then a slice of bread, and repeat till 
the dish is full. Beat four or five eggs, and mix well with 
a pint of milk; then pour it over the bread and preserve, 
having previously dusted the same with a coating of rice 
flour. Boil twenty-five minutes. 

Fig* Pudding 1 . —Procure one pound of good figs, and 
chop them very fine, and also a quarter of a pound of suet, 
likewise chopped as fine as possible; dust them both with 
a little flour as you proceed—it helps to bind the pudding 
together; then take one pound of fine bread crumbs, and 
not quite a quarter of a pound of sugar; beat two eggs in 
a teacupful of milk, and mix all well together. Boil four 
hours. If you choose, serve it with wine or brandy sauce, 
and ornament your pudding with blanched almonds. 
Simply cooked, however, it is better where there are chil¬ 
dren, with whom it is generally a favorite. We forgot to 
say, flavor with a little allspice or nutmeg, as you like; 
but add the spice before the milk and eggs. 

Gelatine Pudding’. —Half box gelatine dissolved in a 
large half pint boiling water, when cold stir in two tea¬ 
cups sugar, the juice of three lemons, the whites of four 
eggs beaten to a froth, put this in a mold to get stiff, and 
with the yolks of these four eggs, and a quart of milk 
make boiled custard, flavor with vanilla, when cold pour 
the custard round the mold in same dish. 

Gooseberry Pudding’. —One quart of scalded goose¬ 
berries; when cold rub them smooth with the back of a 
spoon. Take six tablespoonfuls of the pulp, half a pound 
of sugar, quarter of a pound of melted butter, six eggs, 
the rind of two lemons, a handful of grated bread, two 
tablespoonfuls of brandy. Half an hour will bake it. 

Ground Rice Pudding*. —Boil one pint of milk with 
a little piece of lemon peel, mix quarter pound of rice, 
ground, with half pint milk, two ounces sugar, one ounce 
butter, add these to the boiling milk. Keep stirring, take 
it off the fire, break in two eggs, keep stirring, butter a 
pie dish, pour in the mixture and bake until set. 

Ice Pudding*. —Put one quart of milk in a stew pan 
with half pound of white sugar, and stick of vanilla, boil 
it ten minutes, mix the yolks of ten eggs with a gill of 
cream, pour in the milk, then put it back again into the 
stew pan, and stir till it thickens (do not let it boil), strain 
it into a basin and leave it to cool. Take twelve pounds 
of ice, add two pounds of salt, mix together, cover the 
bottom of a pail, place the ice pot in it and build it 
around with the ice and salt, this done pour the cream 
into the pot, put on the cover, and do not cease turning 
till the cream is thick, the mold should be cold, pour in 
the cream, 3 or 4 pieces of white paper, wetted with cold 
water, are placed on it before the cover is placed on. 
Cover with ice till wanted, dip in cold water and turn out, 
fruit may be put in when put in the mold. 

Indian Pudding*. —Indian meal, a cupful, a little salt, 
butter, 1 oz.; molasses 3 ozs., 2 teaspoonfuls of ginger, or 


cinnamon. Put into a quart of boiling milk. Mix a cup 
of cold water with it; bake in a buttered dish 50 minutes. 

Kidney Pudding*. —If kidney, split and soak it, and 
season that or the meat. Make a paste of suet, flour and 
milk; roll it, and line a basin with some; put the kidney 
or steak in, cover with paste, and pinch round the edge. 
Cover with a cloth and boil a considerable time. 

Lemon Dumplings. — Two tablespoonfuls of flour; 
bread crumbs, \ lb.; beef suet, 6 ozs.; the grated rind of a 
large lemon, sugar, pounded, 4 ozs.; 4 eggs well beaten, 
and strained, and the juice of three lemons strained. 
Make into dumplings, and boil in a cloth one hour. 

Lemon Pudding. —Three tablespoons powdered crack¬ 
ers, eight tablespoons sugar, six eggs, one quart milk, but¬ 
ter size of an egg, the juice of one lemon and grated rind. 
Stir it first when put in oven. 

Macaroni Pudding. —Take an equal quantity of ham 
and chicken, mince fine, half the quantity of macaroni 
which must be boiled tender in broth, two eggs beaten, 
one ounce butter, cayenne pepper and salt to taste, all 
these ingredients to be mixed thoroughly together, put in 
molds and boil two hours. 

Marrow Pudding. —Pour a pint of cream boiling hot 
on the crumbs of a penny loaf, or French roll; cut 1 lb. of 
beef marrow very thin; beat 4 eggs well; add a glass of 
brandy, with sugar and nutmeg to taste, and mix all well 
together. It may be either boiled or baked 40 or 50 min¬ 
utes; cut 2 ozs. of citron very thin, and stick them all 
over it when you dish it up. 

Another way .—Blanch % lb. of almonds; put them in 
cold water all night; next day beat them in a mortar very 
fine, with orange or rose water. Take the crumbs of a 
penny loaf, and pour on the whole a pint of boiling cream; 
while it is cooling, beat the yolks of four eggs, and two 
whites, 15 minutes; a little sugar and grated nutmeg to 
your palate. Shred the marrow of the bones, and mix oil 
well together, with a little candied orange cut small; 
bake, etc. 

Meat and Potato Pudding. —Boil some mealy pota¬ 
toes till ready to crumble to pieces; drain; mash them very 
smooth. Make them into a thickish batter with an egg or 
two, and milk, placing a layer of steaks or chops well-sea¬ 
soned with salt and pepper at the bottom of the baking 
dish; cover with a layer of batter, and so alternately, till 
the dish is full, ending with batter at the top. Butter the 
dish to prevent sticking or burning. Bake of a fine brown 
color. 

Nesselrode Pudding. —Prepare a custard of one pint 
of cream, half a pint of milk, the yolks of six eggs, half a 
stick of vanilla, one ounce of sweet almonds, pounded, and 
half a pound of sugar; put them in a stewpan over a slow 
fire, and stir until the proper consistence, being careful 
not to let it boil; when cold, add a wine-glass of brandy; 
partially freeze, and add two ounces of rasins and half a 
pound of preserved fruits, cut small. Mix well, and 
mold. (Basket shape generally used.) 

Potato Pudding. —Take lb. of boiled potatoes, 2 
ozs. of butter, the yolks and whites of two eggs, a quarter 
of a pint of cream, one spoonful of white wine, a morsel 
of salt, the juice and rind of a lemon; beat all to a froth; 
sugar to taste. A crust or not, as you like. Bake it. If 
wanted richer, put 3 ozs. more butter, sweetmeats and 
almonds, and another egg. 

Prince of Wales Pudding. —Chop four ounces of 
apples, the same quantity of bread crumbs, suet, and cur¬ 
rants, well washed and picked; two ounces of candied 
lemon, orange, and citron, chopped fine; five ounces 
pounded loaf sugar; half a nutmeg, grated. Mix all 


































386 


COOKERY RECIPES. 


together with four eggs. Butter well and flour a tin, put 
in the mixture, and place a buttered paper on the top, and 
a cloth over the paper. If you steam it the paper is suffi¬ 
cient. It will take two hours boiling. When you dish.it, 
stick cut blanched almonds on it, and serve with wine 


sauce. 

Pudding 1 . —One cup sugar, half cup milk, one egg, two 
tablespoons melted butter, two cups flour, two teaspoons 
baking powder, a little nutmeg, bake in a dish and when 
sent to the table, put raspberry jam under same with wine 
sauce. 

Baked Pudding 1 . —Three tablespoonfuls of Oswego 
Prepared Corn to one quart of milk. Prepare, and cook 
the same as Blanc-Mange. After it is cool, stir up with it 
thoroughly two or three eggs well beaten, and bake half an 
hour. It is very good. 

Boiled Pudding. —Three tablespoonfuls of Oswego 
Prepared Corn to one quart of milk. Dissolve the corn in 
some of the milk, and mix with it two or three eggs, well 
beaten, and a little salt. Heat the remainder of the milk 
to near boiling, add the above preparation, and boil four 
minutes, stirring it briskly. To be eaten warm with a 
sauce. It is delicious. 

Queen Pudding. —One pint of bread crumbs, one quart 
milk, one cup sugar, yolks four eggs, a little butter, bake 
half an hour, then put over the top a layer of fruit, then 
white of eggs beaten to a froth with sugar; to be eaten cold 
with cream. 

Plain Rice Pudding. —Wash and pick some rice; throw 
among it some pimento finely pounded, but not much; 
tie the rice in a cloth and leave plenty of room for it to 
swell. When done, eat it with butter and sugar, or milk. 
Put lemon peel if you please. 

It is very good without spice, and eaten with salt and 
butter. 

Another. —Put into a very deep pan half a pound of 
rice washed and picked; two ounces of butter, four ounces 
of sugar, a few allspice pounded, and two quarts of milk. 
Less butter will do, or some suet. Bake in a slow oven. 

Rich Rice Pudding —Boil % lb. of rice in water, with a 
bit of salt, till quite tender; drain it dry; mix it with the 
yolks and whites of four eggs, a quarte/of a pint of cream, 
with 2 ozs. of fresh butter melted in the latter; 4 ozs. of 
beef suet or marrow, or veal suet taken from a fillet of veal, 
finely shred, f lb. of currants, two spoonfuls of brandy, 
one of peach-water, or ratafia, nutmeg, and a grated lemon 
peel. When well mixed, put a paste round the edge, and 
fill the dish. Slices of candied orange, lemon, and citron, 
if approved. Bake in a moderate oven. 

Rice Pudding with Fruit —Swell the rice with a very 
little milk over the fire; then mix fruit of any kind with 
it (currants, gooseberries, scalded, pared, and quartered 
apples, raisins, or black currants); put one egg into the 
rice to bind it; boil it well, and serve with sugar. 

Roman Pudding— Oil a plain tin mold, sprinkle it 
with vermicelli, line it with a thin paste; have some boiled 
macaroni ready cut in pieces an inch long; weigh it, and 
take the same weight of Parmesan cheese, grated; boil a 
rabbit, cut off all the white meat in slices, as thin as paper 
season with pepper, salt, and shalot; add cream sufficient 
to moisten the whole, put it into the mold, and cover it 
with paste; bake in a moderate oven for an hour, turn the 
pudding out of the mold, and serve it with a rich brown 
gravy. 

Sago Pudding— Boil 4 ozs. of sago in water a few 
minutes; strain, and add milk, and boil till tender. Boil 
lemon peel and cinnamon in a little milk, and strain it to 
the sago. Put the whole into a basin; break 8 eggs; mix 


it well together, and sweeten with moist sugar; add a glass 
of brandy, and some nutmeg; put puff paste round the rim 
of the dish, and butter the bottom. Bake three quarters 
of an hour. 

Spanish Pudding —To one pint of water, put two 
ounces of butter, and a little salt, when it boils add as 
much flour as will make it the consistency of hasty pud¬ 
ding. Keep it well stirred, after it is taken off the fire and 
has stood till quite cold, beat it up with three eggs, add a 
little grated lemon peel and nutmeg, drop the batter with 
a spoon into the frying pan with boiling lard, fry quickly, 
put sugar over them when sent to the table. 

Suet Dumplings —Shred 1 lb. of suet; mix with 1£ 
lbs. flour, 2 eggs beaten separately, a little salt, and as lit¬ 
tle milk as will make it. Make it into two small balls. 
Boil 20 minutes. The fat of loins or necks of mutton 
finely shred makes a more delicate dumpling than suet. 

Suet Pudding— Take six spoonfuls of flour, 1 lb. of 
suet, shred small, 4 eggs, a spoonful of beaten ginger, a 
spoonful of salt, and a quart of milk. Mix the eggs and 
flour with a pint of milk very thick, and with the season¬ 
ing, mix in the rest of the milk with the suet. Boil two 
hours. 

Tapioca Pudding. —Put £ lb. of tapioca into a sauce 
pan of cold water; when it boils, strain it to a pint of new 
milk; boil till it soaks up all the milk, and put it out to 
cool. Beat the yolks of four eggs, and the whites of two, 
a tablespoonful of brandy, sugar, nutmeg, and 2 ounces of 
butter. Mix all together; put a puff paste round the dish, 
and send it to the oven. It is very good boiled with melted 
butter, wine and sugar. 

Vermicelli Pudding. —Boil 4 ounces of vermicelli in a 
pint of new milk till soft, with a stick or two of cinnamon. 
Then put in half a pint of thick cream, £ lb. of butter, 
the same of sugar, and the yolks of 4 eggs. Bake without 
paste in an earthen dish. 

Another. —Simmer 2 ounces of vermicelli in a cupful of 
milk till tender; flavor it with a stick or two of cinnamon 
or other spice. Beat up three eggs, 1 ounce of sugar, 
half a pint of milk and a glass of wine. Add to the ver¬ 
micelli. Bake in a slow oven. 


HOW TO PUT UP PICKLES 

AND MAKE CATSUPS 

How to Pickle Beet Roots. —Beet roots are a very 
pretty garnish for made dishes, and are thus pickled. Boil 
the roots till they are tender, then take off the skins, cut 
them in slices, gimp them in the shape of wheels, or what 
form you please, and put them into a jar. Take as much 
vinegar as you think will cover them, and boil it with a 
a little mace, a race of ginger sliced, and a few slices of 
horseradish. Pour it hot upon your roots and tie them 
down. 

Chow-Chow. —Two quarts of small white onions, two 
quarts of gherkins, two quarts of string beans, two small 
cauliflowers, half a dozen ripe, red peppers, one-half pound 
mustard seed, one-half pound whole pepper, one pound 
ground mustard, and, as there is nothing so adulterated as 
ground mustard, it’s better to get it at the druggist’s; 
twenty or thirty bay leaves (not bog leaves, as some one of 
the ladies facetiously remarked), and two quarts of good 
cider, or wine vinegar. Peel the onions, halve the cucum¬ 
bers, string the beans, and cut in pieces the cauliflower. 
Put all in a wooden tray, and sprinkle well with salt. In 
the morning wash and drain thoroughly, and put all into 
the cold vinegar, except the red peppers. Let boil twenty 












































COOKERY RECIPES. 


387 


minutes slowly, frequently turning over. Have wax 
melted in a deepish dish, and, as you fill and cork, 
dip into the wax. The peppers you can put in to show to 
the best advantage. If you have over six jars full, it’s 
good to put the rest in a jar and eat from it for every 
dinner. Some add a little turmeric for the yellow color/ 

Corn, Green, Pickling’.— When the corn is a little 
past the tenderest roasting ear state, pull it, take off one 
thickness of the husk, tie the rest of the husk down at 
the silk end loosely, place the ears in a clean cask com¬ 
pactly together, and put on a brine to cover them of about 
two-thirds the strength of meat pickle. When ready to 
use in winter, soak in cold water over night, and if this 
does not appear sufficient, change the water and freshen 
still more. Corn, prepared in this way, is excellent, very 
much resembling fresh corn from the stalk. 

Indian Pickle. —One gallon of the best vinegar, quarter 
of a pound of bruised ginger, quarter of a pound of shalots, 
quarter of a pound of flour of mustard, quarter of a pound 
of salt, tw T o ounces of mustard seed, two ounces of tur¬ 
meric, one ounce of black pepper, ground fine, one ounce 
of cayenne. Mix all together, and put in cauliflower sprigs, 
radish pods, French beans, white cabbage, cucumber, 
onions, or any other vegetable; stir it well two or three 
days after any fresh vegetable is added, and wipe the vege¬ 
table with a dry cloth. The vinegar should not be boiled. 

How to Pickle Mushrooms. —Buttons must be rubbed 
with a bit of flannel and salt; and from the larger take out 
the red inside, for when they are black they will not do, 
being too old. Throw a little salt over, and put them into 
a stewpan with some mace and pepper; as the liquor comes 
out, shake them well, and keep them over a gentle fire till 
all of it be dried into them again; then put as much vin¬ 
egar into the pan as will cover them, give it one warm, 
and turn all into a glass or stone jar. They will keep two 
years, and are delicious. 

Pickle Sauce. —Slice green tomatoes, onions, cabbage, 
cucumbers, and green peppers. Let all stand covered with 
salt over night. Wash, drain and chop fine. Be careful 
to keep as dry as possible. To two quarts of the hash, 
add four tablespoons of American mustard seed and two 
of English; two tablespoonfuls ground allspice, one of 
ground cloves, two teaspoonfuls of ground black pepper, 
one teaspoonful of celery seed. Cover with sharp vinegar, 
and boil slowly an hour. Put away in stone jar, and eat 
when wanted. 

Pickled Eg’g’S. —At the season of the year when eggs 
are plentiful, boil some four or six dozen in a capacious sauce¬ 
pan, until they become quite hard. Then, after carefully 
removing the shells, lay them in large-mouthed jars, and 
pour over them scalding vinegar, well seasoned with whole 
pepper, allspice, a few races of ginger, and a few cloves or 
garlic. When cold, bung down closely, and in a month 
they are fit for use. Where eggs are plentiful, the above 
pickle is by no means expensive, and is a relishing accom¬ 
paniment to cold meat. 

How to Pickle Red Cabbage. —Slice it into a colan¬ 
der, and sprinkle each layer with salt; let it drain two 
days, then put it into a jar, with boiling vinegar enough 
to cover it, and put in a few slices of beet-root. Observe 
to choose the purple red-cabbage. Those who like the 
flavor of spice will boil some pepper-corns, mustard-seed, 
or other spice, whole , with the vinegar. Califlower in 
branches, and thrown in after being salted, will color a 
beautiful red. 

Another. —Choose a sound large cabbage; shred it 
finely, and sprinkle it with salt, and let it stand in a dish 
for a day and night. Then boil vinegar (from a pint) 



with ginger, cloves, and cayenne pepper. Put the cabbage 
into jars, and pour the liquor upon it when cold. 

Spiced Tomatoes. —Eight pounds tomatoes, four 
pounds of sugar, one quart vinegar, one tablespoon each of 
cloves, cinnamon and allspice, make a syrup of the sugar 
and vinegar. Tie the spice in a bag and put in syrup, 
take the skins off the tomatoes, and put them in the syrup, 
when scalded through skim them out and cook away one- 
half, leave the spices in, then put in your tomatoes again 
and boil until the syrup is thick. 

Tomato Lilly. —Prepare one peck of green tomatoes by 
slicing and laying them in a jar over night, with a little 
salt, than chop them and cook in water until you think 
them sufficiently tender then take them up in a colander 
and drain nicely, then take two large cabbages, chop and 
cook same as tomatoes, then chop six green peppers and 
add one quart vinegar, put all in kettle together and boil 
a short time; add fresh vinegar and spice with one ounce 
each cinnamon and cloves, one pound sugar and half pint 
molasses. Onions can be used instead of cabbage if pre¬ 
ferred. 

How to Pickle Walnuts. — When a pin will go into 
them, put a brine of salt and water boiled, and strong 
enough to bear an egg, being quite cold first. Let them 
soak six days; then change the brine, let them stand six 
more; then drain, and pour over them in ajar a pickle of 
the best vinegar, with plenty of pepper, pimento, ginger, 
mace, cloves, mustard-seed and horseradish; all boiled 
together, but cold. To every hundred of walnuts put 
six spoonfuls of mustard-seed, and two or three heads of 
garlic or shalot, but the latter is least strong. In this way 
they will be good for several years, if closely covered. 
They will not be fit to eat under six months. This pickle 
makes good ketchup. 

A Good Ketchup. —Boil one bushel of tomatoes until 
soft enough to rub through a sieve. Then add to the 
liquid a half gallon of vinegar, 1| pints salt, 2 ounces of 
cloves, £ pound allspice, 3 ounces good cayenne pepper, 
five heads of garlic, skinned and separated, 1 pound of 
sugar. Boil slowly until reduced to one-half. It takes 
about one day. Set away for a week, boil over once, and, 
if too thick, thin with vinegar; bottle and seal as for chow- 
chow. 

How to Keep Ketchup Twenty Years.— Take a gal¬ 
lon of strong stale beer, 1 lb. of anchovies, washed from 
the pickle; 1 lb. of shalots, \ oz. of mace, -§• oz. of cloves, 
£ oz. whole pepper, | oz. of ginger, 2 quarts of large 
mushroom flaps, rubbed to pieces; cover all close, and 
simmer till it is half wasted, strain, cool, then bottle. A 
spoonful of this ketchup is sufficient for a pint of melted 
butter. 

Mushroom Ketchup. —Sprinkle mushroom flaps, 
gathered in September, with common salt, stir them oc¬ 
casionally for two or three days; then lightly squeeze out 
the juice, and add to each gallon bruised cloves and mus¬ 
tard seed, of each, half an ounce; bruised allspice, black 
pepper, and ginger, of each, one ounce; gently heat to the 
boiling point in a covered vessel, macerate for fourteen 
days, and strain; should it exhibit any indication of 
change in a few weeks, bring it again to the boiling point, 
with a little more spice. 

Oyster Ketchup: —Beard the oysters; boil them up in 
their liquor; strain, and pound them in a mortar; boil the 
beards in spring water, and strain it to the first oyster 
liquor; boil the pounded oysters in the mixed liquors, with 
beaten mace and pepper. Some add a very little mush¬ 
room ketchup, vinegar, or lemon-juice; but the less the 
natural flavor is overpowered the better; only spice is 
necessary for its preservation. This oyster ketchup will 













































388 


COOKERY RECIPB6. 


keep perfectly good longer than oysters are ever out of 
season. 

Tomato Ketchup.— Put them over the fire crushing 
each one as you drop it into the pot; let them boil five 
minutes; take them off, strain through a colander, and 
then through a sieve, get them over the fire again as 
soon as possible, and boil down two-thirds, when boiled 
down add to every gallon of this liquid one ounce of 
cayenne pepper, one ounce of black pepper, one pint vine¬ 
gar, four'ounces each of cinnamon and mace, two spoon¬ 
fuls salt. 

Very Fine Walnut Ketchup.— Boil a gallon of the 
expressed juice of green tender walnuts, and skim it well; 
then put in 2 lbs. of anchovies, bones and liquor, 2 lbs. 
shalots, 1 oz. each of cloves, mace, pepper, and one clove 
of garlic. Let all simmer till the shalots sink; then put 
the liquor into a pan till cold; bottle and divide the spice 
to each. Cork closely, and tie a bladder over. It will 
keep twenty years, but is not good the first. Be very 
careful to express the juice at home; for it is rarely un¬ 
adulterated, if bought. 


HOW TO ROAST, BOIL, OR BROIL" 

POULTRY 

How to Roast Chickens. —Pluck carefully, draw and 
truss them, and put them to a good fire; singe, dust, and 
baste them with butter. Cover the breast with a sheet of 
buttered paper; remove it ten minutes before it is enough; 
that it may brown. A chicken will take 15 to 20 minutes. 
Serve with butter and parsley. 

How to Boil Chickens. —Fasten the wings and legs to 
the body by threads tied round. Steep them in skim 
milk two hours. Then put them in cold water, and boil 
over a slow fire. Skim clean. Serve with white sauce or 
melted butter sauce, or parsley and butter.—Or melt 1 oz. 
of butter in a cupful of milk; add to it the yolk of an egg 
beat up with a little flour and cream; heat over the fire, 
stirring well. 

Geese (a la mode). —Skin and bone the goose; boil 
and peel a dried tongue, also a fowl; season with pepper, 
salt and mace, and then roll it round the tongue; season 
the goose in the same way, and lay the fowl and tongue on 
the goose, with slices of ham between them. Beef marrow 
rolled between the fowl and the goose, will greatly enrich 
it. Put it all together in a pan, with two quarts of beef 
gravy, the bones of the goose and fowl, sweet herbs and 
onion; cover close, and stew an hour slowly; take up the 
goose; skim off the fat, strain, and put in a glassful of 
good port wine, two tablespoonfuls of ketchup, a veal 
sweetbread cut small, some mushrooms, a piece of butter 
rolled in flour, pepper and salt; stew the goose half an 
hour longer; take up and pour the ragout over it. Garnish 
with lemon. 

How to Roast Pigeons.— Take a little pepper and 
salt, a piece of butter, and parsley cut small; mix and 
put the mixture into the bellies of the pigeons, tying the 
necks tight; take another string ; fasten one end" of it to 
their legs and rumps, and the other to a hanging spit, 
basting them with butter; when done, lay them in a dish', 
and they will swim with gravy. 

How to Boil Pigeons.— Wash clean ; chop some par¬ 
sley small; mix it with crumbs of bread, pepper, salt 
and a bit of butter; stuff the pigeons, and boil 15 
minutes in some mutton broth or gravy. Boil some rice 
soft in milk ; when it begins to thicken, beat the yolks of 
two or three eggs, Avith two or three spoonfuls of cream, 


and a little nutmeg , mix well Avith a bit of butter rolled 
in flour. 

How to Broil Pigeons.—After cleaning, split the 
backs, pepper and salt them, and broil them very nicely; 
pour over them either stewed or pickled mushrooms, in 
melted butter, and serve as hot as possible. 

Scalloped Cold Chickens.— Mince the meat very 
small, and set it over the fire, Avith a scrape of nutmeg, a 
little pepper and salt, and a little cream, for a few min¬ 
utes. put it into the scallop shells, and fill them with 
crumbs of bread, over which put some bits of butter, and 
brown them before the fire. Veal and ham eat well done 
the same way, and lightly covered with crumbs of bread, 
or they may be put on in little heaps. 

How to Roast Turkey. —The sinews of the legs should 
be drawn whichever way it is dressed. The head should 
be twisted under the Aving; and in drawing it, take care 
not to tear the liver, nor let the gall touch it. 

Put a stuffing of sausage-meat; or, if sausages are to be 
served in a dish a bread stuffing. As this makes a large 
addition to the size of the bird, observe that the heat of 
the fire is constantly to that part; for the breast is often 
not done enough. A little strip of paper should be put 
on the bone to hinder it from scorching while the other 
parts roast. Baste Avell and froth it up. Serve with 
gravy in the dish, and plenty of bread-sauce in a sauce- 
tureen. Add a few crumbs, and a beaten egg to the 
stuffing of sausage-meat. 


SAUCES FOR MEATS, FISH, E^ 

Anchovy Sauce. —Chop one or two anchovies, without 
washing, put to them some flour and butter, and a little 
water; stir it over the fire till it boils once or twice. If 
the anchovies are good, they Avill dissolve. 

Essence of Anchovies. —Take tAvo dozen of ancho¬ 
vies, chop them, and Avithout the bone, but with some of 
their liquor strained, add to them sixteen large spoonfuls 
of Avater ; boil gently till dissolved, which Avill be in a 
feAV minutes—when cold, strain and bottle it. 

Apple Sauce. —Pare, core, and quarter half a dozen 
good sized apples, and throw them into cold water to pre¬ 
serve their Avhiteness. Boil them in a saucepan till they 
are soft enough to mash—it is impossible to specify any 
particular time, as some apples cook much more speedily 
than others. When done, bruise them to a pulp, put in a 
piece of butter as large as a nutmeg, and SAveeten them 
to taste. Put into saucepan only sufficient Avater to pre¬ 
vent them burning. Some persons put the apples in a 
stone jar placed in boiling water; there is then no danger 
of their catching. 

Apple Sauce for Goose or Roast Pork.— Pare, core, 
and slice some apples, and put them in a strong jar, into a 
pan of Avater. When sufficiently boiled, bruise to a pulp, 
adding a little butter, and a little brown sugar. 

A Substitute for Cream. —Beat up the Avhole of a 
fresh egg in a basin, and then pour boiling tea over it 
gradually to prevent its curdling; it is difficult from the 
taste, to distinguish it from rich cream. 

Bechamel Sauce. —Put a few slices of ham into a 
stew-pan, a feAv mushrooms, two or three shalots, two 
cloves, also a bay leaf and a bit of butter. Let them 
s'and a few hours. Add a little water, flour and milk or 
cream; simmer forty minutes. Scalded parsley, very fine 
may be added. 

Bread Sauce. —Break three-quarters of a pound of 
stale bread into small pieces, carefully excluding any 




















































COOKERY RECIPES. 


389 


crusty and outside bits, having previously simmered till 
quite tender, an onion, well peeled and quartered in a 
pint of milk. Put the crumbs into a very clean saucepan, 
and, if you like the flavor, a small teaspoonful of sliced 
onion, chopped, or rather minced, as finely as possible. 
Pour over the milk, taking away the onion simmered in it, 
cover it up, and let it stand for an hour to soak. Then, 
with a fork, beat it quite smooth, and seasoned with a 
very little powdered mace, cayenne and salt to taste, add¬ 
ing one ounce of butter ; give the whole a boil, stirring 
all the time, and it is ready to serve. A small quantity 
of cream added at the last moment, makes the sauce 
richer and smoother. Common white pepper may take 
the place of cayenne, a few peppercorns may be simmered 
in the milk, but they should be extracted before sending 
to table. 

Bread Sauce. —Grate some old bread into a basin ; 
pour boiling new milk over it; add an onion with five 
cloves stuck in it, with pepper and salt to taste. Covei 
it and simmer in a slow oven. When enough, take out 
the onion and cloves; beat it well, and add a little melted 
butter. The addition of cream very much improves this 
sauce. 

Caper Sauce. —Melt some butter, chop the capers 
fine, boil them with the butter. An ounce of capers will 
be sufficient for a moderate size sauce-boat. Add, if you 
like, a little chopped parsley, and a little vinegar. More 
vinegar, a little cayenne, and essence of anchovy, make it 
suitable for fish. 

As a substitute for capers, some use chopped pickled 
gherkins. 

Essence of Celery. —Soak the seeds in spirits of 
wine or brandy ; or infuse the root in the same for 24 
hours, then take out, squeezing out all the liquor, and in¬ 
fuse more root in the same liquor to make it stronger. A 
few drops will flvor broth, soup, etc. 


Mint Sauce. —Pick, mash and chop fine green spear¬ 
mint, to two tablespoons of the minced leaves, put eight 
of vinegar, adding a little sugar. Serve cold. 

Mint Sauce. —Wash fresh gathered mint; pick the leaves 
from the stalks; mince them very fine, and put them into 
a sauce-boat with a teaspoonful of sugar and four table¬ 
spoonfuls of vinegar. It may also be made with dried mint 
or with mint vinegar. 

Onion Sauce. —Peel the onions, and boil them tender; 
squeeze the water from them, then chop them, and add to 
them butter that has been melted, rich and smooth, as will 
be hereafter directed, but with a little good milk instead of 
water; boil it up once, and serve it for boiled rabbits, 
partridge, scrag, or knuckle of veal, or roast mutton. A 
turnip boiled with the onions makes them milder. 

Quin’s Fish Sauce. —Half a pint of mushroom pickle, 
the same of walnut, six long anchovies pounded, six cloves 
of garlic, three of them pounded; half a spoonful of cay¬ 
enne pepper; put them into a bottle, and shake well before 
using. It is also good with beefsteaks. 

Sauce for Cold Partridges, Moor-Game, Etc.— 

Pound four anchovies and two cloves of garlic in a mortar; 
add oil and vinegar to the taste. Mince the meat, and put 
the sauce to it as wanted. 

Sauce for Ducks. —Serve a rich gravy in the dish; cut 
the breast into slices, but don’t take them off ; cut a lemon, 
and put pepper and salt on it, then squeeze it on the 
breast, and pour a spoonful of gravy over before you help. 

Sauce for Fowl of any Sort. —Boil some veal gravy, 
pepper, salt, the juice of a Seville orange and a lemon, and 
a quarter as much of port wine as of gravy; pour it into 
the dish or a boat. 

Sauce for Hot or Cold Roast Beef. —Grate, or scrape 
very fine, some horseradish, a little made mustard, some 
pounded white sugar and four large spoonfuls of vinegar. 
Serve in a saucer. 


Celery Sauce. —Wash well the inside leaves of three 
heads of celery ; cut them into slices quarter inch thick, 
boil for six minutes, and drain; take a tablespoonful of 
flour, two ounces of butter, and a teacupful of cream ; 
beat well, and when warm, put in the celery and stir well 
over the fire about twelve minutes. The sauce is very 
goood for boiled fowl, etc. 

Cocoa Sauce. —Scrape a portion of the kernel of a 
Cocoa nut, adding the juice of three lemons, a teaspoon¬ 
ful of the tincture of cayenne pepper, a teaspoonful of 
shallot vinegar, and half a cupful of water. Gently 
simmer for a few hours. 

Egg Sauce. —Boil two eggs hard, half chop the whites, 
put in the yolks, chop them together, but not very fine, 
put them with \ lb. of good melted butter. 

Egg Sauce. —Four eggs boiled twelve minutes, then 
lay them in fresh water, cold, pull off the shells, chop 
whites and yolks separately, mix them lightly, half pint 
melted butter, made in proportion of quarter pound of 
butter, to a large tablespoon flour, four of milk and hot 
water, add powdered mace or nutmeg, to be eaten with 
pork, boiled, or poultry, use chicken gravy or the water 
the chicken were boiled in. 

Horseradish Sauce.—Perhaps a good receipt for 
horseradish sauce, which is so excellent with both hot 
and cold beef, but which we do not always see served up 
with either. Two tablespoonfuls of mustard, the same of 
vinegar, three tablespoonfuls of cream or milk and one of 
pounded white sugar, well beaten up together with a small 
quantity of grated horseradish. This is, of course, to be 
served up cold. 


Sauce for Salrnon.-Boil a bunch of fennel and parsley 
chop them small, and put into it some good melted but¬ 
ter. Gravy sauce should be served with it; put a little 
brown gravy into a saucepan, with one anchovy, a teaspoon¬ 
ful of lemon pickle, a tablespoonful of walnut pickle, two 
spoonfuls of water in which the fish was boiled, a stick of 
horseradish, a little browning, and salt; boil them four 
minutes; thicken with flour and a good lump of butter, and 
strain through a hair sieve. 

Sauce for Savoury Pies. —Take some gravy, one an¬ 
chovy, a sprig of sweet herbs, an onion, and a little mush¬ 
room liquor; boil it a little, and thicken it with burnt but¬ 
ter, or a bit of butter rolled in flour; add a little port wine, 
and open the pie, and put it in. It will serve for lamb, 
mutton, veal or beef pies. 

Sauce for a Turkey. —Open some oysters into a basin, 
and wash them in their own liquor, and as soon as settled 
pour into a saucepan; add a little white gravy, a teaspoon¬ 
ful of lemon pickle; thicken with flour and butter; boil it 
three or four minutes; add a spoonful of thick cream, and 
then the oysters; shake them over the fire till they are hot, 
but do not let them boil. 

Sauce for Wild Fowl. —Simmer a teacupful of port 
wine, the same quantity of good meat gravy, a little shalot, 
a little pepper, salt, a grate of nutmeg and a bit of mace, 
for ten minutes; put in a bit of butter and flour, give it all 
one boil, and pour it through the birds. In general they 
are not stuffed as tame, but may be done so if liked. 

French Tomato Sauce. —Cut ten or a dozen tomatoes 
into quarters, and put them into a saucepan, with four 
onions, sliced, a little parsley, thyme, a clove, and a quar¬ 
ter of a pound of butter; then set the saucepan on the fire, 












































390 


COOKERY RECIPES. 


stirring occasionally for three-quarters of an hour; strain 
the sauce through a horse-hair sieve, and serve with the 
directed articles. 

Tomato Sauce. —Take 12 tomatoes, very red and ripe; 
take off the stalks, take out the seeds, and press out the 
water. Put the expressed tomatoes into a stewpan, with 
1^- ozs. of butter, a bay leaf, and a little thyme; put it upon 
a moderate fire, stir it into a pulp; put into it a good cullis, 
or the top of broth, which will be better. Bub it through 
a search, and put it into a stewpan with two spoonfuls of 
cullis; put in a little salt and cayenne. 

Another.— Proceed as above with the seeds and water. 
Put them into a stewpan, with salt and cayenne, and three 
tablespoonfuls of beef gravy. Set them on a slow stove 
for an hour, or till properly melted. Strain, and add a 
little good stock; and simmer a few minutes. 

White Sauce. —One pound of knuckle of veal, or any 
veal trimmings, or cold white meat, from which all brown 
skin has been removed; if meat has been cooked, more will 
be required. It is best to have a little butcher's meat fresh, 
even if you have plenty of cold meat in the larder; any 
chicken bones greatly improve the stock. This should 
simmer for five hours, together with a little salt, a dozen 
white peppercorns, one or two small onions stuck with 
cloves, according to taste, a slice or two of lean ham, and 
a little shred of celery and a carrot (if in season) in a quart 
of water. Strain it, and skim off all the fat; then mix one 
dessert-spoonful of flour in a half pint of cream; or, for 
economy’s sake, half milk and half cream, or even all good 
new milk; add this to the stock, and if not salt enough, 
cautiously add more seasoning. Boil all together very gently 
for ten minutes, stirring all the time, as the sauce 
easily burns and very quickly spoils. This stock, made in 
large quantities, makes white soup; for this an old fowl, 
stewed* down, is excellent, and the liquor in which a young 
turkey has been boiled is as good a foundation as can be 
desired. 

Economical White Sauce. —Cut up fine one carrot, 
two small onions, and put them into a stewpan with two 
ounces of butter, and simmer till the butter is nearly ab¬ 
sorbed. Then mix a small teacupful of flour in a pint of 
new milk, boil the whole quietly till it thickens, strain it, 
soason with salt and white pepper or cayenne, and it is 
ready to serve. Or mix well two ounces of flour with one 
ounce of butter; with a little nutmeg, pepper and salt; add 
a pint of milk, and throw in a strip of lemon peel; stir well 
over the fire till quite thick, and strain. 

Wine Sauce. —One and^- cups sugar, three quarters cup 
of wine, a large spoonful flour, and a large piece of butter. 

HOW TO MAKE SOUPS 

...AND BROTHS 

. Artichoke Soup. —Take Jerusalem artichokes accord¬ 
ing to the quantity of soup required to be made, cut them 
in slices, with a quarter of a pound of butter, two or three 
onions and turnips, sliced into a stewpan, and stew over a 
very slow fire till done enough, and thin it with good veal 
stock. Just before you serve, at the last boil, add a quar¬ 
ter of a pint of good cream. This is an excellent soup. 
Reason to taste with a little salt and cayenne. As it is nec¬ 
essary to vary soups, we shall give you afew to choose from 
according to season and taste. All brown soups must be 
clear and thin, with the exception of mock turtle, which 
must be thickened with flour first browned with butter in 
a stewpan. If the flour is added without previous brown- 
nig, it preserves a raw taste that by no means improves the 


Asparagus Soup. —Three or four pounds of veal cut 
fine, a little salt pork, two or three bunches of asparagus 
and three quarts of water. Boil one-half of the asparagus 
with the meat, leaving the rest in water until about twenty 
minutes before serving; then add the rest of the asparagus 
and boil just before serving; add one pint of milk; thicken 
with a little flour, and season. The soup should boil about 
three hours before adding the last half of the asparagus. 

Beef Broth. —Put two pounds of lean beef, one pound 
of scrag of veal, one pound of scrag of mutton, sweet 
herbs, and ten peppercorns, into a nice tin saucepan, with 
five quarts of water; simmer to three quarts, and clear 
from the fat when cold. Add one onion, if approved. 

Soup and broth made of different meats are more sup¬ 
porting, as well as better flavored. 

To remove the fat, take it off, when cold, as clean as 
possible; and if there be still any remaining, lay a bit of 
clean blotting or cap paper on the broth when in the basin, 
and it will take up every particle. 

Beef Soup. —Cut all the lean off the shank, and with a 
little beef suet in the bottom of the kettle, fry it to a nice 
brown ; put in the bones and cover with water; cover the 
kettle closely*; let it cook slowly until the meat drops 
from the bones; strain through a colander and leave it in 
the dish during the night, which is the only way to get off 
all the fat. The day it is wanted for the table, fry as 
brown as possible a carrot, an onion, and a very small 
turnip sliced thin. Just before taking up, put in half a 
tablespoonful of sugar, a blade of mace, six cloves, a 
dozen kernels of allspice, a small tablespoonful of celery 
seed. With the vegetables this must cook slowly in the 
soup an hour; then strain again for the table. If you use 
vermicelli or pearl barley, soak in water. 

Dr. Liebig’S Beef Tea. —When one pound of lean 
beef, free from fat, and separated from the bones, in a 
finely-chopped state in which it is used for mince-meat, 
or beef-sausages, is uniformly mixed with its own weight 
of cold water, slowly heated till boiling, and the liquid, 
after boiling briskly for a minute or two, is strained 
through the towel from the coagulated albumen and the 
fibrine, now become hard and horny, we obtain an equal 
weight of the most aromatic soup, of such strength as 
cannot be obtained even by boiling for hours from a piece 
of flesh. When mixed with salt and the other additions 
by which soup is usually seasoned, and tinged somewhat 
darker by means of roasted onions, or burnt bread, it 
forms the very best soup which can, in any way, be pre¬ 
pared from one pound of flesh. 

Brown Gravy Soup. —Shred a small plate of onions, 
put some dripping into a frying-pan and fry the onions 
till they are of a dark brown ; then, having about three 
pounds of beef cut up in dice, without fat or bone, 
brown that in a frying-pan. Now get a sauce-pan to con¬ 
tain about a gallon, and put in the onions and meat, with 
a carrot and a turnip cut small, and a little celery, if you 
have it; if not, add two seeds of celery; put three 
quarts, or three and a half quarts of water to this, and 
stir all together with a little pepper and salt; simmer 
very slowly, and skim off what rises; in three or four 
hours the soup will be clear. When served, add a little 
vermicelli, which should have previously been boiled in 
water ; the liquid should be carefully poured off through 
a sieve. A large quantity may be made in the same pro¬ 
portions. Of course, the meat and onions must bestirred 
whilst frying, and constantly turned; they should be of a 
fine brown, not black, and celery-seed will give a flavor, it 
is so strong. 

Carrot Soup. —Put some beef bones, with four quarts 
of the liquor in which a leg of mutton or beef has been 







































COOKERY RECIPES. 


391 


boiled, two large onions, a turnip, pepper and salt into a 
sauce-pan, and stew for three hours. Have ready six 
large carrots, scraped and cut thin, strain the soup on 
them, and stew them till soft enough to pulp through a 
hair sieve or coarse cloth, then boil the pulp with the 
soup, which is to be as thick as pea-soup. Use two 
wooden spoons to rub the carrots through. Make the 
soup the day before it is to be used. Add cayenne. Pulp 
only the red part of the carrot, and not the yellow. 

Clam Soup. —Cut salt pork in very small squares and 
fry light brown ; add one large or two small onions cut 
very fine, and cook about ten minutes ; add two quarts 
water and one quart of raw potatoes, sliced ; let it boil ; 
then add one quart of clams. Mix one tablespoonful of 
flour with water, put it with one pint of milk, and pour 
into the soup, and let it boil about five minutes. Butter, 
pepper, salt. Worcestershire sauce to taste. 

Groutons. —These are simply pieces of bread fried 
brown and crisp, to be used in soups. 

Game Soups. —Cut in pieces a partridge, pheasant, or 
rabbit; add slices of veal, ham, onions, carrots, etc. Add 
a little water, heat a little on slow fire, as gravy is done ; 
then add some good broth, boil the meat gently till it is 
done. Strain, and stew in the liquor what herbs you 
please. 

Game Soup. —In the season for game, it is easy to 
have good game soup at very little expense, and very nice. 
Take the meat from off the bones of any cold game left, 
pound it in a mortar and break up the bones, and pour 
on them a quart of any good broth, and boil for an hour 
and a half. Boil and mash six turnips, and mix with the 
pounded meat, and then pass them through a sieve. 
Strain the broth, and stir in the mixture of meat and 
turnips which has been strained through the sieve ; keep 
the soup-pot near the fire, but do not let it boil. When 
ready to dish the soup for table, beat the yolks of five 
eggs very lightly, and mix with them half a pint of good 
cream. Set the soup on to boil, and, as it boils, stir in 
the beaten eggs and cream, but be careful that it does not 
boil after they are stirred in, as the egg will curdle. 
Serve hot. 

Julienne Soup. —Put a piece of butter the size of an 
egg into the soup-kettle; stir until melted. Cut three 
young onions small; fry them a nice brown ; add three 
quarts of good clear beef-stock, a little mace, pepper and 
salt; let it boil an hour; add three young carrots and 
three turnips cut small, a stalk of celery cut fine, a pint of 
French beans, a pint of green peas; let this boil two 
hours ; if not a bright, clear color, add a spoonful of soy. 
This is a nice summer soup. 

Lobster Soup. —One large lobster or two small ones ; 
pick all the meat from the shell and chop fine ; scald one 
quart of milk and one pint of water, then add the lobster, 
one pound of butter, a teaspoonful of flour, and salt and 
red pepper to taste. Boil ten minutes and serve hot. 

Mock Turtle Soup. —One soup-bone, one quart of tur¬ 
tle beans, one large spoonful of powdered cloves, salt and 
pepper.* Soak the beans over night, put them on with 
the soup-bone in nearly six quarts of water, and cook 
five or six hours. When half done, add the cloves, salt 
and pepper; when done, strain through a colander, press¬ 
ing the pulp of the beans through to make the soup the 
desired thickness, and serve with a few slices of hard- 
boiled egg and lemon sliced very thin. The turtle beans 
are black and can only be obtained from large groce. 

Oyster Soup. —Take one quart of water, one teacup 
of butter, one pint of milk, two teaspoons of salt, four 
crackers rolled fine, and one teaspoon of pepper; bring to 
full boiling heat as soon as possible, then add one quart of 


oysters; let the whole come to boiling heat quickly and 
remove from the fire. 

Oyster Soup. —Pour one quart of boiling water into a 
skillet ; then one quart of good rich milk; stir in one 
teacup of rolled cracker crumbs ; season with pepper and 
salt to taste. When all come to boil, add one quart of 
good fresh oysters; stir well, so as to keep from scorch¬ 
ing; then add a piece of good sweet butter about the size 
of an egg ; let it boil up once, then remove from the fire 
immediately ; dish up and send to table. 

Ox Tail Soup. —Take two ox tails and two whole 
onions, two carrots, a small turnip, tw T o tablespoonfuls of 
flour, and a little white pepper; add a gallon of water, let 
all boil for two hours; then take out the tails and cut the 
meat into small pieces, return the bones to the pot for a 
short time, boil for another hour, then strain the soup, 
and rinse two spoonfuls of arrow-root to add to it with the 
meat cut from the bones, and let all boil for a quarter of 
an hour. 

Scotch Broth. —Take one-half teacup barley, four 
quarts cold water ; bring this to the boil and skim ; now 
put in a neck of mutton and boil again for half an hour, 
skim well the sides of the pot also ; have ready two car¬ 
rots, one large onion, a small head of cabbage, one bunch 
parsley, one sprig of celery top; chop all these fine, add 
your chopped vegetables, pepper and salt to taste. This 
soup takes two hours to cook. 

Soup and Bouille. —Stew a brisket of beef with some 
turnips, celery, leeks and onions, all finely cut. Put the 
pieces of beef into the pot first, then the roots, and half 
a pint of beef gravy, with a few cloves. Simmer for an 
hour. Add more beef gravy, and boil gently for half an 
hour. 

Royal Soup. —Take a scrag or knuckle of veal, slices 
of undressed gammon of bacon, onions, mace, and a 
small quantity of water; simmer till very strong, and 
lower it with a good beef broth made the day before, and 
stewed till the meat is done to rags. Add cream, vermi¬ 
celli, almonds and a roll. 

Various Soups. —Good soups may be made from fried 
meats, where the fat and gravy are added to the boiled 
barley; and for that purpose, fat beef steaks, pork steaks, 
mutton chops, etc. should be preferred, as containing 
more of the nutritious principle. When nearly done fry¬ 
ing, add a little water, which will produce a gravy to be 
added to the barley broth; a little wheat flour should be 
dredged in also; a quantity of onions, cut small, should 
also be fried with the fat, which gives the soup a fine 
flavor, assisted by seasoning, etc. 

Soups may be made from broiled meats. W T hile the fat 
beef steak is doing before the fire, or mutton chop, etc., 
save the drippings on a dish, in which a little flour, oat¬ 
meal, with cut onions, etc., are put. 

Grand Consomme Soup. —Put into a pot two knuckles 
of veal, a piece of a leg of beef, a fowl, or an old cock, a 
rabbit, or two old partridges; add a ladleful of soup, and 
stir it well; when it comes to a jelly, put in a sufficient 
quantity of stock, and see that it is clear; let it boil, skim¬ 
ming and refreshing it with water; season it as the above; 
you may add, if you like, a clove of garlic; let it then boil 
slowly or simmer four or five hours; put it through a 
towel, and use it for mixing in sauces or clear soups. 

Julienne Soup. —Take some carrots and turnips, and 
turn them riband-like; a few heads of celery, some leeks 
and onions, and cut them in lozenges, boil them till they 
are cooked, then put them into clear gravy soup. Brown 
thickening.—N. B. You may, in summer time, add 
green peas, asparagus tops, French beans, some lettuce or 
sorrel. 




































392 


COOKERY RECIPES. 


Soup and Soups. —It is not at all necessary to keep 
a special fire for five hours every day in order to have at 
dinner a first course of soup. Nor need a good, savory, 
nutritious soup for a family of five cost more than 10 
cents. There is no use hurling any remarks about “ swill- 
pails.” Every housekeeper who knows anything of her 
kitchen and dining-room affairs, knows there are usually 
nice clean fragments of roasts and broils left over, and 
that broth in which lamb, mutton, beef, and fowls have 
been boiled is in existence, and that twice a week or so 
there is a bowl of drippings from roasted meats. All these 
when simmered with rice, macaroni, or well-chosen vege¬ 
tables, and judiciously seasoned, make good soups, and 
can be had without a special fire, and without sending to 
the butcher’s for special meats. We name a few of the 
soups we make, and beg leave to add that they are pretty 
well received. We make them in small quantities, for 
nobody with three additional courses before him wants to 
eat a quart of soup, you know ! 

1. —One pint of good gravy, three cups boiling water, a 
slice of turnip, and half an onion cut in small bits, two 
grated crackers. Simmer half an hour. 

2. —On ironing day cut off the narrow ends from two or 
three sirloin steaks, chop them into morsels and put in a 
stewpan with a little salt, a tablespoonful of rice and a 
pint of cold water, and simmer slowly for three hours. 
Then add water enough to make a quart of soup, a table¬ 
spoonful of tomato catsup, and a little browned flour 
mixed with the yolk of an egg. 

3. —Pare and slice very thin four good sized potatoes, 
pour over them two cups of boiling water, and simmer 
gently until the potatoes are dissolved. Add salt, a lump 
of nice butter, and a pint of sweet milk with a dust of 
pepper. Let it boil up once, and serve. You wouldn’t 
think it, but it is real good, and children cry for it. 

4. —One pint meat broth, one pint boiling water, slice 
in an onion, or a parsnip, or half a turnip—or all three if 
liked—boil until the vegetables are soft, add little salt if 
needed, and a tablespoonful of Halford sauce. 

5. —Let green corn, in the time of green corn, be grated, 
and to a pint of it put a pint of rich milk, a pint of water, 
a little butter, salt and pepper. Boil gently for fifteen or 
twenty minutes. 

Split Pea Soup. —Take beef bones or any cold meats, 
and two pounds of corned pork; pour on them a gallon of 
hot water, and let them simmer three hours, removing all 
the scum. Boil one quart of split peas two hours, having 
been previously soaked, as they require much cooking: 
strain off the meat and mash the peas into the soup; sea¬ 
son with black pepper, and let it simmer one hour; fry two 
or three slices of bread a nice brown, cut into slices and 
put into the bottom of the tureen, and on them pour the 
soup. 

Tomato Soup. —Boil chicken or beef four hours; then 
strain; add to the soup one can of tomatoes and boil one 
hour. This will make four quarts of soup. 

Tomato Soup without Meat.— One quart of toftiatoes, 
one quart of water, one quart of milk. Butter, salt and 
pepper to taste. Cook the tomatoes thoroughly in the 
water, have the milk scalding (over water to prevent 
scorching). When the tomatoes are done add a large tea¬ 
spoonful of salaratus, which will cause a violent effer¬ 
vescence. It is best to set the vessel in a pan before adding 
it to prevent waste. When the commotion has ceased add 
the milk and seasoning. When it is possible it is best to 
use more milk than water, and cream instead of butter. 
The soup is eaten with crackers and is by some preferred 
to oyster soup. This recipe is very valuable for those who 
keep abstinence days. 


Turkey Soup. —Take the turkey bones and cook for 
one hour in water enough to cover them; then stir in a 
little dressing and a beaten egg. Take from the fire, and 
when the water has ceased boiling add a little butter w r ith 
pepper and salt. 

Veal Gravy. —But in the stewpan bits of lard, then a 
few thin slices of ham, a few bits of butter, then slices of 
fillet of veal, sliced onions, carrots, parsnips, celery, a few 
cloves upon the meat, and two spoonfuls of broth; set it 
on the fire till the veal throws out its juices; then put it on 
a stronger fire till the meat catches to the bottom of the 
pan, and is brought to a proper color; then add a sufficient 
quantity of light broth, and simmer it upon a slow fire 
till the meat is well done. A little thyme and mushrooms 
may be added. Skim and sift it clear for use. 

Veal Soup. —To a knuckle of veal of 6 pounds, put 7 
or 9 quarts of water; boil down one-half; skim it well. 
This is better to do the day before you prepare the soup 
for the table. Thicken it by rubbing flour, butter, and 
water together. Season with salt and mace. When done 
and one pint new milk; let it just come to a boil; then 
pour into a soup dish, lined with macaroni well cooked. 

Vegetable Soup. —Pare and slice five or six cucum¬ 
bers; and add to these as many cos lettuces, a sprig or two 
of mint, two or three onions, some pepper and salt, a pint 
and a half of young peas and a little parsley. Put these, 
Avith half a pound of fresh butter, into a saucepan, to 
stew in their own liquor, near a gentle fire, half an hour, 
then pour two quarts of boiling water to the vegetables, 
and stew them two hours; rub down a little flour into a 
teacupful of water, boil it with the rest twenty minutes, 
and serve it. 

Vermicelli Soup. —Boil tender % lb. of vermicelli in a 
quart of rich gravy; take half of it out, and add to it more 
gravy; boil till the vermicelli can be pulped through a 
sieve. To both put a pint of boiling cream, a little salt, 
and \ lb. of Parmesan cheese. Serve with rasped bread. 
Add tAVO or three eggs, if you like. 

Brown Vermicelli Soup. —Is made in the same man¬ 
ner, leaving out the eggs and cream, and adding one quart 
of strong beef gravy. 


HOW TO COOK VEGETABLES 

How to Boil Artichokes. —If the artichokes are very 
young, about an inch of the stalk can be left; but should 
they be full grown, the stalk must be cut quite close. 
Wash them well and put them into strong salt and water 
to soak for a couple of hours. Pull away a few of the 
lower leaves, and snip off the points of all. Fill a sauce¬ 
pan with water, throw some salt into it, let it boil up, and 
then remove the scum from the top; put the artichokes in, 
with the stalks upward, and let them boil until the leaves 
can be loosened easily; this will take from thirty to forty 
minutes, according to the age of the artichokes. The 
saucepan should not be covered during the time they are 
boiling. Kich melted butter is always sent to the table 
with them. 

New Mode to Dress Asparagus. —Scrape the grass, tie 
it up in bundles, and cut the ends off an even length. 
Have ready a saucepan, with boiling water, and salt in 
proportion of a heaped saltspoonful to a quart of water. 
Put in the grass, standing it on the bottom Avith the green 
heads out of the water, so that they are not liable to be boiled 
off. If the water boils too fast, dash in a little cold water. 
When the grass has boiled a quarter of an hour it will be 
sufficiently done; remove it from the saucepan, cut off 
the ends down to the edible part, arrange it on a dish in 


























































COOKERY RECIPES. 


303 


a round pyramid, with the heads toward the middle of 
the dish, and boil some eggs hard; cut them in two, and 
place them round the dish quite hot. Serve melted butter 
in a sauce-tureen; and those who like it rub the yoke of a 
hard egg into the butter, which makes a delicious sauce to 
the asparagus. 

How to Boil Asparagus. —Scrape the asparagus; tie 
them in small bunches; boil them in a large pan of water 
with salt in it; before you dish them up toast some slices 
of bread, and then dip them in the boiling water; lay the 
asparagus on the toasts; pour on them rich melted butter, 
and serve hot. 

Ragout of Asparagus. —Cut small asparagus like 
green peas; the best method is to break them off first; 
then tie them in small bunches to cut, boil them till half 
done; then drain them, and finish with butter, a little 
broth, herbs, two cloves, and a sprig of savory. When 
done, takeout the cloves, herbs, etc., mix two yolks of 
eggs, with a little flour, and broth, to garnish a first 
course dish. But if you intend to serve it in a second 
course mix cream, a little salt, and sugar. 

French Beans, a la Creme. —Slice the beans and 
boil them in water with salt. When soft, drain. Put 
into a stewpan two ounces of fresh butter, the yolks of 
three eggs, beaten up into a gill of cream, and set over a 
slow fire. When hot, add a spoonful Of vinegar, simmer 
for five minutes. 

To Preserve French Beans for Winter.— Pick them 
young, and throw into a little wooden keg a layer of them 
three inches deep; then sprinkle them with salt, put an¬ 
other layer of beans, and do the same as high as you think 
proper, alternately with salt, but not too much of this. 
Lay over them a plate, or cover of wood, that will go into 
the keg, and put a heavy stone on it. A pickle will rise 
from the beans and salt. If they are too salt, the soaking 
and boiling will not be sufficient to make them pleasant 
to the taste. 

Stewed Beans. —Boil them in water in which a lump 
of butter has been placed; preserve them as white as you 
can; chop a few sweet herbs with some parsley very fine; 
then stew them in a pint of the water in >vhich the leaves 
have been boiled, and to which a quarter of a pint of cream 
has been added; stew until quite tender, then add the 
beans, and stew five minutes, thickening with butter and 
flour. 

How to Boil Broccoli. —Peel the thick skin of the 
stalks, and boil for nearly a quarter of an hour, with a lit¬ 
tle bit of soda, then put in salt, and boil five minutes 
more. Broccoli and savoys taste better when a little 
bacon is boiled with them. 

How to boil Cabbage. —Cut off the outside leaves, 
and cut it in quarters; pick it well, and wash it clean; 
boil it in a large quantity of water, with plenty of salt in 
it; when it is tender and a fine light green, lay it on 
a sieve to drain, but do not squeeze it, it will take off 
the flavor; have ready some very rich melted butter, or 
chop it with cold butter. Greens must be boiled the same 
way. Strong vegetables like turnips and cabbage, etc., 
require much water. 

Cabbage Salad. —Three eggs well beaten, one cup of 
vinegar, two tablespoons of mustard, salt and pepper, one 
tablespoon of butter; let this mixture come to a boil, when 
cool add seven tablespoons of cream, half a head of cab¬ 
bage shaved fine. 

How to Boil Cauliflowers.—Strip the leaves which 
you do not intend to use, and put the cauliflowers into 
salt and water some time to force out snails, worms, etc. 
Boil them twelve minutes on a drainer in plenty of water, 


then add salt, and boil five or six minutes longer. Skim 
well while boiling. Take out and drain. Serve with 
melted butter, or a sauce made of butter, cream, pepper 
and salt. 

How to Fry Cauliflowers. —Wash as before. Boil 
twenty or thirty minutes; cut it into small portions, and 
cool. Dip the portions twice into a batter made of flour, 
milk and egg, and fry them in butter. Serve with gravy. 

Cucumbers for Immediate Use. —Slice, sprinkle 
with salt; let them stand several hours, drain, and then 
put to them sliced onions, vinegar to cover them, and 
salt, pepper, etc. Cayenne pepper and ground mustard 
render them wholesome. 

Stewed Celery. —Wash and clean six or eight heads of 
celery, let them be about three inches long; boil tender 
and pour off all the water; beat the yolks of four eggs, 
and mix with half a pint of cream, mace and salt; set it 
over the fire with the celery, and keep shaking until it 
thickens, then serve hot. 

Cold Slaw. —Half a head of cabbage cut very fine, a 
stalk of celery cut fine—or teaspoon of celery seed—or, a 
tablespoon of celery essence, four hard-boiled eggs, whites 
chopped very fine, a teaspoon of mustard, a tablespoon of 
butter and the yolks of the boiled eggs, salt and pepper, 
mix well; take an egg well beaten and stir in a cup of 
boiling vinegar, pour over and cover for a few minutes. 

Egg-Plant. —Slice the egg-plant an eighth of an inch 
in thickness, pare it, and sprinkle salt over it an hour be¬ 
fore cooking; then drain off all the water, beat up the 
yolk of an egg, dip the slices first in the egg, and then in 
crumbs of bread; fry a nice brown. Serve hot, and free 
from fat. 

How to Cook Egg-Plant. —Cut the egg-plant in slices 
half an inch thick, sprinkle a thin layer of salt between 
the slices, and lay them one over the other; and let them 
stand an hour. This draws out the bitter principal from 
the egg-plant, and also a part of the water. Then lay 
each slice in flour, put in hot fat and fry it brown on both 
sides. Or boil the egg-plant till tender, remove the skin, 
mash fine, mix with an equal quantity of bread or cracker 
crumbs, and salt, pepper and bake half an hour. This 
makes a delightful dish, and a very digestible one, as it 
has so little oily matter in it. 

How to Broil Mushrooms.— Pare some large,, open 
mushrooms, leaving the stalks on, paring them to a point; 
wash them well, and turn them on the back of a drying 
sieve to drain. Put into a stewpan two ounces of butter, 
some chopped parsley, and shalots, then fry them for a 
minute on the fire; when melted, place your mushroom 
stalks upward on a saucepan, then pour the butter and 
parsley over all the mushrooms; pepper and salt them 
well with black pepper put them in the oven to broil; when 
done, put a little good stock to them, give them a boil 
and dish them, pour the liquor over them, adding more 
gravy, but let it be put in hot. 

How to Pickle Onions. —Take two quarts of the small 
white round onions. Scald them in very strong salt and 
water. Just let them boil. Strain, peel, place in jars; 
cover them with the best white wine vinegar. In two 
days pour all the vinegar off, and boil it half an hour, 
with a teaspoonful of cayenne pepper, 1 oz. of ginger, 16 
cloves, £ oz. ground mustard, 2 ozs. mustard seed. When 
cold, pour upon the onions. Some persons prefer the 
vinegar boiling hot. 

How to Fricassee Parsnips.— Boil in milk till they 
are soft, then cut them lengthwise in bits two or three 
inches long, and simmer in a white sauce, made of two 





























394 


COOKERY RECIPES. 


spoonfuls of broth, and a bit of mace, half a cupful of 
cream, a bit of butter, and some flour, pepper and salt. 

How to Mash Parsnips.— Boil them tender, scrape’ 
then mash them in a stewpan with a little cream, a good, 
piece of butter, and pepper and salt. 

How to Stew Parsnips.— Boil them tender; scrape 
and cut into slices; put them into a saucepan with cream 
enough; for sauce, a piece of butter rolled in floui, and a 
little salt; shake the saucepan often, when the cream boils, 
pour them into a dish. 

How to Boil Peas.— Peas should not be shelled long 
before they are wanted, nor boiled in much water; when 
the water boils, put them in with a little salt (some add a 
little loaf sugar, but if they are sweet of themselves, it is 
superfluous); when the peas begin to dent in the middle 
they are boiled enough. Strain, and put a piece of butter 
in the dish, and stir. A little mint should be boiled with 
the peas. 

Puree of Potatoes. —This differs from mashed pota¬ 
toes only in the employment of more milk and butter, and 
in the whole being carefully reduced to a perfectly smooth, 
thick, cream-like mixture. Where economy is a great ob¬ 
ject, and where rich dishes are not desired, the following 
is an admirable mode of mashing potatoes : Boil them 
till thoroughly done, having added a handful of salt to the 
water, then dry them well, and with two forks placed back 
to back beat the whole up until no lumps areleft. If done 
rapidly, potatoes thus cooked are extremely light and 
digestible. 

How to Boil Potatoes. —Boil in a saucepan without 
lid, with only sufficient water to cover them; more would 
spoil them, as the potatoes contain much water, and it re¬ 
quires to be expelled. When the water nearly boils pour 
it off, and add cold water, with a good portion of salt. 
The cold water sends the heat from the surface to the cen¬ 
ter of the potato, and makes it mealy. Boiling with a lid 
on often produces cracking. 

New Potatoes. —Should be cooked soon after having 
been dug; wash well, and boil. 

The Irish, who boil potatoes to perfection, say they 
should always be boiled in their jackets; as peeling them 
for boiling is only offering a premium for water to run 
through the potato, and rendering it sad and unpalatable; 
they should be well washed, and put into cold water. 

New Potatoes. —Have them as freshly dug as may be 
convenient; the longer they have been out of the ground 
the less well-flavored they are. Well wash them, rub off 
the skins with a coarse cloth or brush, and put them into 
boiling water, to which has been added salt, at the rate of 
one heaped teaspoonful to two quarts. Let them boil till 
tender—try them with a fork; they will take from ten or 
fifteen minutes to half an hour, according to size. When 
done, pour away the water, and set by the side of the fire, 
with the lid aslant. When they are quite dry, have ready a 
hot vegetable dish, and inthe middle of it put a piece of but¬ 
ter the size of a walnut—some people like more—heap the 
potatoes round it and over it, and serve immediately. We 
have seen very young potatoes, no larger than a marble, 
parboiled, and then fried in cream till" they are of a fine 
auburn color; or else, when larger, boiled till nearly ready, 
then sliced and fried in cream, with pepper, salt, a very 
little nutmeg, and a flavoring of lemon juice. Both make 
pretty little supper dishes. 

Potatoes Roasted under the Meat.— These are very 
good; they should be nicely browned. Half boil large mealy 
potatoes; put into a baking dish, under the meat roasting; 
ladle the gravy upon them occasionally. They are best 
done in an oven. 


Potato Ribbons. —Cut the potatoes into slices, lather 
more than half an inch thick, and then pare round and 
round in very long ribbons. Place them in a pan of cold 
water, and a short time before wanted drain them from 
the water. Fry them in hot lard, or good dripping, until 
crisp and browned; dry them on a soft cloth, pile them on 
a hot dish, and season with salt and cayenne. 

Potato Rolls.— Boil three lbs. of potatoes; crush and 
work them with two ozs. of butter and as much milk as will 
cause them to pass through a colander; take half a pint of 
yeast and half a pint of warm water; mix with the pota¬ 
toes; pour the whole upon 5 lbs. of flour; add salt; knead 
it well; if too thick, put to it a little more milk and warm 
water; stand before the fire for an hour to rise; work it well 
and make it into rolls. Bake it half an hour. 

Potato Rissoles. —Boil the potatoes floury; mash them, 
seasoning them with salt and a little cayenne; mince pars¬ 
ley very fine, and work up with the potatoes, adding es¬ 
chalot, also chopped small. Bind with yolk of egg, roll 
into balls, and fry with fresh butter over a clear fire. Meat 
shred finely, bacon or ham may be added. 

Potato Sautees. —These are even more agreeable with 
meat than fried potatoes. Cold boiled potatoes are sliced 
up, and tossed up in a saucepan with butter, mixed with a 
little chopped parsley, till they are lightly browned. Pure 
goose or other dripping is by many cooks preferred to but¬ 
ter for this purpose. 

Potato Souffles. —The delicious blistered potatoes are 
prepared as follows : The potatoes, if small, are simply cut 
in halves; if large, cut in three or more slices; these are 
fried in the usual way, but are taken out before they are 
quite done, and set aside to get cold; when wanted they 
are fried a second time, but only till they are of a light 
golden color, not brown. 

Tomatoes.—Cut ripe tomatoes into slices, put them in 
a buttered dish with some bread crumbs, butter, pepper 
and salt, and bake till slightly brown on top. 

Forced Tomatoes. —Prepare the following forcemeat : 
Two ounces of mushrooms, minced small, a couple of shal- 
ots, likewise minced, a small quantity of parsley, a slice of 
lean ham, chopped fine, a few savory herbs, and a little 
cayenne and salt. Put all these ingredients into a sauce¬ 
pan with a lump of butter, and stew all togetheruntil quite 
tender, taking care that they do not burn. Put it by to 
cool, and then mix with them some bread crumbs and 
the well beaten yolks of two eggs. Choose large tomatoes, 
as nearly of the same size as possible, cut a slice from the 
stalk end of each, and take out carefully the seeds and 
juice; fill them with the mixture which has already been 
prepared, strew them over with bread and some melted 
butter, and bake them in a quick oven until they assume a 
rich color. They are a good accompaniment to veal or 
calf’s head. 

To Mash Turnips. —Boil them very tender. Strain till 
no water is left. Place in a saucepan over a gentle fire, 
and stir well a few minutes. Do not let them burn. Add 
a liltle cream, or milk, or both, salt butter and pepper. 
Add a tablespoonful of fine sugar. Stir and simmer five 
minutes longer. 

To Boil or Stew Vegetable Marrow.— This excellent 
vegetable may be boiled as asparagus. When boiled, di¬ 
vide it lengthways into two, and serve it upon a toast ac¬ 
companied by melted butter; or when nearly boiled, divide 
it as above, and stew gently in gravy like cucumbers. Care 
should be taken to choose young ones not exceeding six 
inches in length. 
























































BANKING, 




oldest, largest and wealthiest 
banking institution in existence 
at the present time is the Bank 
of England. This wonderful 
establishment, which makes itself 
felt in every money market in the 
world, and at home occupies such 
a conspicuous position in commercial and 
financial affairs, was chartered in 1694, 
with a capital of £1,200,000. At vari¬ 
ous times since, additions have been 
made un- 
i 1 the 
capital 
is no w 
£ 14 , 553 ,- 
000, or about $72,000,- 
000. The Bank of Eng¬ 
land covers a quadran¬ 
gular space of about 
four acres, with a street 
on every side. The 
buildings are of one 
story, and have no win¬ 
dows towards any of the 
thoroughfares. There is 

little in the external BANK OF 

appearance to attract attention. Within, there are 
nine courts, which afford ample sunlight and ventila¬ 
tion, away from the noise and dust of the street. 
During its long existence, this great institution has 
passed through some dangerous crises, such as the 
rebellion of 1745, when its payments were made in 
sixpences to gain time; the trouble occasioned by the 
wars with France, at the end of the last century, when 


specie payments were suspended, and not resumed until 
1823; and during the time of the commercial difficul¬ 
ties in 1825, when its treasure was reduced to a very 
low ebb, but, luckily, the tide turned before it was 
exhausted. 

The management of the Bank is intrusted to a gov¬ 
ernor, deputy governor and twenty-four directors, 
eight of whom go out of office every year, but are 
usually re-elected. The owners of stock to the value 
of £500 are entitled to vote for directors. The gover¬ 
nor must own stock to the amount of at least £4,000, 

the deputy governor 
£3,000, and a director 
£2,000. The directors 
and governors meet in 
the “ Bank parlor,” 
where the dividends are 
declared, and the rate 
of discount announced, 
a point of great import¬ 
ance to the money mar¬ 
ket. The dividend on 
£100 is 8 per cent, and 
the market price of that 
amount is about £250. 
The number of per- 
ENGLAND. sons employed in the 

Bank is about 900. The salary of a clerk entering at 
seventeen is £70, and that of the head of a department 
£1,200. The sum paid in salaries annually is £210,000, 
and some of the clerks have amassed large fortunes. 
There is an extensive library in the Bank for the use of 
the clerks, and within its walls a fine, well-kept garden. 

The profits of the Bank arise from various sources. 
It issues notes and carries on the business of an ordi- 

















































































































































































BANKING. 


nary bank, receiving deposits, discounting bills, mak¬ 
ing loans, etc. A large cash balance belonging to the 
government is always in its hands, and of this a profit 
is made. The Bank, for its services in managing the 
national debt—which funded and unfunded, amounts 
to nearly eight hundred million pounds—keeping the 
books, attending to transfers, receiving the taxes, etc., 
is paid £212,000 a year. 

A very large amount of bullion is kept in its vaults, 

as a reserve to meet any run that may be made upon 

the bank. The Bullion Office is a special department 

with its own staff of clerks. The gold is in bars, each 

weighing lfi lbs, while the silver is in pigs and bars, or 

in bags of coin. The paper currency of the realm is 

issued from this Bank, and there is usually from 

eighteen to nineteen millions sterling in circulation. 

The paper upon which these notes are printed is of 

peculiar texture and make, and together with the 

printing, is more difficult to counterfeit 

than our United States currency. When 

«/ 

a note that has been issued, is returned 
to the Bank, it is immediately canceled, 
and consequently new notes are con¬ 
stantly issuing to replace those that 
come in. 

The oldest bank in our own country is the 
Bank of North America, at Philadelphia, 
which was founded by the venerable 
Robert Morris, under the advice of Alex¬ 
ander Hamilton, and began business Jan- §J 
nary 7, 1782, with a capital of $400,000. JE 

In 1784 its capital Avas increased to $2,- "BANK OF NORTH AMERICA 
000,000. During all its long career of 


months, when the bank again resumed its quarters in 
town. 

The Bank of North America commenced business in 

V 

a store building on Chestnut street near Third, belong¬ 
ing to its cashier, and continued to occupy and conduct 
its business for upward of sixty-five years, or until its 
present building was erected in 1847. The old build¬ 
ing was never well adapted to the use of the bank, 
and, besides, from the fragile construction of the walls, 
was not considered safe. On one occasion the bank, 
by the merest accident, escaped the perpetration of a 
robbery. When Porter, the mail robber, was arrested, 
tried, and sentenced to death for robbing the Reading 
mail, in December, 1829, he sent for James S. Smith, 
Esq., counsel for the bank, and confessed to him that 
a plan had been laid for robbing the bank, which would 
undoubtedly have been put into execution but for his 
arrest. The method in which this was to have been 
accomplished was substantially as fol¬ 
lows : 

A narrow alley ran northward from 
Chestnut street , on the west side of the 
bank, which was at that time patrolled 
at night by a watchman employed by 
the bank. Porter and his confederates 
had, on some pretense, obtained access 
to the banking house during business 
hours, and had discovered that the vault 
wherein the specie was kept was situated 
a. on the western side of the building back- 
ing on this alley. They found, too, that 
owing to the miserable construction of 
(Priorto 1846.) the w p 0 ] e building, but one thickness of 




over one hundred years, it has, in many trying times, 
been of valuable service to our government, the com¬ 
monwealth of Pennsylvania, and the city of Phila¬ 
delphia. 

From the founding of this notable institution to the 
present time, it has been presided over by seven presi¬ 
dents, and seven cashiers, most of whom served for 
long terms. The career of the bank has been a check¬ 
ered one, and although marked with success, it has at 
times been driven, in common with other banks, to 
suspend specie payment. 

In the summer of 1798 the prevalence of yellow 
fever was such, and its ravages so disastrous in the 
neighborhood of the bank, that it was thought unsafe 
for the clerks to attend to their daily duties. The 
Bank was accordingly removed temporarily to German¬ 
town and occupied a portion of a school house, where 
it remained and carried on business for about two 



brick intervened between the alley and the vault. Hav- 
ing ascertained the distance of the vault from the front 
of the building, they had stepped a like distance in the 
alley, and had actually marked the part of the west 
wall constituting the back of the vault. Their plan 
was to seize and gag the bank watchman at night, cut 
through the brick wall, and so possess themselves of 
the contents of the vault. On hearing this story, the 
directors, of course, at once took steps to have the 
western Avails so strengthened as to preclude the possi¬ 
bility of another such attempt. The attention of the 
directors avus also forcibly directed to the ruinous state 
of the building by the sudden falling of two bricks 
from the aauiII in the president’s room during business 
hours, in the early part of 1847. 

During the great panic of 1857 the Bank of North 
America Avas, like others, compelled to suspend the 
payment of specie, but a noteworthy fact connected 










































































BANKING. 


397 


with the success of this banking institution is, that 
during an existence of over one hundred years, it never 
missed declaring its semi-annual dividend except live 
times, and that during a panic unexampled for its mag¬ 
nitude and disastrous effects upon the business com¬ 
munity. 

The Bank of North America, always loyal to the 
United States government, for whose aid it was origi¬ 
nally organized, rendered valuable service to the country 
in a financial way during the rebellion, and although 
it took its place under the national system, the gov¬ 
ernment at Washington allowed it, through respect 
for its age, to retain its old name, without adding the 
word “ National.” 

ORGANIZATION OF A BANK. 

The organization of a bank under a general law, 
either national or state, is a very simple matter. Arti¬ 
cles of association are drawn up in ac¬ 
cordance with the statute of the state 
or act of congress. In either the form 

O 

is nearly always prescribed. These arti¬ 
cles recite, 1st, the title of the proposed 
bank; 2d, the amount of its capital 
stock, the number of shares into which 
it is divided and the amount of each. 

Usually these articles contain the names 
of the first directors and are signed by 
them, the act of subscription including 
their election. Each subscriber to the 
capital stock places opposite his name 
the number of shares he desires. 

When the capital stock is all taken 
up, a certificate of organization must be filed with 
the secretary of state, and a certified copy thereof 
with the clerk or recorder of the county in which 
the bank is located. Generally a publication of the 
articles of association is made necessary by state law. 

The executive management of the bank is confided 
to a board of directors, who are elected annually, at a 
meeting of stockholders. These directors are usually 
selected from among the wealthiest stockholders, for 
their business experience, their standing in community 
and consequent influence in gaining business for the 
bank. They are expected to meet weekly or semi¬ 
weekly for the purpose of regulating the affairs of the 
bank, discussing its present and future policy, and the 
status of money matters in general. In most banks 
they also pass on the merits of paper offered for dis¬ 
count, although in some banks this is lett almost 
entirely to the cashier or president. 


THE PRESIDENT. 

The president is elected by the directors. He should 
be and generally is the executive officer of the bank. 
In all legal relations, he is the bank, as he is plaintiff 
and defendant in suits at law. The president, with the 
cashier, signs the shares of stock issued to share¬ 
holders. 

The directors depend upon the president for their 
knowledge of the transactions of the bank, and his 
vote or advice settles most of the questions of bank 
policy that come before the board. 

They also depend upon him for an explanation of the 
weekly or semi-weekly “ bank statement.” Hence the 
bank president needs be, and if successful must be, a 
man of approved and tried character, of good educa¬ 
tion, and having a large fund of general knowledge, 
keen sagacity in observing character, quick in arriving 
at conclusions and decided in action, with a thorough 
knowledge of the principles and prac¬ 
tice of book-keeping. 

The weekly or semi-weekly bank 
statement, for instance, is as unintelli¬ 
gible to the ordinary business man as 
so many characters in an unknown 
language. 

It is simply an accumulation of 
figures, but to the skilled president it 
shows not only the actual present con¬ 
dition of the bank, but all its availa¬ 
bilities to meet not only probable but 
possible contingencies. The successful 
bank president must watch the currents 
of trade, must not only forecast the 
future, but he must keep his bank in a condition to 
meet any possible ebb or flow in the financial tides, as 
he is the personal and moral representative of his 
bank. If disaster overtakes the bank, upon his head 
will rest the heaviest weight of the blame. 

Also, to attract the proper class of customers, the 
president should be honorable and high minded in all 
his own dealings, and free from speculation of any sort 
or kind. 

THE CASHIER. 

The cashier is the president’s right hand, as to him 
are committed all the details of the business. In many 
respects his duties are co-ordinate with those of the 
president, while the supervision of the clerks and their 
accounts, the correspondence with other banks and 
customers, the signing of drafts drawn upon other 
banks, in fact, the executive work of the bank in all 



BANK OF NORTH AMERICA. 

(Since 1846.) 



















































































BANKING. 


its details is his particular department. Like the 
president, he is elected by the directors, yet he is 
regarded in most cases as the direct representative of 
the stockholders. 

A faithful cashier has been known to respectfully 
negative a vote of his board of directors as to the 
policy of the bank because he knew that they were 
wrong. Yet, so far from being discharged, he was 
afterward rewarded by a vote of approval from the 
same directors, after events had proven him right and 
they wrong. This was perhaps an extreme case, and 
shows the cashier’s responsibility and strength of posi¬ 
tion, when backed by approved integrity and ability, 
and the vindication of his wisdom. 

The cashier is the representative of the bank in its 
daily dealings with its customers. He needs all the 
qualifications ascribed to the successful president with 
an additional im¬ 
perturbability that 
can be ruffled by no 
amount of fault¬ 
finding or inter- 
ruption. 

He must have a 
perfect mastery of 
accounts, so that his 
eye can comprehend 
a page at a glance, 
of any book or re¬ 
cord kept by the 
bank. He cannot 
be expected, in a 
large bank, to ex¬ 
amine and prove all 
the separate entries 


the firm of Upper, Sole & Co., who desires to open an 

account with you.” 

*/ 

% 

After exchanging greetings, the cashier asks, 

“ What business are you engaged in, Mr. Upper?” 

“ I am engaged in the retail boot and shoe trade.” 

“ Where is your place of business?” 

“ No. 234 Market street.” 

Meanwhile the cashier has opened a large book called 
a signature book, and has recorded the date, the address 
and occupation of Mr. Upper, leaving a blank place 
for his name. 

“ Just write your name in this book, Mr. Upper.” 

After the signature is recorded, the cashier either 
instructs the receiving teller to receive the deposit of 
the new customer, or what is perhaps a more polite 
way, the cashier takes a deposit ticket from his desk, 
fills it out for Mr. Upper, and places his own mark of 

approval, perhaps 


the initial letters 
of his name, at the 
bottom. 

“Please hand this 
to the receiving tel- 





INTERIOR VIEW OF THE FIRST NATIONAL BANK, CHICAGO. 

and accounts, but he can and must compare the foot¬ 
ings of proof sheets with the general ledger. 

He knows what book to look at and how to inspect 
it without any aid from the clerk who keeps it, in 
order to test the system of the bank at any point. In 
i * n} mnks, the (ashiei is the executive officer of the 
bank, in fact, if not in name, and upon him depends 
the success or failure of the whole institution. 

One of the most important' duties of the cashier is 
the opening of accounts with new customers, and this 
is usually, if not always attended with some formali¬ 
ties. The would-be customer presents himself at the 
cashier’s desk, either armed with a letter of introduc¬ 
tion from a customer of the bank, or accompanied by 
a friend who is a depositor. 

“ Mr. Cashier, allow me to introduce Mr. Upper, of 

3m 

q) 


ler, together with 
your deposit, and he 
will give you a pass¬ 
book.” 

The new deposi¬ 
tor is thus inducted 
into the first act, 
free from all em¬ 
barrassment. 

If the customer 
wishes simply to 
open an account, 
and says nothing about discounts or credit, the above 
embraces about all the formalities, but where a line of 
credit is asked, much more of detail must enter into 
the transaction. 

It may seem that a merchant is conferring a favor in 
thus opening an account, and to a certain extent this 
is true, but there are two substantial reasons for open¬ 
ing such an account: the first is, that a bank account 
is a great convenience to the merchant, and the second, 
and more important reason is, that it makes his cash 
account elastic. That is to say, the merchant, hav¬ 
ing had a good balance to his credit in the bank 
during his busy season of the year, will be able, 
when his dull season comes on and his cash is reduced or /[1 
exhausted, to secure all the ready money which he may Uv, 
require in order to prosecute his business enterprise,— 










































































































































BANKING. 


399 


his credit at the bank thus carrying him over any 
stringency. 

Banks prefer small depositors to large ones. One 
hundred depositors, carrying each a balance of a thou¬ 
sand dollars, is preferable to one depositor with a bal¬ 
ance of one hundred thousand dollars, for the depositor 
having a credit balance ot one hundred thousand dol¬ 
lars, is liable to come in at almost any time and draw 
out his entire balance and then ask for a credit of per¬ 
haps as much more, which, on account of his large 
deposits, the bank would not feel at liberty to refuse. 
"W hile it is not at all probable that more than a few of 
the one hundred smaller depositors would desire to draw 
out their balance at the same time. A bank having - 
heavy depositors must, therefore, keep a large cash 
capital idle in the vault to meet its demands, while the 
bank having only 
small accounts, may 
loan its funds up to 
a smaller reserve. 

Bankers discourage 
accounts that fluc¬ 
tuate too much be¬ 
tween large deposits 
one month and 
heavy discounts the 
next. 

A regular depos¬ 
itor in good stand¬ 
ing is entitled to a 
“ line of discounts,” 
depending in size 
upon the amount of 
his balance, his char¬ 
acter for promptness, and the stability of the business 
in which he is engaged. 

When applied to for loans or discounts, it is the 
cashier’s duty to obtain the facts concerning the case, 
so that he may lay these before the board of directors 
at their meeting, or, in case he is intrusted with the 
responsibility of such matters, he may act safely. 

Mr. Borrower calls on the cashier to secure the dis¬ 
counting of certain notes, and as this is his first request 
of the kind, and may lead to more extensive discounts 
in the future, the cashier desires to satisfy himself more 
fully concerning the paper and its would-be discounter. 
He, therefore, upon learning Mr. Borrower’s errand, 
retires with him to an inner room, consults his mercan¬ 
tile agency reports concerning the standing of the 
maker and indorsers of the paper offered for discount, 
and the following conversation ensues: 




MEETING OF THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS. 


“ What amount of capital do you employ in your 
business, Mr. Borrower?” 

“ I have a capital of twenty-five thousand dollars.” 

“ What are your annual sales?” 

‘ ‘ Our sales amount to about forty thousand dollars 
a year.” 

“ Do you sell much on credit?” 

“ Yes, sir, our sales are largely on 30, 60 and 90 days’ 
time and on notes.” 

Other questions follow rapidly, and Mr. Borrower 
tells the cashier the extent of his range of territory, 
terms on which he buys, places of purchase, and other 
items, so that the cashier gets a very good idea of Mr. 
Borrower’s financial standing and his probable ability 
to meet his obligations. 

“ If you will call in to-morrow, Mr. Borrower, I 

will let you know 


what I can do on 
these notes.” 

The interview 
closed, the cashier 
takes the first op¬ 
portunity to jot 
down a synopsis of 
the conversation 
which has taken 
place, together with 
any comments or 
impressions which 
may be uppermost 
in his mind, in a 
Reference Book, al¬ 
phabetically ar¬ 
ranged. Could the 



customers of a bank always know what is noted down 
in this reference book, they would not often denounce 
the cashier for refusing to discount paper, which they 
might consider as “ good as wheat.” 

“William Farnsworth, retail grocery merchant, 260 Carroll 
street. Began business in 1865 with $5,000 capital. Managing, 
economical and conscientious. Very successful. Standing good. 
1868 continues to prosper. Built fine house on Pine street, cost 
$8,000. Said to have cleared $12,000 in the last three years. Capi¬ 
tal now $8,000, besides real estate. 1869-'70-’71 business still quite 
prosperous, and affairs in good shape. Making money fast. 1872 to 
’75 worth $50,000, besides real estate. 1876 living high and takes 
flyers in the stock market. Caution. 1877 credit still good, large 
business, but has been seen at gambling houses. Keep a sharp eye 
on him. 1880 operates extensively in stocks, now often at gaming 
table. 1881 reported to have lost $20,000 in speculations within 
the last three months. January, 18S2, no better. Shows effects of 
drink. Credit on the decline. June, 1882, continues to grow 
worse. Going down hill. March, 1883, think it advisable to 
reduce his account.” 

Statements to a bank cashier, should bear the stamp 




































































































400 


BANKING. 


of truth and candor upon their face, and any attempt 
at concealment, deception or chicanery will react with 
redoubled force and severity upon the customer who 
attempts to practice them. 

THE PAYING TELLER 

is, usually, next in order of promotion to the cashier. 
As denoted by the name, his duty is to pay out money. 
No other clerk, not even an officer of the bank, in a 
large bank, would think of interfering with the duties 
of the paying teller. In fact, from the very nature of 
the banking business, there must be a complete division 
of labor, and each employe must be assigned specific 
duties and be held to a strict performance of those 
duties. No one must shirk his own, or assume 
another’s responsibility. In many banks, bonds are 
required of all the clerks and employes as a measure of 
protection against even an in¬ 
ducement to defraud. These 
bonds it is advisable to divide 
between several persons, so 
that the loss would not fall 
too heavily upon any one 
person in case of default, and 
be thereby the more apt to 
be collected. A director 
ought not to be allowed to 
be bondsman for a clerk in 
the bank of which he is a 
director. 

The position of paying 
teller is the most responsible 
of any employe of the bank. 

He has the custody and disbursement of its funds, or 
at least of the funds necessary for transaction of its 
business. The vault key is the emblem of the trust 
reposed in him, and that key lie should surrender to no 
one, under any circumstances, except a demand from 
the officers of the bank. His own reputation might 
be seriously compromised, if not utterly destroyed, by 
confiding the key of his vault for even an hour to any 
other. Besides, should the paying teller, without a 
reason of undoubted validity, such as illness or other 
excuse equally valid, tender his key for a single day to 
president, cashier or fellow clerk, it would probably, 
and certainly ought to be declined, as it might be done 
to divide the responsibility of a grave error or even a 
default. 

Nevertheless his vault and the currency in his keep¬ 
ing should be made the subject of frequent, thorough 
and unexpected examinations, in his presence. 



AN INTERVIEW WITH THE CASHIER. 


The system of the paying teller’s accounts is simple 
in the extreme. 

He keeps on hand a certain amount of money with 
which to pay checks. 

Subtracting the amount paid out from the amount 
on hand in the morning, ought to agree with the bal¬ 
ance on hand at close of bank hours, modified by the 
amount of debit and credit of clearing house exchanges. 

Usually the bills of smaller denominations are kept 
in packets of fifty each, and a check for the precise 
amount of any of these packages is paid without any 
recount of the bills. 

The first duty of the paying teller is to dispatch the 
checks on other banks received on deposit the day 
before to the clearing house, and this must be done 
before the hour for opening the bank. 

The hours required for the paying teller at his wicket 

are not long, usually from 
ten a. m. to three p. m., yet 
during that time he is busy 
with operations that call for 
precision, quickness of calcu¬ 
lation, coolness of mind and 
concentration upon the work 
before him. Its pauses are 
filled by scrutiny of signa¬ 
ture, indorsement, and any 
peculiarities of each check 
that may have come to him. 

Almost universally in city 
banks the paying teller is 
alone authorized to certify 
checks; hence he is subject 
to be frequently interrupted by, “ Please certify that, 
sir?” “That” is a check for five thousand dollars 
drawn by Brown & Jones. 

They may not have that sum then on deposit, but 
such checks are sometimes certified, under certain cir¬ 
cumstances relating to the capital, character and other 
matters which may make it safe to pay checks in 
advance of deposit. 

These must be thought over and decided upon in an 
instant. Should he refuse, he may utterly wreck the 
credit of the firm. Should he even hesitate he creates 
a doubt as to its strength and reliability. Enviable 
is the business man or firm whose checks are certified 
without hesitation, the teller knowing that the firm 
will deposit before closing hour, enough money to keep 
its account good. 

I he officers of the bank do not like to be referred to 
in this matter. They want a teller who “ understands 


















































































































BANKING. 


his business,'’ and does not bother them with every 
doubt. 

CERTIFIED 

MAY 13, 1884. 

... Teller , 

FIRST NATIONAL BANK. 

With the tellers’ stamp and signature across a check 
as a certification, it will be received at other banks as 
good, without reference to the signature; while the 
bank which certifies the check considers the act of 
certification equivalent to that of payment, and charges 
the check up to the drawer im¬ 
mediately the same as if it had 
been paid. The paying teller, 
after certifying the check, may 
pass it through to the book¬ 
keeper, who charges it up at 
once, or he may himself keep a 
list of such checks, as below, 
which he hands to the book¬ 
keeper at the close of the day. 

If the check be not charged up 
to the drawer when certified, it 
may, by some chance, not return 
to the bank for several days, and 
meanwhile the depositor may 
withdraw his balance, and the 
bank be compelled to lose the 
amount of the certified check 
when it is presented for pay¬ 
ment. 

CERTIFIED CHECK LIST. 




THE PAVING TELLER. 


Brown & Jones.. 

John George. 

George James.... 
G. West & Son.... 
Jones & Brown... 

Doe & Roe. 

Roe & Doe. 

E. Penny. 

John Green. 


30,000 

6,000 

750 

500 

8,000 

500.75 

1,200.25 

1,000 

900 


A to F. 


30,000 


1,200.25 


G to L. 


6,000 


500.75 


1,000 


M to R. 


750 


8,000 


900 


S to Z. 


500 



500 

AtoF . 31,200.25 

G to . 7,000.75 

M to . . 9 ' 650 

48,351.00 


Three questions are instinctively asked and answered 
by the paying teller in regard to every check presented 
at his wicket: 

1. Is the signature genuine? 2. Is the drawer’s 
account good? 3. Is this man who presents this check 
the man who should receive the money on it? 

These suggest three classes of gentry whom it is the 
teller’s duty to guard against, detect and thwart. 

First, the forger. Every bank keeps a signature 
book in which every depositor and each member of a 
depositing firm must write his and their names. To 
familiarize himself with all the peculiarities of a thou¬ 
sand to fifteen hundred signatures so as to identify them 
at sight is no easy task. Yet this the paying teller must 
do or become the victim of the forger, who is a stand¬ 
ing terror to the bank. 

Business men are criminally 
careless of their check books. 
They leave them open and within 
sight and reach of strangers. To 
remove and conceal the peculiar 
check and enable him to observe 
the color of ink, style of writing, 
the order of numbers and the last 
one used, is not a job too hard for 
the clever forger to essay and 
accomplish. If a forged check 
is cashed, the bank and not the 
man whose name is forged is the 
loser; hence the carelessness of 
many business men, who use a 
peculiarly marked form of check. 

The skillful paying teller must 
judge at once whether the signa¬ 
ture is genuine, and in doing it 
he is guided not only by the signature in the autograph 
book, but the man who presents it, his appearance and 
all the minutia of look and action. But forgery may 
lie not only in the signature but in other parts of the 
check, as in changing or “ raising” the amount. Thus 
a check for eight dollars may be increased to eighteen 
or to eighty by adding only a few letters, or to a larger 
amount by adding the word “ hundred.” All this the 
paying teller must be on the alert to detect. In a 
recent case in New York, the changing of a figure in 
the date, as an 8 to a 5, which is in reality a forgery, 
caused the bank whose teller paid the check to lose 
$700. The case was this: A small manufacturer in 
New York City, having to go out of town for a few 
days, drew a check for $700 and dated it ahead to the 
next Saturday, saying to his book-keeper, “Now in 

























































































































BANKING. 



case I do not return before the end of the week, you 
can go to the bank, cash this check on Saturday, and 
pay the help.” Soon after the proprietor had left the 
city, the book-keeper took the check, altered the date 
to three days earlier, presented it at the bank, where 
it was paid, and then decamped with the funds. The 
proprietor unexpectedly returned on Friday, and saw 
the situation of affairs. In the suit at law which fol¬ 
lowed, the bank was compelled to stand the loss for 
paying forged paper. 

The only wonder is, that in the payment of millions 
of dollars every day in our cities, the forger succeeds 
as rarely as he does. 

Satisfied as to its genuineness, the next query to the 
teller is, “ Is the account good?” Has the drawer this 
amount in bank, or if not, will he have it there before 
closing hour? 

There may be over a thousand accounts kept by the 
bank. How is the paying teller to know the state of all 
these accounts, so as to pay a single check without 
reference to the book-keeper? 

Every accomplished paying teller has his own 
way of classifying the regular customers of the bank 
and so assisting his memory. One class never give 
notes. They sell on credit, but buy for cash. The 
teller knows that their accounts are always good. No 
need to refer when one of their checks comes to his 
window. Then conies a class of small customers whose 
accounts are very regular, not large, but none the less 
useful, as each has a pride in keeping a few hundred 
dollars in bank “ for emergencies.” Their checks can 
be paid at once with safety. 

The third class are what may be called medium cus¬ 
tomers, and are the largest in number. They are 
dependent upon the bank for loans to a considerable 
extent, but are known as honest and trustworthy. 
Fearful of forfeiting the confidence of the bank, it may 
be, and proud of having it, they are very careful not to 
break its rules. The paying teller pays their checks, 
as a rule, without consulting their accounts, as he 
depends upon their past record as well as upon their 
honor and self-interest. 

The fourth class includes those who bear watching. 
Conduct themselves as well as they may, be as adroit 
and regular as they can, the acute cashier and paying 
teller, judging from little tricks verging toward the 
dishonest, soon learn to be on their guard, and though 
but seldom caught napping, and so inflicting a loss 
upon the bank, yet it is only by the keenest observa¬ 
tion of deportment, class of associates, street talk 
picked up by the collectors in their rounds, that the 



bank is preserved from serious loss. Frequently the 
man of this class so demeans himself as to win the 
complete confidence of the officers, but the paying 
teller, from his wicket, has caught a look or sign that 
bids him “ beware!” 

Here comes a check that is dated three days ahead 
and the teller refuses to honor it. 

“ Mr. Brown, this check is dated ahead.” 

“ Well, what of it. You know that signature, 
don’t you?” 

“ Yes, but we can’t pay it before it is due.” 

“ Oh, bother your rules. Hand it back then.” 

Mr. Brown gets his check and goes off in a pet. It 
may seem a small matter, that three days in date, but 
it was not. The balance against which it was drawn 
might be checked out before it became due, and the 
bank would then be the loser, as it could not be charged 
up until due. 

Bank checks are usually made payable to order. The 
drawer wishes the indorsement of the person to whom 
he gives it as an evidence of payment. 

The person receiving it wishes it indorsed as a security 
in case it should be lost or stolen. All the risk is thus 
thrown upon the bank. Hence the bank rule, that the 
person to whom a check is paid should be personally 
known to the paying teller, or else vouched for by some 
one the teller does know. This “identification” causes 
great annoyance to the teller, and also to the holder of 
the check. Hence the teller naturally prefers checks 
drawn payable to bearer, because he is then concerned 
only as to its genuineness and the state of the drawer’s 
account. 

Mr. Hasty presents himself in the line with a “Please 
give me the money on that.” 

“ That” is a check drawn to Jas. Hasty, or order. 

“Is your name James Hasty?” says the teller. 

“ Yes, James G. Hasty.” 

“I see that you have so indorsed it, but the check is 
drawn to James Hasty, and you are a stranger to me.” 

. ooks about, sees no one that can vouch 
for him, and says almost despairingly, “ What can I do? 
I am in a hurry, and need this money at once.” 

It Mr. Hasty was well known to the teller he might 
pay the check, passing over the careless omission of the 
middle letter, but he cannot jump both irregularities. 

“Well, Mr. Hasty, step to that desk and write Jas. 
Hasty above your present indorsement and see if some 
acquaintance will not come in meantime.” 

Mr. Hasty steps out of the line he has blocked during 
his colloquy, writes Jas. Hasty as directed, spies an 
acquaintance, Mr. Jones, and states his dilemma. 












































BANKING. 


403 


“All right. Step in behind me. 

After a half hour or less, they get to the wicket, 
and Mr. Jones says, “ Mr. Teller, this is Mr. James 
Gr. Hasty.” 

And so, after a half or three quarters of an hour’s 
detention, Mr. Hasty gets his money and retires either 
anathematizing the strictness of bank rules, or reflect¬ 
ing, “ Well, haste makes waste. If I had done as I 
ought at first, made Mr. Blunder draw my check aright 
and then found some one to identify me, I should have 
saved time.” And so he would, time to himself, the 
teller and twenty or more other men who had to wait 
behind him. 

On “ panic days” the paying teller would seem to 
be unable to protect his bank. Men are rendered 
desperate and re¬ 
sort to means of 
relief they would 
have scorned to en¬ 
tertain a moment, 
in easy times. 

Every officer of the 
bank is in a “state 
of siege ” for ac- 
com mo da tions. 

But the paying tel¬ 
ler must be com¬ 
pletely cool and 
impassive, serene¬ 
ly unconscious of 
all the flurry and 
excitement. Clos¬ 
ing hour at length 

O o 

arrives and the 

teller begins to look after his “ favored accounts, 
late depositor or so, come in to make their accounts 
good, and the teller is at liberty to count his cash and 
make up his proof sheet for the day. 


name of the depositor and the amount of his deposit, 
as shown by the footing of the customer’s deposit ticket, 
and then makes the entry in the customer’s bank book. 

FORM OF DEPOSIT TICKET. 

DEPOSITED WITH 

THE FIRST NATIONAL BANK, 

BY BLACK & BROWN. 

Indianapolis, June 4, 1883. 


Currency. 



$1,250 

75 

Checks.. 

$300 





250 





125 

75 

675 

75 




$1,926 

50 


The teller should 
not receive money 
without this de¬ 
posit ticket, as to 
do so would be to 
open the door to 
disputes with the 
customer. If the 
depositorshould be 
without his pass 
book, as if he has 
left it with the 
book-keeper to be 
written up, he 
should then make 
out two deposit 
tickets, one of 
which the receiv¬ 
ing teller will keep 
and the other he will certify and return to the depositor 
as a receipt for the money deposited. 

FORM OF DEPOSITOR’S PASS BOOK. 

Dr. Cr. 



THE RECEIVING TELLER. 

The receiving teller, sometimes called the deposit 
teller, receives funds deposited by firms or individuals, 
known as individual accounts. 

The note teller attends to the business with other 
banks and the money received by the bank for notes 
deposited for collection. 

Both are receiving tellers, and are sometimes termed 
second and third tellers, as showing their places in the 
line of promotion. 

Open before the receiving teller usually lies his 
receiving teller’s cash book. In this he enters the 


The First National Bank, in acc’t with Black & Brown. 



1883. 




1883. 




June 1. 

To cash,. 

$ 300 

00 

June 6, 

By cash,. 

$ 163 

25 

“ 3, 

U U 

1,926 

50 

“ 9. 

U U 

200 

00 

“ 8, 

u u 

650 

00 

“ 17. 

u u 

325 

25 

“ 15, 

u u 

2,500 

00 

“ 20, 

u u 

1,275 

50 

“ 25, 

Bills Discounted, 

3,125 

75 

“ 30, 

Balance,. 

6,538 

25 



$8,502 

25 



$8,502 

25 

July 1. 

To Balance,. 

$6,538 

25 






Should his cash not prove at the close of the day, the 
teller re-examines his entries on his cash book and 
checks off each item by the deposit tickets, at the same 
time revising each addition. 



























































































































The checks of each bank are placed each in its own 
box in the exchange drawer, which contains as many 
boxes as there are banks in the city. Pie then makes 
np his “ proof.” This proof closes the work of the 
day for the second teller, and he deposits his lists, coin 
and currency in the vault. 

It will be seen that addition and subtraction form all 
the mathematical calculations of this teller, and his duty 
may seem very easy. But this is only the mechanical 
part of his work. 

Most of the deposits made with him have been checks 
of business men drawn upon other banks. The bank 
rule is that these should be certified by the bank upon 
which they are drawn, but with customers of known 
repute, the rule is not enforced. Hence the receiving 
teller is largely left to his own option. 

Mr. Jenkins may deposit a dozen checks drawn by 
different individuals or firms on as many different 
banks. The receiving teller cannot know in all cases 
that the drawers of these checks are responsible per¬ 
sons, and that the money is on deposit to meet them in 
the banks on which they are drawn, but he knows Mr. 
Jenkins to be a man of honor, who would not inten¬ 
tionally deposit a worthless check. He therefore takes 
his deposit with the checks properly indorsed. Should 
one or more of the checks afterward prove not good, 
he immediately sends the check to the store of Mr. 
Jenkins by the bank messenger, and Mr. Jenkins draws 
his check for the amount. Not so with Mr. Cunning; 
he has been waiting to take advantage of the bank in 
some such way as this for some time. He deposits 
several checks which the receiving teller takes on his 
honor. Within an hour Mr. Cunning presents his own 
check for certification at the paying teller’s window, 
drawn for the whole amount of his deposit within a 
few dollars. If the paying teller hesitates he may ask 
the book-keeper, who assures him that his deposit will 
cover the certification. The paying teller certifies the 
check, but the next day Mr. Speculator’s check, which 
was deposited by Cunning, is returned from the bank 
on which it is drawn. The bank messenger is then 
immediately dispatched with the worthless check to the 
office of Mr. Cunning, with instructions to get the 
money. The messenger returns with the information 
that Cunning has failed and can’t pay. 

“ Did you tell him that it was a debt of honor? 

“ I did.” 

“ What did he say to that?” 

“ He said he knew it, but couldn’t help it, as he had 
no money to pay with. Was very sorry it was so.” 

“Did you ask him about Speculator? 




“Yes, but he has failed, too.” 

“ What, both on the same day?” 

“So it seems.” 

“Hang the pirates! I’ll go and see them after 
banking hours, and see if I can squeeze anything out 
of ’em.” 

The teller communicates the fact to the cashier, and 
at the close of banking hours visits Mr. Cunning with 
no results. After repeated visits and negotiations the 
bank is glad to accept Cunning’s notes at three, six and 
nine months in settlement. 

If a lar<re check should be received as to which the 
teller is in doubt, he may refer the depositor to the 
cashier for his decision. 

The bank rule is the safeguard of the customer more 
than of the bank, and no offense should be taken when 
it is enforced. The teller may know more than the 
customer, and yet not be able to disclose his informa¬ 
tion. It is the duty of this teller to consult the book¬ 
keepers as to the accounts, how they average, etc., to 
examine the ledgers, compare notes as to the standing 
of not only customers, but other merchants, and to 
closely inspect the character of deposits and checks. 

He needs to be very civil, but quick witted, with a 
newspaper reporter’s instinct to gather news and keep 
it ready for use on the instant. As much as the paying 
teller, must he watch signatures, indorsements, dates 
and all the minutia about a check. 

The writer once saw a check which had passed the 
hands of a teller and a cashier, while lacking a sis:- 
nature. They were both so interested in the indorse¬ 
ments as to omit scrutiny of signature, as the check 
bore a firm name at its head. This teller has to be on 
the alert for the work of the forger and counterfeiter. 
Watch his counting, and you think he has no thought 
or eye for anything save amount, yet eye and mind are 
on the alert for a counterfeit note or a forsred check. 
Without a seeming stop a bill is tossed aside, and as 
one hand sweeps the pile aside, the other thrusts a bill 
to the customer with, 

“ Counterfeit. Twenty dollars off*.” 

The detection of counterfeits is more an instinct 
than result of rules. 

The receiving teller needs and uses the same faculty 
or instinct in studying character as he does in detecting 
a counterfeit, and frequently does detect in a customer, 
evidences of weakness or dishonesty, and the customer 
finds himself answering a short, sharp fire of queries, 
backed by a sharp glance, that gains full as much 
information as do the questions. Unusual checks 
that bear the marks of “accommodation paper” or 
























































BANKING. 


405 


sharp practice, have been presented and show to the 
teller that the customer is nearing or actually in flnan- 
cial breakers. 

At the first opportunity the cashier is informed, and 
a repetition is pretty sure to be followed by a request 
to the customer to close his accounts, or, at the least, 
another name will be wanted to his “ paper,” and 
the paying teller limits his certifications when next 
presented. 

Here comes Mr. Tardy, with deposits to meet checks 
certified the day before by the paying teller. This is 
the third or fourth time the same thing- has occurred 
recently. The receiving teller quietly observes, “ Glad 
to see you. Our paying teller certified your checks 
yesterday. By the way, the cashier would like to see 
you before you leave.” 

Mr. Tardy repairs to the cashier’s desk. 

“Good morning Mr. Tardy. Our paying teller says 
you have not been on time recently, and he has over 
certified your account several times.” 

“But I have made them good the next day, Mr. 
Cashier.” 

“Yes, but your tardiness is getting worse and worse. 
We like to oblige a customer, but we can’t do so in this 
way too often. You know the old adage of the pitcher 
that went too often to the well, and the law is very 
strict with us. Now this must not occur again, or we 
shall either have to refuse to certify your checks, or ask 
you to close your account.” 

The cashier may have seemed harsh, despite his 
friendly tone of voice and manner. Yet it was the very 
least he could do, in justice to the bank, and that means 
justice to every other customer the bank has. 

Mr. Tardy could not complain. 

KITING. 

A practice not uncommon among dealers when hard 
pressed, and one which is regarded by bank officials as 
disreputable, is called “ kiting.” This consists in 
issuing checks in advance of a deposit, trusting to make 
a sufficient deposit the next morning before the check 
gets around through the clearing house to the bank on 
which it is drawn. Checks issued in this way are called 
“kiting checks,” and the practice means to teller and 
cashier, beware! 

Mr. Kite comes into the bank in a hurried and very 
excited manner, and says to the cashier, “ What kind 
of clerks do you have in your bank?” 

“We intend that they should be gentlemen.” 

Mr. Kite produces his bank book, and with hand 


trembling with passion points to a deposit of eight 
hundred dollars, made that day, “Doyou see that, 

sir?” 

The cashier sees it. 

“ Well, sir, your teller has thrown out my check for 
eight hundred dollars, when you see yourself the money 
was here to my credit, and has sent the check back, and 
my name is dishonored. That’s a pretty tale that a 
man’s credit is to be ruined by a miserable teller who 
doesn’t understand his business, I should say.” 

The cashier is cool. “ Mr. Kite, our tellers are 
very careful. T think probably you have made some 
mistake.” 

“ Mr. Book-keeper, let us see Mr. Kite’s account.” 

The book-keeper turns to Mr. Kite’s account, and 
finds that when the check was drawn on the day before, 
there was a balance to his credit of $14.80. It is ap¬ 
parent that Mr. Kite has had the use of eight hundred 
dollars one day in advance of his deposit. Had the 
person or the bank receiving the check from Mr. Kite, 
presented it for certification, his “name would have 
been dishonored” sooner than it was. 

The practice of kiting is often resorted to by par¬ 
ties who know better, as an expedient to raise funds, 
and if certification is not required, they might propa¬ 
gate from day to day overdrafts to any amount, without 
a dollar of capital. 

COLLECTION CLERK. 

As the name implies, the collection clerk receives 
payment for all promissory notes and drafts collected 
by the bank. In small banks this is made a portion of 
the receiving teller’s duties, but as the business of the 
bank increases, it becomes necessary to subdivide the 
labor. The first duty of the collection clerk upon 
reaching the bank in the morning is to make his entries 
of mail remittances, received by the early mail. These 
come to him from the cashier’s desk, and the teller 
places his initial as a receipt upon the letter of the 
sending bank. The same is true with all letters con¬ 
taining cash documents. He then takes up the collec¬ 
tion notes due upon that day, checks them off upon the 
tickler, to make sure he is correct, and then enters 
them upon his cash book, alphabetically arranged by 
the names of the indorsers. These collection notes and 
drafts have been deposited by their owners, either for 
payment to their credit, or by one not a depositor for 
collection, and have all been carefully “timed” and 
entered up by the proper clerk in the collection 
register, as shown on the following page. 
































. 





BANKING. 


COLLECTION REGISTER. 


When 

Received. 

Owner. 

Indorser. 

'Payer. 

Date and Time. 

When 

Due. 

Amount. 

Where Payable. 

Where Sent. 

Remarks. 

May 6.... 
“ 10.... 
“ 12.... 
“ 15... 

“ 18.... 
<< <« 

It «< 

A. Bain. 

B. Crane 

C. Dean. 

D. Evans 

E. Frey. 

F. Gauze 

G. Home 

II. Inness. 

I. Jayne.. 

J. King... 

K. Lamb.. 

Mann & Bro. 

M. Nye. 

N. Olds. 

O. Peters... 

P. Queen... 

Q. Rayne. . 

R. Stone_ 

April 1, 3 mos.. 
April 6, 7 mos.. 
Jan. 3, 9 mos... 
Feb. 19, 8 mos.. 
March 22,7 mos. 
April 21, 6 mos. 
May 2, 4 mos.... 

July 4. 
Oct. 9.. 
Oct, 6.. 
Oct. 22. 
Oct. 25. 
Oct. 24. 
Sept. 6. 

$1,567.89 

934.16 

324.48 

567.95 

3,100.00 

2,750.50 

300.85 

Joliet, Ill. 

Peoria, Ill. 

Elgin, Ill. 

Quincy, Ill. 

Cairo, Ill. 

St. Louis, Mo.. 
Erie, Pa. 

1st National, Joliet. 
Manufrs. National. 
Home Bank. 

2d National Bank. 

Ill. National Bank. 
Mississippi National. 
Home Savings Bank. 





The notes for collection which belong to other banks 
not located in the same town (called “foreign banks” 
in banker’s parlance), are entered in the book of gen¬ 
eral accounts. 

When he has entered all the notes and drafts, he 
arranges them alphabetically, by the names of the 
drawers, and is ready for their payment. 

The discounted notes and drafts are similarly treated 
and placed in another pile. 


PAGE FROM COLLECTION NOTE BOOK. 


Indorser or Owner. 

Payer. 



John Green. 

Green Jones... 

$ 

150 

C 

J. B. Claiborne_ 

J.Johnson. 

342 

60 


W. B. Bradford 

1200 



P. G. Jafl'y,. 

1010 

15 

Box & Cox. 

A. B. Crane_ 

200 


Justice & James .. 

Black & Blue.. 

350 


John Johnson. 

Browh & Coxe 

2000 



And. Jackson.. 

2700 



P. Green. 

670 

20 

Oldon & Cone. 

Jasper Brown. 

310 

35 

George Strong. 

Swift & Slow .. 

511 

66 



9444 

96 


A to H 


150 


2552 

200 


2902 75 


75 


I to P 


350 


5370 

310 


G030 


55 


511 


511 


A to II.. 
ItoP.. 

Proof. 


2902 

6030 


9444 


to Z 


C 


66 


66 

75 

55 


96 


In some banks the collection clerk is required to get 
his collection note book written up, and notes arranged 
for the next day, before leaving at night. He is then 
sure to have his work in hand, should he be a little late 
in the morning. 

The drawers or payers of the notes having been noti¬ 
fied by notice through the mail, the teller is ready to 
affix the imprint of his stamp upon the notes when 
paid. 


FORM OF NOTICE. 


Among his annoyances arc wrong deliveries of 
notices, which sometimes brings a very angry face to 
his window demanding an explanation. Another face, 
a perplexed one this time, wants to know if “My note 
is payable here to-day.” 

“ Your name, please?” answers the teller. 

“ John N. Lamson, and I have been on the go among 
other banks for two hours and can’t find it. It is for 
twelve hundred dollars, and must be here.” 

“We have no note here against John N. Lamson. 

“Are you sure? Please look carefully, as I am 
tired out.” 

“Did you get a notice to pay here?” 

“ No, sir; I never do, and so have to hunt them up, 
as they seem to like to leave them all over town.” 

Another reference to the tickler discloses a record of 
a note against J. W. Lawson, due three days later, 
with signature so bungling as to be hard to decipher 
and without business place or residence. Shown to 
Mr. Lamson, he says, 

“ That’s it; why didn’t you say so at first?” 

Mr. Lamson had forgotten his three days’ grace and 
also to mark his place of business, and the teller advises 
him when he makes his next notes to make them paya¬ 
ble at some one bank, write his name legibly, and also 
his place of business. 

Had the clerk been pressed for time, and not been 
patient and obliging, Mr. Lamson’s note would have 
gone to protest and his credit injured, if not destroyed. 

PAID. 


FIRST NATIONAL BANK. 

Cleveland , March 30, 1884 . 

James Paytmup: 

You are requested to call at this Bank 
before 1 o'clock P. M. on April 5th, and pay a note 
for $1000, and interest $A.60. 

C. H. DONALPSON, Cashier. 

Checks offered in payment of Notes or Drafts, MUST BE CERTIFIED. 



March 14,1884. 

FIRST NATIONAL BANK. 

As most merchants make their notes payable at the 
banks where they keep their accounts, the clerk holds 
these until the afternoon and then sends off the mes¬ 
sengers for certification. When they are returned he 
stamps the certified ones. Remittances from country 
banks for notes sent for collection come to his desk 
and have to be counted and distributed. The money 


tJ 




































































































































BANKING. 


drawer of the note teller is constructed on the same 
pattern as that of the receiving teller, and he distributes 
his bills and checks in the same manner. 

A customer calls to leave for collection a draft drawn 
on James Duncan, Omaha, at sight, for $500. The 
collection clerk enters the date, place, time and amount 
in the last part of the customer’s pass book, under the 
head of “ collections,*’ as a receipt for the paper, and 
places it on file to be sent out by the evening mail to 
Omaha. Another customer calls, and holding up his 
pass book before the collection clerk’s window, with 
his finger placed on an item, 

“ Has that collection been heard from?” 

The clerk turns to his book and finds that the item 
referred to has been paid. He takes the pass book, 
draws a line across the entry under the head of collec¬ 
tions, and enters it under the head of deposits in another 
portion of the bank book. 

Mr. Krabb calls at the collection clerk’s window in 
regard to a note for twelve hundred dollars, and is 
answered by the clerk that he has “ received no advice 
from it yet.” He goes off in a pet to the cashier. 

“ Mr. Cashier, why can’t I have my collection paper 
credited when it is past due?” exhibiting his pass book. 

“ You can, sir, if it has been paid.” 

“ Well, I don’t get it. Here’s a note of twelve 
hundred dollars due at Mobile a week ago, and another 
of fifteen hundred at Charleston, which was paid day 
before yesterday, and all the satisfaction I can get from 
your collection clerk is, that he supposes they are not 
heard from. I wish I could be saved this annoyance of 
having to run to the bank every day to keep your 
books straight.” 

“ The clerk is right, Mr. Krabb. We have no advice 
of the notes, but I think we should get it by to-day’s 
southern mail. Walk in, sir. Here is the porter 
with the mail now.” 

The cashier finds a notice of protest in both cases, 
which he hands over to Mr. Krabb, who vents some 
additional bitterness on banks generally, as if they 
were responsible for his misfortunes. Meanwhile the 
callers at the collection clerk’s window are served one 
after another, and so the hours go on, increasing in the 
rapidity of receiving, counting and stamping until the 
bank closes, when he checks off the notes paid from 
his cash book and tickler, and hands the ones remain¬ 
ing unpaid over to a notary public to be protested. 

THE DISCOUNT CLERK. 

The directors of a bank usually meet twice a week 
on stated days, in order to take action upon the notes 
offered for discount. 




In a large city bank the number of persons applying 
for discount is from one hundred to three hundred per 
week. 

The theory of the banking system is that the board 
of directors canvass each note offered, the party offer¬ 
ing, his business, its outlook, changes since last meeting 
in the course of the market, and everything connected 
or related to the note and its maker and indorsers. 
Practically, the conduct of the bank is largely left to 
the president and cashier. Notes are generally dis¬ 
counted for 60 days. Occasionally a bank takes 90 or 
even 120 day paper, but the rule is 60 days. 

Short term paper has two advantages to the bank. 
First, safety, in that the maker and his backers have less 
time for losses in their business, and the general tend¬ 
ency of business can be more readily foreseen for the 
shorter period, while the bank can keep its resources 
more closely in hand. Second, profit, inasmuch as dis¬ 
count is interest taken in advance, the bank is the gainer 
by oftener turning its money. 

The day previous to discount day, or board meeting, 
is offering day, because customers needing discounts 
send in their notes on that day. The discount clerk 
receives these notes and records them in the offering 
book, with the customers’ names arranged alphabeti¬ 
cally for convenient reference. If numbered in the 
margin, it is so much the more convenient. When 
this record is kept as it ought to be, for the use of the 
officers and the board, it will include the average de¬ 
posits, amount already discounted, names of indorsers 
(if any), statement of securities held as collaterals, 
time of discount needed by each customer. The direct¬ 
ors can then have all the information needed from the 
bank records. Following is a page from such an 

OFFERING BOOK. 


Offered by 


P. Green... 
J. Brandies.. 
Roe & Doe.. 
Dox & Bro.. 
J.B.Samps’n 
D.B.Shepard 
A. X. Sawyer 
Jno. Roberts 
Jas. Daniels 


Aver. 

Bal. 


$1,500 

3,750 

5,000 

275 

none 

750 

1,200 

Over 

dra’n 

5,600 


Am’t 

now 

Disc'd 


None 

$5,700 

8.500 
None 

1.500 
3,000 
2,000 
1,500 
7,800 


Indorser 


A. P. Coe. 

R. Jones. 

P. Cox. 

A. Y. Johnson 
12 business no 

Collaterals wi 

30sharesC.&A. 

own 


Payer. 


U. G. Payne.... 
D. Brown & Co. 
Smith & Hunter 

T. Slevin. 

Robert Stone... 
tesof amount.. 

th own note_ 

R. R. stock and 
note 

A. B. Porter_ 


Time. 


50 ds. 

2 mo. 
90 ds. 
30 ds. 

3 mo. 
75 ds. 
60 ds. 
120 ds 
90 ds, 


Amount accepted. 


Am't. 


$2,200 

7,000 

3,575 

500 

2.100 

1,200 

1,650 

4,500 

3,200 


25,926 

8,750 


75 


50 


30 


The book of offerings and the package of notes are 
returned to the desk of the discount clerk after the 
consideration and action of the directors. Opposite 
each entry he finds the disposition made of it. 



26 
























































408 


BANKING. 


“A” shows those accepted and “R those rejected. 
Should any be held for further consideration or inquiiy, 
lie probably finds an “ H” scored opposite the entry. 

Banks differ as to the next disposal of the accepted 
paper. Some have it transferred to a discount book, 
of which there is one for each customers ledger, co\ - 
ering the same letter’s of the alphabet. The amount of 
the discount and the net amount of the notes are then 
extended in the blank columns of the offering book. 

The footings in this book must be compared and 
proved with the aggregates of the discount books. 
The credits are then transferred thence to the ledgers. 

Some banks keep a discount register to which the 
record of accepted paper is taken from the offering 
book, and thence posted in the personal accounts. 
Other banks keep discount ledgers, which embrace only 
the accounts of deposit customers who are also discount 
customers. These show each item connected with the 
discounted paper as shown on the offering book, and 
also the liability of each customer as an indorser for 
others. As “accommodation paper” or exchanged 
notes are an evidence of financial weakness and needs 
close watching, this plan seems to be the safest and 
best. 

The discount clerk must run over these ledgers every 
day and cancel all notes when paid. This he does by 
ruling across the figures or marking them paid. He 
then files the notes. A separate package is made up 
for each day of maturity. The importance of the posi¬ 
tion of the discount clerk is shown by the fact that the 
bank confides to his charge nearly all its bills receivable. 
In these consist the largest share of the resources of 
the bank. The bank holds him directly responsible for 
their safety. He places them in the vaults at night 
only to resume them the next morning. Should presi¬ 
dent or cashier wish to examine any particular note, 
they do it in his presence. The meddling of any one 
would lessen or destroy his responsibility. 


In direct intercourse with customers, the discount 
clerk comes next to the executive officers of the bank. 
He is the connecting link between officers and cus¬ 
tomers, as to the part of the business where the bank 
makes or loses its money most rapidly. 

When nearing financial breakers, no little solicitation 
is often expended upon the discount clerk by those who 
believe him to be “a power behind the throne.” 

In times of depression the space near his desk is often 
crowded before adjournment of the board by anxious 
customers, waiting to learn the fate of their discount 
applications. If not successful here they must seek 
relief elsewhere. To study these faces and learn 
whether it is anxiety for a present need, “ to bridge 
over,” as it is termed, or complete failure that threatens, 
is a part of the discount teller’s duty. 

The offering book comes back to his desk, and the 
accepted depart with smiles, while the authors of 
“ rejected addresses” accept their fate as best they can 
or may. Expostulation, argument, entreaty are em¬ 
ployed in turn upon the discount clerk. Now is the 
time when the worth of the clerk displays itself. 
Kindly explanation and sympathetic words are never 
lost, and if the bank is doing all that can be done, the 
discount clerk can often make it secure friends by his 
manner , even when conveying bad news. 

Before the notes are entered upon the discount regis¬ 
ter, they are carefully examined either by the discount 
clerk or by some other. In a small bank, the discount 
clerk not only receives all paper to be discounted, but 
he keeps the discount register and ticklers, while in a 
larger bank this work would necessarily need to be 
divided among two or more persons. Every line of the 
paper, date, indorsement, and, in fact, both sides are 
carefully examined. The note must not be changed or 
disfigured after leaving the hands of the maker. Satis¬ 
fied that everything is correct the note is then entered 
upon the 


DISCOUNT REGISTER. 


DATE. 

NO. 

DRAWEE OR 
MAKER. 

DRAWER OR 
INDORSER. 

WHERE PAYA¬ 
BLE. 

TIME. 

WHEN 

DISCOUN’D 

WHEN 

DUE. 

AMOUNT. 

AM’T 
DISC. 

PRO¬ 

CEEDS. 

WHEN 
PAID . 


1884 
















May 5. 

6482 

J. Green. 

N. Jones. 




July 4-7 

$ 6‘20 

1)5 



$618 

67 



March 18.. 

6483 

G. Brown. 

N. Jones. 

Am. Bank.., 



June. 16-11) 

2,100 

50 

1 

do 

2 099 

10 



June 1. 

6484 

B. Black. 

B. Payne. 

148 Elm St . 




BIO 



98 

309 

0*2 



May 8_ 

6485 

S. White. 

A. Jackson... 

Union Nat.Bk 

60 days. 

June 16. 

July 7-10 

2,675 

85 

10 

70 

2,665 

15 



May 11. 

6486 

W. Lake. 

J. May & Co.. 

Com’l Bank... 

60 days. 

June 16. 

July 10-13 

3,157 

65 

14 

21 

3,143 

44 



June 2. 

6487 

L. Umber_ 

M. Mix. 

284 Canal St... 

30 days. 

June 16. 

July 2-5 

185 

90 

.... 

59 

185 

31 



March 16.. 

6488 

G. Slade. 

B. Cradle. 

Am. Bank .... 

100 days. 

June 16. 

June 24-27 

215 

06 

.... 

39 

214 

67 

















































































BANKING. 


409 


The note clerk cannot exercise too much care in 
regard to dates of maturity, as ho may, by an error of 
a single day, cause the bank to lose the value of the 
paper discounted, as the notice of protesting to the 
indorser would be so late that he would be released, 
and the bank lose its remedy against him. 

Should the wrong-maturity be placed upon the note, 
by maker or owner, the bank would still be liable 
unless it could prove an intention to defraud. The 
bank would be held as “ adopting the error,” and thus 
making it its own. 

The date of maturity is then marked upon each note, 
and they are numbered and copied into a “tickler” 
according to dates. The tickler is a diary or record of 
notes due upon each day of the year, as follows: 


THURSDAY, AUGUST 18, 1884. 


No. 

Payer. 

Amount. 

When 

Notiiied. 

When 

Paid. 

Remarks. 

3468 

James Payemup, 76 Pine st. 

$8,640 




3392 

Samuel Dodge, Merchants’ 
Bank. 

4,000 




3864 

Amos Brown &Co., 187 Mon- 
roe street. 

1,250.80 




3980 

C. M. Cale & Co., Union Na¬ 
tional . 

250.50 





This tickler contains only the number of the note, 
amount, the name of the payer, his place of business 
or residence, a column for when notified, and another 
column when paid. There are usually four ticklers in 
use in a bank; one for paper left at the bank for col¬ 
lection, due at home, and another for the same class of 
paper due abroad; and two others which serve in the 
same way for paper discounted, which is due both at 
home and abroad. 

BOOK-KEEPERS. 

The number of book-keepers employed by any bank 
is of course regulated by its number of customers, 
amount and character of business. Usually in a bank 
of the first or second class four ledgers are kept. The 
first includes the names and accounts of customers, 
arranged alphabetically, from A to F, the second from 
G to L, the third from M to R, and the fourth from S 
to Z. Each ledger is calculated to hold four hundred 
names. Nowhere does the result of the science, or 
systematized knowledge of the principles of book¬ 
keeping, find freer exemplification than in opening a 
ledger of this kind. 

System and method here will show through the whole 
set of books, and the book-keeper demonstrates his fit¬ 
ness for doing his work, so as to save time and trouble 
at the very outset. 


Below will be shown the proper system for opening 
a ledger called the “vowel system,” which is the result 
of experience, in apportioning the number of pages in 
a ledger of 1,200 pages to the names commencing with 
each letter of the alphabet. If four hundred accounts 
are to be opened, this would allow an average of three 
pages to each account, but while some depositors would 
make two or three deposits per week and have no dis¬ 
counts or collections, others would soon fill up their 
three pages by the numerous credits and checks; this 
would soon throw the book into confusion on account 
of transferring from page to page. The vowel plan is 
to apportion to names, commencing with each letter of 
the alphabet, a number of pages corresponding to the 
frequency with which such names will occur. Thus, 
names commencing with W will occur much oftener 
than those beginning with Z, and C much oftener than 
those with W. The proportion in which names will 
occur has been carefully estimated from examinations 
of directories, dictionaries, gazetteers, etc., and is 
about as follows : 

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNO 
68 88 136 52 56 56 36 48 20 20 20 36 68 32 20 

PQRSTUVWXYZ 
88 4 56 116 76 12 20 56 4 4 4 

Under each of the above letters the accounts are 
classified again, and thus the book-keeper, in opening 
his accounts, will leave 136 pages for names commenc¬ 
ing with C, in the proportion as follows : 

Ca Ce Ci Co Cu Cy 

48 12 12 48 12 4 

To the book-keeper, with whom little economies 
become great gains, a short time spent in indexing and 
arranging the accounts of his ledger, will return to 
him a hundred fold in convenience and facility during 
the year’s posting. 

The book-keeper extends in his column in the receiv¬ 
ing teller’s cash book, the deposits belonging to cus¬ 
tomers upon his ledger, as shown in the form given, 
and posts the amounts to their credit in the ledger. 
Each book-keeper does this in turn, when the footings 
are brought together and their sum compared with the 
sum of the main column. In the meantime the teller 
uses an alternate cash book. The collection note book 
is used in the same way, and the proceeds of collections 
posted to the ledger. 

There is little variety of entry in bank book-keeping, 
and in this respect bank book-keeping is more simple 
than any other. The book-keeper has only to post the 
customer’s deposits to his credit and the checks drawn 
upon the bank to the debtor side of his account. 









































p 


BANKING. 


From time to time his bank book is called and 
“ written up,” that is, all his deposits being already 
there, show his credits. Upon the opposite page the 
book-keeper inserts the amounts ot each check with its 
date, and carries forward his balance. This establishes 
the correctness of the book-keeper’s ledger, when they 
prove each other. 

If the book-keeper should post an item to the wrong 
account, as if lie should credit Jones with $1,000 deposit 
when it should have gone to the credit of Smith, this 
may lie the occasion of the bank losing that amount. 
The error would probably be discovered by Smith over¬ 
drawing 1 his account, when the bank would send him a 
notice to that etfect, or his check would be thrown out 
by the paying teller. This would lead to an investiga¬ 
tion of his account, and the error is then discovered. 
Meanwhile Jones, who is dishonest enough, has taken 
advantage of the bank’s error and has checked out the 
$1,000. A judgment against Jones would be barren of 
results, besides adding to it the expenses of a law suit; 
the bank concludes, therefore, to charge the $1,000 to 
profit and loss account. 

The checks paid by the paying teller or received by 
either of the receiving tellers, were canceled by them 
when received. This was done by pressing them down 
over a spindle with a blade-like top, peculiar to each, 
so that the shape of the cut indicates the teller who 
received it, as clearly as though he had written his 
name upon it. After posting these checks the book¬ 
keeper places each in its separate box in his drawer, 
until he writes up the customer’s bank book. 

The book-keeper must keep his books posted up to 
the transactions of the day and frequently add both 
sides, marking amounts in pencil so that, should he be 
away from his desk, either teller or the cashier can 
know from a glance the state of each account. More¬ 
over, he can answer the question, as to the state of an 
account, without stopping to run up the columns, as 
these frequent additions keep the whole matter in his 
memory. 

In making up his “ monthly proof” the book-keeper 
draws off a list of the balances on his ledger, and hands 
it to the cashier. These added together must agree 
with the amount of deposits, posted in gross, to gen¬ 
eral ledger. 

The book-keeper is subject to frequent interruptions 
from the tellers and officers of the bank. The paying- 
teller asks: 

“ Is Henry Campbell’s account good for four hun¬ 
dred dollars?” 

Yes, for four thousand.” 



The cashier steps to the book-keeper’s desk and asks 
to see the account of John Smashemup. 

“ What sort of an account does he keep?” 

“ Very lean, carries no balance scarcely at all.” 

“ How is that; he makes large deposits.” 

“ Yes, but he puts it in at one window and draws it 
out at the other.” 

The cashier returns to the directors’ room, and the 
paper offered by Mr. Smashemup is not discounted. 

The book-keeper should write a plain hand, without 
any flourishes, making good full-faced figures, about 


which there can be no mistaking a 7 for a 9, or a 3 
for a 5. 

The difference between individual and general ac¬ 
counts has already been shown. 

The general book-keeper has charge of the latter 
department, and deals with the results of the business 
of the bank. 

He takes precedence of the other book-keepers, and 
has as much of the confidence of officers and managers 
as either of the tellers. He has, in his department, 
the stock and transfer books, and must see that old 
stock certificates are surrendered and canceled before a 
new one is issued. 

These books are proved three times each year, twice 
at dividend times, and once before the annual meeting 
for election of directors. 

In the general ledger are placed in gross the footings 
from the discount books and the tellers’ cash books, as 
also the footings of the several check lists. The gross 
balance must show the amount of deposits on each 
“ individual ledger,” and “ proves” the monthly proof- 
sheet of each book-keeper. 

In commencing business, cash was debited to capital. 
This cash was then transferred to the paying teller and 
the proper entries made. All the daily receipts of the 
bank are charged to the paying teller, and the whole 
check list credited to him. The cash balance on the 
general book-keeper’s ledger and the teller’s proof 
must agree. Should a disagreement be found, one or 
the other, and most probably the teller, has made an 
error. 

This book-keeper must post each day the payments 
of discounted notes, and also the additional discounts 
of the day. This proves each tickler and shows the 
amount of bills receivable on hand. Expense account 
receives salaries, rents, and all other expenditures. 
Interest, exchange and other matters are each prop¬ 
erly kept, and when dividend time comes go to make 
up the profit and loss account. 


Hence the balances of all the accounts of the general 














































BANKING. 


411 


book-keeper can be easily brought together into the 
bank statement. 

National and state banks are required by law to mane 
these statements at periodical times, an example of 
which is here given as below. 

STATEMENT 

OF 


The First National Bank of Chicago, Illinois 


At the close of business, on Tuesday, October 3, 1882. 

RESOURCES. 

LIABILITIES. 

Loans and discounts.$11,383,157.70 

Overdrafts. 13,334.70 

U. S. bonds to secure cir¬ 
culation. 50,000.00 

U. S. bonds to secure de¬ 
posits . 

U. S. bonds on hand. 1,026,200.00 

Other stocks, bonds and 

mortgages. 889,250.00 

Due from approved re¬ 
serve agents. 1,519,070.72 

Due from other banks and 

bankers. 1,342,916.68 

Real estate, furnitureand 

fixtures. 4,250.00 

Current expenses and 

taxes paid. 

Premiums paid. 28,322.64 

Checks and other cash 

items. 2,176.67 

Exchanges for clearing 

house. 1,083,324.47 

Bills of other banks. 230,000.00 

Fractional currency. 244.83 

Specie. 2,037,415 00 

Legal tender notes. 575,000.00 

U. S. certificates of de¬ 
posit. 200,000.00 

Due from U . S. Treasurer 18,250.00 

Capital stock paid in.. .$ 3,000,000.00 

Surplus fund. 100,000.00 

Other undivided profits 128,195.82 
National bank notes 

outstanding. 

State bank notes out 

standing. 

Dividends unpaid. 22,334,00 

Individual deposits_ 9,862,828.52 

United States deposits. 

Deposits of U. S. dis- 

bursing officers. 

Due to other national 

banks. 4,086,804.63 

Due to state banks and 

bankers. 3,202,750.44 

Notes and bills re-dis- 

counted . 

Bills payable. 

Total.$20,402,913.41 

Total...$20,402,913.41 


The correctness and truthfulness of the statement is 
then sworn to before a notary public, and it is ready to 
be published according to the requirements of the law 
under which the bank is organized. Severe penalties 
are prescribed for a false statement in overvaluing the 
resources or understating the liabilities of the bank. 

An important functionary of the bank lias not been 
noticed. He is variously known as the 

COLLECTOR, MESSENGER, OR RUNNER* 

This Mercury of the bank, not winged, like his pro¬ 
totype, but active, keen, and sometimes inclined to 
pertness if not sauciness, has been called the “ sergeant- 
at-arms.” His duties are to present the notices of 
notes due or to become due, and so warn the makers of 
their coming liability. Of late, and especially in 
western banks, this duty has been relegated to the 
mail carrier, such notices being mailed. In such case, 
the collector, or runner, is only a few days behind. 

Each messenger has his district, and is expected to 
know where to find his man at any time. And to his 
quick eye and ear any hesitation betrays sometimes 
more than the sufferer would have shown, had he sur¬ 
mised how quickened was every sense of the youth who 


watches every word and motion, and sees “danger sig¬ 
nals” before his officers have dreamed of them. 

Many a bank officer has saved his institution from 
severe losses by trusting the intuitions of his collectors, 
as it is their duty to report any signs or talk they may 
see or hear of “ shakiness ” or weakness. 

Colloquies like the following are not at all infre¬ 
quent : 

“ Well, George, what news on street to-day?” 

“ Things look shaky, sir. In at Johnson & Co.’s I 
heard that Sharp & Co. had gone up, and the Safety 
National is in for fifty thousand.” 

“ You don’t say? Sharp & Co.?” 

“ Yes, sir; so they said at Johnson’s, and Ialso heard 
it on street. Besides, I heard that Blackwilding was 
offering two per cent a month over at Shaver & Break- 
ems, this morning, and that on the board of trade, it 
was rumored that Barley & Co. had laid down. In 
fact, on street, things look pretty blue.” 

“Well, well. I shall have to look up Howell & 
Smith’s account. I know that they are pretty thick 
with Barley & Co.” 

And Mr. President or Cashier retires to his room or 
desk with food for reflection and probable action. 

The collector is off again, feeling that his informa¬ 
tion was appreciated, and that some day the dignity of 
a regular desk will be his reward. 

A PANIC. 

When everything moves regularly along, the duties 
of the bank cashier and president are pleasant. The 
working machinery of the bank moves with precision 
and clears up each day’s business without jars or dis¬ 
cords. The balances at the clearing house are favorable 
and quite uniform. The daily press teems with repre¬ 
sentations of the prosperous condition of different 
classes of business. The abundant crops are said to 
have enriched the farmer and stock grower, and the 
manufacturer is pressed to supply the demand for his 
wares. Looking out into the financial skies, the bank 
president can discern no indication of any coming 
storm, and the volume of loans is allowed to run up 
higher. Checks are certified in advance of deposits, 
trusting dealers to make their accounts good, and credit 
extended in every direction. 

Suddenly stocks begin to decline on the board. The 
banks begin to contract their loans immediately, real¬ 
izing that they are far from shore. There is reported 
an embezzlement of a large sum of money by a rail¬ 
way official, which, blazed forth in the daily papers, 
tends to unsettle the public mind. Resources every- 



















































































412 


BANKING. 



where seem to contract, while obligations expand and 
loom up before debtors. The cashier is importuned 
for loans and discounts. Customers press their de¬ 
mands in a manner which they would never think of 
doing in an ordinary market. The cashier is in a state 
of siege, and is powerless to satisfy his customers. 
They press into the president’s room, and demand, as a 
matter of right and justice, that their paper be dis¬ 
counted. The failure of a large iron firm is reported, 
with liabilities of five hundred thousand dollars; but 
this is explained as incident to the depressed condition 
of that market. Merchants, brokers, bankers, and all 
classes of business men exhibit excitement and fear. 
Suddenly the failure of a large banking institution is 
announced on the bulletins, printed and issued in 
extras by the news¬ 
papers , and sent by 
telegraph all over 
the country. This 
failure falls like a 
bomb-shell on the 
ears of the excited 
public. Embarrass¬ 
ments and suspen¬ 
sions are the chief 
topics of news and 
conversation. Ru¬ 
mors of dishonest 
jobbing and misuse 
of funds fill the air, 
destroying the con¬ 
fidence of man in 
man. Reports are 

. , , \ A RUN ON 

started and rapidly 

circulated, aggravating the circumstances of failure. 
Candid and thoughtful business men seem to have 
entirely lost reason and judgment, and all join in the 
great excitement and distrust. Men lose confidence in 
all moneyed institutions, and old and substantial con¬ 
cerns are swept down and become a part of the com¬ 
mon wreck, while this mad whirlwind of discredit and 
fear sweeps on to ruin. 

Credit is the banker’s capital to a large extent, and 
is to him what the stock of goods is to the merchant. 
In prosperous times the banker dispenses this credit to 
his various customers, perhaps to the extent of five 
times his actual capital, and a handsome profit is the 
result. But let this confidence of the public be 
destroyed, and the banker is left with nothing but his 
actual capital to meet liabilities. The whole commer¬ 
cial and financial fabric rests largely on confidence. No 


truer illustration of the working of confidence, in sus¬ 
taining or overturning existing institutions can be 
found than the anecdote of the little Frenchman who 
had one thousand dollars on deposit in the bank, and 
when failures and excitement began, he went to the 
bank to draw the money. Upon presenting his check, 
the paying teller examined it and said blandly, 

“ Are you sure you want to draw all this money?” 

“ Oui, monsieur; I starve for want of l’argent” (the 
silver). 

“ Can’t you do without it?’ 

“No, monsieur; I must have him.” 

“You mustf” 

“ Oui, monsieur,” said the little chatterer, turning 
pale with fear for the safety of his money. 

“ And you can’t 
do without it?” 

“ No, monsieur, 
not von other lee- 
tle moment lon- 
gare.” 

The paying tel¬ 
ler then began to 
count out the 
money. 

“ Oh, you have 
got him!” 

“ Certainly! 
What astonishes 
you?” 

“ Vy, dat you 
have got him in 
dese times, ven all 
ze banks break sev¬ 
eral times, all to pieces.” 

“ Oh yes, we have plenty of money to pay all checks 
that are presented.” 

“ Monsieur, you shall do me von leetle favor, eh?” 

“ With all my heart.” 

“ Well, monsieur, you shall keep l’argent for me 
some leetle year longare.” 

“ Why, I thought you wanted it.” 

“ Oh no, monsieur; I no vant ze money, I vant ze 
grand confidence. Suppose you no got ze money, zen 
I vant him ver much—suppose you got him, zen I no 
vant him at all. I vant ze grand confidence ” 

When word goes forth that a run has been com¬ 
menced on the banks, the climax of panic excitement 
is soon reached. Each depositor is eagerly bent on 
securing his balance before the treasures in the vault of 
the bank are exhausted. Check after check is presented 




























































































































































BANKING. 


413 


and paid, and still they come. Thousands of people 
are in the street, either discussing the situation or 
struggling for entrance to the banking room. Excite¬ 
ment runs high. Bank books are examined, but a 
moment is required to write a check, a signature is 
hurriedly dashed oft' at its bottom, and in another 
instant the check is on its way to the bank, to press 
amid the great throng struggling for entrance and pay¬ 
ment. When the excitement reaches a certain pitch it 
becomes a frenzy, and the police are powerless to stay 
the pressure of the tide which threatens to overwhelm 
the bank. Such is unreasoning, unreflecting man, 
when confidence has been destroyed. 

It is amusing to note by what thin devices the ex¬ 
cited depositors of banks in times of panic have been 
entirely quieted, had their confidence restored, and 
have gone away satisfied. In one case the president of 
a bank is said to have obtained a number of sacks of 
meal, opened them at the top, put a good thick layer 
of coin upon the contents, then placed them untied 
where the glittering coins would be manifest to all 
observers. Another bank obtained a number of people 
as confederates, to whom they paid gold, then slipped 
around again to a back door, and refunded it. Others 
placed peck measures, inverted and covered with a pile 
of gold coin on top, in the windows facing the street. 

BANK FRAUDS. 

Bank frauds are of two kinds: those from within the 
institution, by its officers and trusted employes, and 
those from without by dealers, counterfeiters and for¬ 
gers. Being a moneyed institution, it is but natural 
that the bank should be the prey of sharks and swin¬ 
dlers, who lay in wait to take advantage of the unsus¬ 
pecting, and yet it is a fact that less value is lost by 
fraud and embezzlement in the banking business than 
in the mercantile. A clerk in a store may abstract 
articles of merchandise from the stock constantly, 
until his peculations amount to thousands ot dollars, 
and perhaps no discovery will be made ot the theft, or 
if discovered, the sensation is soon over, subsides and 
is forgotten; but let a fraud be committed on the bank, 
a forgery, or an embezzlement, and the fact is embla- 
zoned all abroad, the bank’s affairs are discussed and 
criticised, and if a large fraud, its effect on the money 
market is predicted; it is talked on the street, in the 
store and in the workshop. Banks are more guarded 
against fraud, and the business is conducted more on a 
basis of system and security than ordinary establish¬ 
ments, which makes the liability to detection greater. 

Frauds from within, perpetrated by officers and 


employes from president to porter, vary in magnitude 
from hundreds of thousands down to a few dollars. 
Bank officers are human, and when the fever ot specu¬ 
lation is high in the outside world and fortunes are 
being made in a day, the president or cashier is tempted 
to take a chance which seems to him to lure to imme¬ 
diate fortune, especially when the means of gratifying 
this desire is at his command. 

It is the duty of the directors to inspect the doings 
of the officers, but a duty “ more honored in the breach 
than in the observance.” Rules are made, making it 
the business of the directors to know that the weekly 
statement is what it purports to be, yet, cashiers like 
Baldwin, of Newark, New Jersey, and others, steal 
everything but the bank safes. 

Gaining the complete confidence of directors and 
stockholders, their statements are never verified. With 
opportunity comes temptation, and the cashier who has 
become master of the directors, in his haste to become 
as rich as they are, uses bank funds for speculation. 

Except in the one case of certification, no rule should 
be made for guidance of bank director, president or 
cashier, or employe, that is not enforced to the letter. 

No director or stockholder should be taken upon any 
such bond, for good behavior. A small bond is more 
surely collected than a large one, and one from an out¬ 
sider more certainly than from one of your own busi¬ 
ness family. But if bonds are to take the place of 
inspection and verification of reports and accounts, 
better let the bonds go, and look closely after each 
account book and report. 

The following case occurred in New York some 
years ago: 

The cashier of a bank having a capital of four hun¬ 
dred thousand dollars, became the treasurer of a rail¬ 
road company. In the course of his receipts and 
disbursements there was an overdraft of several thou¬ 
sand dollars. To conceal this from the president, who 
was a stern disciplinarian, notes Avhicli had been left, 
or sent to the bank for collection, were discounted in 
another bank. This necessitated falsifying the ac¬ 
counts. The cashier had been associated with the 
president for twenty years. They were relatives, and 
enjoyed the entire confidence of each other. This was 
a necessary element in a fraud which was to reach two 
hundred and fifty thousand dollars before its discovery. 

As the embezzlement grew, it caused a correspond¬ 
ing decline in the discount line of the bank, and the 
president was deceived by a fictitious statement. 
Drafts on other cities of which no entries were made, 
were sold and the proceeds abstracted; certificates of 


o’ 


O 


























414 


HANKING. 


deposit were issued and negotiated in private and sur¬ 
reptitious channels; entries on the ledger were falsified 
where a page was likely to be examined, and after the 
examination, the falsifications were erased. These 
irregularities were kept up for a year and a half, and 
all this time the president and cashier were daily and 
hourly together in the management of the bank, be¬ 
sides mingling in social contact with friends and fami- 
lies in the evening. 

O 

The president was an experienced and shrewd banker, 
but the cashier had the collusion of the clerks—even 
the porter, who went daily to the post-office, inter¬ 
cepted all letters which would excite suspicion. The 
post-office clerk was bribed to retain any that might 
come at an unusual hour. In short, the president was 
dogged and blinded at every step and turn, and every 
avenue of suspicion was cut off. 

The bubble finally burst, and the scheme which had 
been conducted with such remarkable skill for nearly a 
year and a half, came to light. The president and the 
public were amazed, bewildered and stunned. 

As previously shown, the system of accounts in a 
bank is such, or may be such, that the correctness of each 
account is twice proven, and the cashier knows that 
every account is correct by the proofs that come to his 
desk, unless there should be collusion between at least 
three of the employes, of which examples have been 
known, but such conspiracies are very rare. They are 
impossible where the cashier circulates among the 
clerks twice or more times a day and glances hastily 
along the pages of the books, demanding explanation 
of every item that needs it. 

The bank owes its security against fraud from with¬ 
out, among its multitude of dealers, largely to the 
power of credit. If men are not impelled to right 
actions by motives of morality they are often restrained 
by the fear of being cut off from the facilities of 
credit, which are so essential to success in business. 
Inconsiderate persons, upon opening an account with 
the bank, begin by telling the cashier an exaggerated 
story of their capital, and commercial prospects. They 
forget that their deposits, bills receivable, checks and 
indorsements will form a record that will dispel all 
shams, and that there is no species of humbu°’°'erv 
which will so surely recoil upon the persons, as those 
who attempt to palm off big tales on a bank officer. 

Dealers have it in their power to oftentimes take 
advantage of the confidence reposed in them by the 
bank. Thus, an unscrupulous dealer may employ 
several methods of withdrawing his deposit at the 
same time, and thus defraud the bank of several times 


the amount. For instance, Jones may have a balance 
in the bank of $1,000 in the morning. He may draw 
his check for the amount and receive the cash for it 
from the paying teller; at the same time lie may take 
up his note at the note teller’s desk with his check; he 
may give it to another depositor for deposit in the 
same bank; and he may pay a sight draft which is pre¬ 
sented at his place of business by the collector; thus 
he may draw out four thousand dollars in reality while 
he has only one thousand on deposit . The only method 
which a bank with numerous clerks has to protect itself 
from being- victimized in this way, is by mutual advise- 
rnents among the clerks. If a check which has been 
deposited, upon another bank, proves not good, the 
amount is charged up to the customer depositing it, 
and the check is returned to him; but if the check is 
on the same bank in which it is deposited, the bank, in 
the act of receiving it, assumes that it is good, and 
should there be no balance to meet it, the bank must 
look to the drawer, and not the depositor, to make 
it good. 

OVER CERTIFICATION. 

The practice of certifying checks has been in use at 
least a half century. At first, certification was not 
considered as binding the bank to pay the check. It 
only gave clerical information, and when certified, its 
amount was not charged to the drawer until it had been 
presented for payment. 

With the introduction of the clearing house came 
the present custom of certification, being the same as 
an acknowledgment of a legal obligation upon the 
bank, and the amount of the check was at the time of 
certification charged to the account of the drawer. 

If confined to commercial transactions, it is only 
right that the question of over certification should be 
left to the discretion of each bank. 

But with the advent of stock transactions upon a 
large, and in many instances questionable scale, over 
certification grew into an abuse, as regarded banks 
having that class of customers. 

Hence, the act of congress prohibiting national 
banks from certifying checks in any case, to more than 
the actual deposit to the credit of the customer at the 
time of application for the certification. 

A violation of this subjected the bank to the appoint¬ 
ment of a receiver, subject to the judgment of the bank 
comptroller. But the law has never been enforced, 
though often violated. The New York banks claim, 
however, that losses from over certification are very 
much less than from ordinary discounts. 





































THE HIGHEST BUILDINGS IN THE WORLD 


nnraj 




THE HIGHEST BUILDINGS IN THE WORLD 



















































































































































































































































































































































HOW TO BE HANDSOME. 






HOW TO BE HANDSOME. 




Where is the woman who would not be beautiful ? If 
such there be—but no, she does not exist. From that 
memorable day when the Queen of Sheba made a formal 
call on the late lamented King Solomon until the recent 
advent of the Jersey Lily, the power of beauty has con¬ 
trolled the fate of dynasties and the lives of men. How 
to be beautiful, and consequently powerful, is a question 
of far greater importance to the feminine mind than pre¬ 
destination or any other abstract subject. If women are 
to govern, control, manage, influence and retain the ador¬ 
ation of husbands, fathers, brothers, lovers or even cousins, 
they must look their prettiest at all times. 

All women cannot have good features, but they can look 
well, and it is possible to a great extent to correct deform¬ 
ity and develop much of the figure. The first step to good 
looks is good health, and the first element of health is 
cleanliness. Keep clean—wash freely, bathe regularly. All 
the skin wants is leave to act, and it takes care of itself. 
In the matter of baths we do not strongly advocate a 
plunge in ice-cold water; it takes a woman with clear grit 
and a strong constitution to endure it. If a hot bath be 
used, let it come before retiring, as there is less danger of 
taking cold afterwards; and, besides, the body is weakened 
by the ablution and needs immediate rest. It is well to 
use a flesh-brush, and afterwards rinse off the soap-suds by 
briskly rubbing the body with a pair of coarse toilet 
gloves. The most important part of a bath is the drying. 
Every part of the body should be rubbed to a glowing red¬ 
ness, using a coarse crash towel at the finish. If sufficient 
friction can not be given, a small amount of bay rum 
applied with the palm of the hand will be found effica¬ 
cious. Ladies who have ample leisure and who lead me¬ 
thodical lives, take a plunge or sponge bath three times a 
week, and a vapor or sun bath every day. To facilitate 
this very beneficial practice, a south or east apartment is 
desirable. The lady denudes herself, takes a seat near 
the window, and takes in the warm rays of the sun. The 
effect is both beneficial and delightful. If, however, she 
be of a restless disposition, she may dance, instead of 
basking, in the sunlight. Or, if she be not fond of danc- 
ing, she may improve the shining hours by taking down 
her hair and brushing it, using sulphur water, pulverized 
borax dissolved in alcohol, or some similar dressing. It 
would be surprising to many ladies to see her carefully 
wiping the separate locks on a clean, white towel until the 
dust of the previous day is entirely removed. With such 
care it is not necessary to wash the head, and the hair 
under this treatment is invariably good. 

One of the most useful articles of the toilet is a bottle 
of ammonia, and any lady who has once learned its value 
will never be without it. A few drops in the water takes 
the place of the usual amount of soap, and cleans out the 
pores of the skin as well as a bleach will do. Wash the 
face with a flesh-brush, and rub the lips well to tone their 
color. It is well to bathe the eyes before putting in the 
spirits, and if it is desirable to increase their brightness, 
this may be done by dashing soapsuds into them. ° Always 
rub the eyes, in washing, toward the nose. If the eye¬ 
brows are inclined to spread irregularly, pinch the hairs 
where thickest. If they show a tendency to 






meet, this contact may be avoided by pulling out the hairs 
every morning before the toilet. 

The dash of Orientalism in costume and lace now turns 
a lady's attention to her eyelashes, which are worthless if 
not long and drooping. Indeed, so prevalent is the desire 
for this beautiful feature that hair-dressers and ladies' 
artists have scores of customers under treatment for invig¬ 
orating their stunted eyelashes and eyebrows. To obtain 
these fringed curtains, anoint the roots with a balsam 
made of two drachms of nitric oxid of mercury mixed 
with one of leaf lard. After an application wash the 
roots with a camel's hair brush dipped in warm milk. 
Tiny scissors are used, with which the lashes are carefully 
but slightly trimmed every other day. When obtained, 
refrain from rubbing or even touching the lids with the 
finger-nails. There is more beauty in a pair of well-kept 
eyebrows and full, sweeping eyelashes than people are 
aware of, and a very inattractive and lusterless eye assumes 
new beauty when it looks out from beneath elongated 
fringes. Many ladies have a habit of rubbing the corners 
of their eyes to remove the dust that will frequently 
accumulate there. Unless this operation is done with 
little friction it will be found that the growth of hair is 
very spare, and in that case it will become necessary to 
pencil the barren corners. Instead of putting cologne 
water on the handkerchief, which has come to be con¬ 
sidered a vulgarism among ladies of correct tastes, the per¬ 
fume is spent on the eyebrows and lobes of the ears. 

If commenced in youth, thick lips may be reduced by 
compression, and thin linear ones are easily modified by 
suction. This draws the blood to the surfaces, and pro¬ 
duces at first a temporary and, later, a permanent inflation. 
It is a mistaken belief that biting the lips reddens them. 
The skin of the lips is very thin, rendering them extremely 
susceptible to organic derangement, and if the atmosphere 
does not cause chaps or parchment, the result of such 
harsh treatment will develop into swelling or the for¬ 
mation of scars. Above all things, keep a sweet breath. 

Everybody can not have beautiful hands, but there is 
no plausible reason for their being ill kept. Red hands 
may be overcome by soaking the feet in hot water as 
often as possible. If the skin is hard and dry, use tar or 
oat-meal soap, saturate them with glycerine, and wear 
gloves in bed. Never bathe them in hot water, and wash 
no oftener than is necessary. There are dozens of women 
with soft, white hands who do not put them in water once 
a month. Rubber gloves are worn in making the toilet, 
and they are cared for by an ointment of glycerine and 
rubbed dry with chamois-skin or cotton flannel. The 
same treatment is not unfrequently applied to the face 
with the most successful results. If such methods are 
used, it would be just as well to keep the knowledge of it 
from the gentlemen. We know of one beautiful lady 
who has not washed her face for three years, yet it is 
always clean, rosy, sweet and kissable. With some of her 
other secrets she gave it to her lover for safe keeping. 
Unfortunately, it proved to be her last gift to that gentle¬ 
man, who declared in a subsequent note that “ I can not 
reconcile my heart and my manhood to a woman who can 
get along without washing her face.'' 









































































HOW TO BE HANDSOME. 


419 


SOME OF THE SECRETS OF BEAUTY. 

There is as much a “fashion” in complexion as there 
is in bonnets or boots. Sometimes nature is the mode, 
sometimes art. Just now the latter is in the ascendant, 
though, as a rule, only in that inferior phase which has 
not reached the “concealment of art”—the point where 
extremes meet and the perfection of artifice presents all 
the appearance of artlessness. No one of an observant 
turn of mind, who is accustomed to the sight of English 
maids and matrons, can deny that making-up, as at present 
practiced, partakes of the amateurish element. Impossible 
reds and whites grow still more impossibly red and white 
from week to week under the unskilled hands of the 
wearer of “false colors,” who does not like to ask for 
advice on so delicate a subject, for, even were she willing 
to confess to the practice, the imputation of experience 
conveyed in the asking for counsel might be badly 
received, and would scarcely be in good taste. 

The prevalent and increasing short-sightedness of our 
times is, perhaps, partly the cause of the excessive use of 
rouge and powder. The wielder of the powder puff sees 
herself afar off, as it were. She knows that she cannot 
judge of the effect of her complexion with her face almost 
touching its reflection in the glass, and, standing about a 
yard off, she naturally accentuates her roses and lilies in 
a way that looks very pleasing to her, but is rather start¬ 
ling to any one with longer sight. Nor can she tone 
down her rouge with the powdered hair that softened the 
artificial coloring of her grandmother when she had her 
day. Powder is only occasionally worn with evening 
dress, and it is by daylight that those dreadful bluish reds 
and whites look their worst. 

On the other hand, there are some women so clever at 
making up their faces that one feels almost inclined to 
condone the practice in admiration of the result. These 
are the small minority, and are likely to remain so, for 
their secret is of a kind unlikely to be shared. The closest 
inspection of these cleverly managed complexions reveals 
no trace of art. 

Notwithstanding the reticence of these skilled artists, 
an occasional burst of confidence has revealed a few of 
their means of accomplishing the great end of looking 
pretty. “ Do you often do that ?” said one of those clever 
ones, a matron of 37, who looked like a girl of 19, to a 
friend who was vigorously rubbing her cheeks with a coarse 
towel after a plentiful application of cold water. 

“Yes, every time I come in from a walk, ride or drive. 
Why?” 

“Well, no wonder you look older than you are. You 
are simply wearing your face out ! ” 

“ But I must wash ?” 

“ Certainly, but not like that. Take a leaf out of my 
book ; never wash you face just before going out into the 
fresh air, or just after coming in. Nothing is more inju¬ 
rious to the skin. Come to the glass. Do you notice s 
drawn look about your eyes and a general streakiness in 
the cheeks ? That is the result of your violent assault 
upon your complexion just now. You look at this mo¬ 
ment ten years older than you did twenty minutes ago in 
the park.” 

“ Well, I really do. I look old enough to be your 
mother; but then, you are wonderful. You always look 
so young and fresh !” 

“ Because I never treat my poor face so badly as you do 
yours. I use rain-water, and if I cannot get that, I have 
the water filtered. When I dress for dinner I always wash 
my face with milk, adding just enough hot water to make 
it pleasant to use. A very soft sponge and very fine towel 
take the place of your terrible huckaback arrangement.” 


Two or three years ago a lady of Oriental parentage on 
her father's side spent a season in London society. Her 
complexion was brown, relieved by yellow, her features 
large and irregular, but redeemed by a pair of lovely and 
expressive eyes. So perfect was her taste in dress that she 
always attracted admiration wherever she went. Dressed 
in rich dark brown or dullest crimsons or russets, so that 
no one ever noticed much what she wore, she so managed 
that suggestions and hints—no more—of brilliant amber 
or promegranate scarlet should appear just where they im¬ 
parted brilliancy to her deep coloring, and abstract the 
yellow from her skin. A knot of old gold satin under the 
rim of her bonnet, another at her throat, and others in 
among the lace at her wrists, brightened up the otherwise 
subdued tinting of her costume, so that it always looked as 
though it had been designed expressly for her by some 
great colorist. Here rouge was unnecessary. The sur¬ 
roundings were arranged to suit the complexion, instead of 
the complexion to suit the surroundings. There can be no 
doubt as to which is the method which best becomes the 
gentlewoman. 

In addition to the disagreeable sensation of making-up, 
it must be remembered that the use of some of the white 
powders eventually destroys the texture of the skin, ren¬ 
dering it rough and coarse. Rimrnel, the celebrated per¬ 
fumer, in his “ Book of Perfumes,” says that rouge, being 
composed of cochineal and saffron, is harmless, but that 
white cosmetics consist occasionally of deleterious sub¬ 
stances which may injure the health. He advises actors 
and actresses to choose cosmetics, especially the white, 
with the greatest care, and women of the world, who wish 
to preserve the freshness of their complexion, to observe 
the following recipe: Open air, rest, exercise and cold 
water. 

In another part of this pleasant book the author 
says that schonada , a cosmetic used among the Arabs, is 
quite innocuous and at the same time effectual. “ This 
cream, which consists of sublimated benzoin, acts upon 
the skin as a slight stimulant, and imparts perfectly nat¬ 
ural colors during some hours without occasioning the 
inconveniences with which European cosmetics may justly 
be reproached.” It is a well-known fact that bismuth, a 
white powder containing sugar of lead, injures the nerve- 
centers when constantly employed, and occasionally causes 
paralysis itself. 

In getting up the eyes, nothing is injurious that is not 
dropped into them. The use of kohl or kohol is quite 
harmless, and, it must be confessed, very effective when 
applied—as the famous recipe for salad dressing enjoins 
with regard to the vinegar—by the hand of a miser. Mod¬ 
ern Egyptian ladies make their kohol of the smoke pro¬ 
duced by burning almonds. A small bag holding the 
bottle of kohol , and a pin, with a rounded point with 
which to apply it, form part of the toilet paraphernalia 
of all the beauties of Cairo, who make the immense mis¬ 
take of getting up their eyes in an exactly similar manner, 
thus trying to reduce the endless variety of nature to one 
common pattern, a mistake that may be accounted for by 
the fact that the Arabs believe kohol to be a sovereign 
specific against ophthalmia. Their English sisters often 
make the same mistake without the same excuse. A hair¬ 
pin steeped in lampblack is the usual method of darkening 
the eyes in England, retribution following sooner or later 
in the shape of a total loss of the eyelashes. Eau de 
Cologne is occasionally dropped into the eyes, with the 
effect of making them brighter. The operation is pain¬ 
ful, and it is said that half a dozen drops of whisky and 
the same quantity of Eau de Cologne, eaten on a lump of 
sugar, is quite as effective. 



























420 


HOW TO BE HANDSOME. 


HIGH-HEELED BOOTS. 

A lady looks infinitely taller and slimmer in a long dress 
than she does in a short costume, and there is always a 
way of showing the feet, if desired, by making the front 
quite short, which gives, indeed, a more youthful appear¬ 
ance to a train dress. The greatest attention must, of 
course, be paid to the feet with these short dresses, and I 
may here at once state that high heels are absolutely for¬ 
bidden by fashion. Doctors, are you content? Only on 
cheap shoes and boots are they now made, and are only 
worn by common people. A good bootmaker will not make 
high heels now, even if paid double price to do so. Ladies 
—that is, real ladies—now wear flat-soled shoes and boots, 
a la Cinderella. For morning walking, boots or high Mo- 
Here shoes are worn. 

If you wear boots you may wear any stockings you like, 
for no one sees them. But if you wear shoes you must 
adapt your stockings to your dress. Floss silk, Scotch 
thread, and even cotton stockings are worn for walking, 
silk stockings have returned into exclusively evening 
wear. Day stockings should be of the same color as the 
dress, but they may be shaded, or stripped, or dotted, just 
as you please. White stockings are absolutely forbidden 


for day wear—no one wears them—no one dares wear them 
under fashion’s interdiction. 

HOW TO APPEAR GRACEFUL IN WALKING. 

The whole secret of standing and walking erect consists 
in keeping the chin well away from the breast. This 
throws the head upward and backward, and the shoulders 
will naturally settle backward and in their true position. 
Those who stoop in walking generally look downward. 
The proper way is to look straight ahead, upon the same 
level with your eyes, or if you are inclined to stoop, until 
that tendency is overcome, look rather above than below 
the level. Mountaineers are said to be as “straight as an 
arrow,” and the reason is because they are obliged to look 
upward so much. It is simply impossible to stoop in walk¬ 
ing if you will heed and practice this rule. You will no¬ 
tice that all round-shouldered persons carry the chin near 
the breast and pointed downward. Take warning in time, 
and heed grandmother’s advice, for a bad habit is more 
easily prevented than cured. The habit of stooping w hen 
one walks or stands is a bad habit and especially hard to 
cure. 





HISTORY OF THE BIBLES OF THE WORLD. 

The Bibles of the wrnrld are the koran of the Moham¬ 
medans, the tripitaka of the Buddhists, the five kings of 
the Chinese, the three vedas of the Hindoos, the zenda- 
vesta of the Parsees and the scriptures of the Christians. 
The koran, says the Chicago Times, is the most recent, 
dating from the seventh century after Christ. It is a 
compound of quotations from both the Old and the New 
Testaments and from the talmud. The tripitaka contain 
sublime morals and pure aspirations. Their author lived 
and died in the sixth century before Christ. 

The sacred writings of the Chinese are called the five 
kings, the word “king” meaning web of cloth. From 
this it is presumed that they were originally written on 
five rolls of cloth. They contain wfise sayings from the 
sages on the duties of life, but they can not be traced 
further back than the eleventh century before our era. 
The vedas aie the most ancient books in the language of 
the Hindoos, but they do not, according to late commen¬ 
tators, antedate the twelfth before the Christian era. The 
zendavesta of the Paisees, next to our Bible, is reckoned 
among scholars as being the greatest and most learned of 
the sacred w ritings. Zoroaster, whose sayings it contains, 
lived and worked in the twelfth century before Christ! 
Moses lived and wrote the pentateuch 1,500 years before 
the birth of Jesus, therefore that portion of our Bible is 
at least 300 years older than the most ancient of other 
sacred w r ritings. The eddas, a semi-sacred wrnrk of the 
Scandinavians, was first given to the world in the four¬ 
teen century A. D. 


PRECIOUS STONES. 

ARRANGED ACCORDING TO COLOR AND IN ORDER OF 

HARDINESS. 

Limpid. —Diamond, Sapphire, Topaz, Rock-Crystal. 
Blue. —Sapphire, Topaz, Indicolite, Turquoise, Spinel, 
Aquamarine, Kaynite. 

Green .—Oriental Emerald, Chrysoberyl, Amazon Stone, 
Malachite, Emerald, Chrysoprase, Chrysolite. 

Yellow. —Diamond, Topaz, Fire-Opal. 

Bed. —Sapphire-Rub} r , Spinel-Ruby, Rubellite, Garnet, 
Brazilian-Topaz, Hyacinth, Carnelian. 

Violet. —Oriental-Amethyst, Amethyst. 

Black and Brown. —Diamond, Tourmaline, Hyacinth, 
Garnet. 


HOW TO MEASURE CORN IN THE CRIB. 

Rule: 1st. Measure the length, breadth and height of 
the crib inside the rail; multiply them together and divide 
by two, the result is the number of bushels of shelled 
corn. 

2d. Level the corn so that it is of equal depth through¬ 
out, multiply the length, breath and depth together, and 
this product by four, and cut off one figure to the right of 
the product; the other will represent the number of bush¬ 
els of shelled corn. 

3d. Multiply length by height, and then by width, add 
two ciphers to the result and divide by 124; this gives the 
number of bushels of ear corn. 






























































MULTUM IN PARVO. 


421 


HOME DRESSMAKING. 


The art of dressmaking in America has been of late 
years so simplified that almost anyone with a reasonable 
degree of executive ability can manufacture a fashionable 
costume by using an approved pattern and following the 
directions printed upon it, selecting a new pattern for 
each distinct style; while in Europe many ladies adhere 
to the old plan of cutting one model and using it for 
everything, trusting to personal skill or luck to gain the 
desired formation. However, some useful hints are given 
which are well worth offering after the paper pattern has 
been chosen. 

The best dressmakers here and abroad use silk for lining, 
but nothing is so durable or preserves the material as well 
as a firm slate twill. This is sold double width and should 
be laid out thus folded : place the pattern upon it with the 
upper part towards the cut end, the selvedge for the fronts. 
The side pieces for the back will most probably be got out 
of the width, while the top of the back will fit in the in¬ 
tersect of the front. A yard of good stuff may be often 
saved by laying the pattern out and well considering how 
one part cuts into another. Prick the outline on to the 
lining ; these marks serve as a guide for the tacking. 

In forming the front side plaits be careful and do not 
allow a fold or crease to be apparent on the bodice beyond 
where the stitching commences. To avoid this, before be¬ 
ginning stick a pin through what is to be the top of the 
plait. The head will be on the right side, and holding the 
point, one can begin pinning the seam without touching 
the upper part of the bodice. To ascertain the size of the 
buttonholes put a piece of card beneath the button to be 
used and cut it an eighth of an inch on either side beyond. 
Having turned down the piece in front on the buttonhole 
side run a thread a sixteenth of ail inch from the extreme 
edge, and again another the width of the card. Begin to 
cut the first buttonhole at the bottom of the bodice; and 
continue at equal distances. The other side of the bodice 
is left wide enough to come well under the buttonholes. 
The buttonholes must be laid upon it and a pin put 
through the center of each to mark where the button is to 
be placed. In sewing on the buttons put the stiches in 
horizontally; if perpendicularly they are likely to pucker 
that side of the bodice so much that it will be quite drawn 
up, and the buttons will not match the buttonholes. 

A WOMAN'S SKIRTS. 

Observe the extra fatigue which is insured to every 
woman in merely carrying a tray upstairs, from the skirts 
of the dress. Ask any young women who are studying to 
pass examinations whether they do not find loose clothes 
a sine qua non while poring over their books, and then 
realize the harm we are doing ourselves and the race by 
habitually lowering our powers of life and energy in such 
a manner. As a matter of fact it is doubtful whether any 
persons have ever been found who would say that their 
stays were at all tight; and, indeed, by a muscular con¬ 
traction they can apparently prove that they are not so by 
moving them about on themselves, and thus probably be¬ 
lieve what they say. That they are in error all the same 
they can easily assure themselves by first measuring round 
the waist outside the stays; then take them off, let them 
measure while they take a deep breath, with the tape 
merely laid on the body as if measuring for the quantity 
of braid to go round a dress, and mark the result. The 
injury done by stays is so entirely internal that it is not 
strange that the maladies caused by wearing them should 
be attributed to every reason under the sun except the 
true one, which is, briefly, that all the internal organs, 
being by them displaced, are doing their work imperfectly 


and under the least advantageous conditions; and are, 
therefore, exactly in the state most favorable to the devel¬ 
opment of disease, whether hereditary or otherwise.— 
Macmillan's Magazine. 

TO MAKE THE SLEEVES. 

As to sleeves. Measure from the shoulder to the elbow 
and again from elbow to the wrist. Lay these measure¬ 
ments on any sleeve patterns you may have, and lengthen 
and shorten accordingly. The sleeve is cut in two pieces, 
the top of the arm and the under part, wfiich is about an 
inch narrower than the outside. In joining the two 
together, if the sleeve is at all tight, the upper part is 
slightly fulled to the lower at the elbow. The sleeve is 
sown to the armhole with no cordings now, and the front 
seam should be about two inches in front of the bodice. 

Bodices are now worn very tight-fitting, and the French 
stretch the material well on the cross before beginning to 
cut out, and in cutting allow the lining to be slightly 
pulled, so that when on, the outside stretches to it and 
insures a better fit. An experienced eye can tell a French- 
cut bodice at once, the front side pieces being always on 
the cross. In dress cutting and fitting, as in everything 
else, there are failures and discouragements, but practice 
overrules these little matters, and “ trying again " brings a 
sure reward in success. 

A sensible suggestion is made in regard to the finish in 
necks of dresses for morning wear. Plain colors have 
rather a stiff appearance, tulle or crepe lisse frilling are 
expensive and frail, so it is a good idea to purchase a few 
yards of really good washing lace, about an inch and a half 
in depth; quill or plait and cut into suitable lengths to tack 
around the necks of dresses. This can be easily removed 
and cleaned when soiled. A piece of soft black Span¬ 
ish lace, folded loosely around the throat close to the frill- 
ings, but below it, looks very pretty; or you may get three 
yards of scarf lace, trim the ends with frillings, place it 
around the neck, leaving nearly all the length in the right 
hand, the end lying upon the left shoulder being about 
half a yard long. Wind the larger piece twice around the 
throat, in loose, soft folds, and festoon the other yard and a 
half, and fasten with brooch or flower at the side.— Phila¬ 
delphia Times. 

DISCOVERY OF GOLD IN CALIFORNIA. 

It was on the 19th day of January, 1848, that James W. 
Marshall, while engaged in digging a race for a saw-mill 
at Coloma, about thirty-five miles eastward from Sutter's 
Fort, found some pieces of yellow metal, which he and 
the half-dozen men working with him at the mill sup¬ 
posed to be gold. He felt confident that he had made a 
discovery of great importance, but he knew nothing of 
either chemistry or gold-mining, so he could not prove the 
nature of the metal nor tell how to obtain it in paying 
quantities. Every morning he went down to the race to 
look for the bits of metal; but the other men at the mill 
thought Marshall was very wild in his ideas, and they con¬ 
tinued their labors in building the mill, and in sowing 
wheat and planting vegetables. The swift current of the 
mill-race washed away a considerable body of earthy mat¬ 
ter, leaving the coarse particles of gold behind; so Mar¬ 
shall’s collection of specimens continued to accumulate, 
and his associates began to think there might be some¬ 
thing in his gold mines after all. About the middle of 
February, a Mr. Bennett, one of the party employed at 
the mill, went to San Francisco for the purpose of learn¬ 
ing whether this metal was precious, and there he was 
introduced to Isaac Humphrey, who had washed for gold 
in Georgia. The experienced miner saw at a glance that 






























422 


MULTUM IN' PARVO. 


he had the true stuff before him, and, after a few inquiries, 
he was satisfied that the diggings must be rich. _ He made 
immediate preparation to visit the mill, and tried to per¬ 
suade some of his friends to go with him; but they 
thought it would be only a waste of time and money, so 
he went with Bennett for his sole companion. 

He arrived at Coloma on the 7th of March, and found 
the work at the mill going on as if no gold existed in the 
neighborhood. The next day he took a pan and spade, 
and washed some of the dirt in the bottom of the mill- 
race in places where Marshall had found his specimens, 
and, in a few hours, Humphrey declared that these mines 
were far richer than any in Georgia. He now made a 
rocker and went to work washing gold industriously, and 
every day yielded to him an ounce or two of metal. The 
men at the mill made rockers for themselves, and all were 
soon busy in search of the yellow metal. Everything else 
was abandoned; the rumor of the discovery spread slowly. 
In the middle of March Pearson B. Reading, the owner of 
a large ranch at the head of the Sacramento valley, hap¬ 
pened to visit Sutter’s Fort, and hearing of the mining at 
Coloma, he went thither to see it. He said that if simi¬ 
larity of formation could be taken as a proof, there must 
be gold mines near his ranch; so, after observing the 
method of washing, he posted off, and in a few weeks he 
was at work on the bars of Clear Creek, nearly two hun¬ 
dred miles northwestward from Coloma. A few days after 
Reading had left, John Bidwell, now representative of the 
northern district of the State in the lower House of Con¬ 
gress, came to Coloma, and the result of his visit was 
that, in less than a month, he had a party of Indians from 
his ranch washing gold on the bars of Feather River, 
twenty-five miles northwestward from Coloma. Thus the 
mines were opened at far distant points. 

The first printed notice of the discovery of gold was 
given in the California newspaper published in San Fran¬ 
cisco on the 15th of March. On the 29th of May the same 
paper, announcing that its publication would be suspended, 
says: “ The whole country, from San Francisco to Los 
Angeles, and from the seashore to the base of the Sierra 
Nevada, resound the sordid cry of gold! gold! gold! while 
the field is left half planted, the house half built and 
everything neglected but the manufacture of pick and 
shovels, and the means of transportation to the spot 
where one man obtained one hundred and twenty-eight 
dollars’ worth of the real stuff in one day’s washing; and 
the average for all concerned, is twenty dollars per diem.” 

The first to commence quartz mining in California were 
Capt. Win. Jackson and Mr. Eliason, both Virginians, 
and the first machine used was a Chilian mill. 

The Reid Mine, in North Carolina, was the first gold 
mine discovered and worked in the United States, and the 
only one in North America from which, up to 1825, gold 
was sent to the Mint. 


HOW TO MAKE ARTIFICIAL GOLD. 

The following oroid or imitation gold is sometimes sold 
for the genuine article which it closely resembles. Pure 
copper, 100 parts by weight, is melted in a crucible, and 
then 6 parts of magnesia, 3.6 of sal-ammoniac, 1.8 of 
quicklime and 9. of tartar are added separately and grad¬ 
ually in the form of powder. The whole is then stirred 
for about half an hour, and 17 parts of zinc or tin in 
small grains are thrown in and thoroughly mixed. The 
cruicible is now covered and the mixture kept melted for 
half an hour longer, when it is skimmed and poured out. 

Aiiy imitation of gold may be detected by its weight, 
which is not one-half of what it should be, and by its dis¬ 
solving m nitric acid while pure gold is untouched. 


HOW TO TELL ANY PERSON’S AGE. 

There is a good deal of amusement in the following 
magical table of figures. It will enable you to tell how 
old the young ladies are. Just hand this table to a young 
lady, and request her to tell you in which column or col¬ 
umns her age is contained, and add together the figures at 
the top of the columns in which her age is found, and you 
have the great secret. Thus, suppose her age to be 17, 
you will find that number in the first and fifth columns; 
add the first figures of these two columns. 


Here 

1 

is the magic 
2 

table: 

4 

8 

16 

32 

3 

3 

5 

9 

17 

33 

5 

6 

6 

10 • 

18 

34 

7 

7 

7 

11 

19 

35 

9 

10 

12 

12 

20 

36 

11 

11 

13 

13 

21 

37 

13 

14 

14 

14 

22 

38 

15 

15 

15 

15 

23 

39 

17 

18 

20 

24 

24 

40 

19 

19 

21 

25 

25 

41 

21 

22 

22 

26 

26 

42 

23 

23 

23 

27 

27 

43 

25 

26 

28 

28 

28 

44 

27 

27 

29 

29 

29 

45 

29 

30 

30 

30 

30 

46 

31 

31 

31 

31 

31 

47 

33 

34 

36 

40 

48 

48 

35 

35 

37 

41 

49 

49 

37 

38 

38 

42 

50 

50 

39 

39 

39 

43 

51 

51 

41 

42 

44 

44 

52 

52 

43 

43 

45 

45 

53 

53 

45 

46 

46 

46 

54 

54 

47 

47 

47 

47 

55 

55 

49 

50 

52 

56 

56 

56 

51 

51 

53 

57 

57 

57 

53 

54 

54 

58 

58 

58 

55 

55 

55 

59 

59 

59 

57 

58 

60 

60 

60 

60 

59 

59 

61 

61 

61 

61 

61 

62 

62 

62 

62 

62 

63 

63 

63 

63 

63 

63 


WHAT THE WHITE HOUSE COSTS. 

Salary of President, $50,000; additional appropriations 
are about $75,000. A total of $125,000. The President 
has the following corps of assistants: Private Secretary, 
$3,250; Assistant Private Secretary, $2,250; Stenographer, 
$1,800; five Messengers, $1,200 each, $6,000; Steward—; 
two Doorkeepers, $1,200 each, $2,400; two Ushers, $1,200, 
$1,400, $2,600; Night Usher, $1,200; Watchman, $900, 
and a few other minor clerks and telegraph operators. 

Sundries. —Incidental expenses, $8,000; White House 
repairs—carpets and refurnishing, $12,500; fuel, $2,500; 
green-house, $4,000; gas, matches and stable, $15,000. 

These amounts, with others of minor importance, con¬ 
sume the entire appropriations. 

BUSINESS LAW. 

Ignorance of the law excuses no one. It is a fraud to 
conceal a fraud. The law compels no one to do impossi¬ 
bilities. An agreement without consideration is void. 
Signatures made with a lead pencil are good in law. A 
receipt for money paid is not legally conclusive. The acts 
of one partner bind all the others. Contracts made on 
Sunday cannot be enforced. A contract made with a 
minor is void. A contract made with a lunatic is void. 
Principals are responsible for the acts of their agents. 































































MTJLTUM IN PARVO. 


423 


Agents are responsible to their principals for errors. Each 
individual in a partnership is responsible for the whole 
amount of the debts of the firm. A note given bv a minor 
is void. Notes bear interest only when so stated. It is 
legally necessary to say on a note “for value received/' A 
note drawn on Sunday is void. A note obtained by fraud, 
or from a person in a state of intoxication, cannot be col¬ 
lected. If a note be lost or stolen, it does not release the 
maker; lie must pay it. An endorser of a note is exempt 
from liability if not served with notice of its dishonor 
within twenty-four hours of its non-payment. 

ITEMS WORTH REMEMBERING. 

A sun bath is of more worth than much warming: bv 
the fire. 

Books exposed to the atmosphere keep in better condi¬ 
tion than if confined in a book-case. Pictures are both for 
use and ornament. They serve to recall pleasant memo¬ 
ries and scenes; they harmonize with the furnishing of 
the rooms. If they serve neither of these purposes they are 
worse than useless; they only help fill space which would 
look better empty, or gather dust and make work to keep 
them clean. 

A room filled with quantities of trifling ornaments has 
the look of a bazaar and displays neither good taste nor 
good sense. Artistic excellence aims to have all the fur¬ 
nishings of a high order of workmanship combined with 
simplicity, while good sense understands the folly of dust¬ 
ing a lot of rubbish. 

A poor book had best be burned to give place to a better, 
or even to an empty shelf, for the fire destroys its poison, 
and puts it out of the way of doing harm. 

Better economize in the purchasing of furniture or 
carpets than scrimp in buying good books or papers. 

Our sitting-rooms need never be empty of guests or our 
libraries of society if the company of good books is 
admitted to them. 

REMARKABLE CALCULATIONS REGARDING 

THE SUN. 

The sun's average distance from the earth is about 
91,500,000 miles. Since the orbit of the earth is elliptical, 
and the sun is situated at one of its foci, the earth is nearly 
3,000,000 miles further from the sun in aphelion than in 
perihelion. As we attempt to locate the heavenly bodies 
in space, we are immediately startled by the enormous fig¬ 
ures employed. The first number, 91,500,000 miles, is far 
beyond our grasp. Let us try to comprehend it. If there 
were air to convey a sound from the sun to the earth, and 
a noise could be made loud enough to pass that distance 
it would require over fourteen years for it to come to us. 
Suppose a railroad could be built to the sun. An express 
train traveling day and night at the rate of thirty miles an 
hour, would require 341 years to reach its destination. Ten 
generations would be born and would die; the young men 
would become gray haired, and their great-grandchildren 
would forget the story of the beginning of that wonderful 
journey, and could find it only in history, as we now read 
of Queen Elizabeth or of Shakespeare; the eleventh gener¬ 
ation would see the solar depot at the end of the route. 
Yet this enormous distance of 91,500,000 miles is used as 
the unit for expressing celestial distances—as the foot-rule 
for measuring space; and astronomers speak of so many 
times the sun's distance as we speak of so many feet or 
inches. 

Signs of Storms Approaching.—A ring around the 
sun or moon stands for an approaching storm, its near or 
distant approach being indicated by its larger or smaller 


circumference. When the sun rises brightly and immedi¬ 
ately afterward becomes veiled with clouds, the farmer 
distrusts the day. Rains which begin early in the morn¬ 
ing often stop by nine in place of “eleven," the hour 
specified in the old saw, “ If it rains before seven." 

On a still, quiet day, with scarcely the least wind afloat, 
the ranchman or farmer can tell the direction of impend¬ 
ing storm by cattle sniffing the air in the direction whence 
it is coming. Lack of dew in summer is a rain sign. 
Sharp white frosts in autumn and winter precede damp 
weather, and we will stake our reputation as a prophet that 
three successive white frosts are an infallible sign of rain. 
Spiders do not spin their webs out of doors before rain. 
Previous to rain flies sting sharper, bees remain in their 
hives or fly but short distances, and almost all animals 
appear uneasy. 

HOW TO DISTINGUISH GOOD MEAT EROM BAD 

MEAT. 

1st. It is neither of a pale pink color nor of a deep pur¬ 
ple tint, for the former is a sign of disease, and the latter 
indicates that the animal has not been slaughtered, but 
has died with the blood in it, or has suffered from acute 
fever. 

2d. It has a marked appearance from the ramifications 
of little veins of fat among the muscles. 

3d. It should be firm and elastic to the touch and 
should scarcely moisten the fingers—bad meat being wet 
and sodden and flabby with the fat looking like jelly or 
wet parchment. 

4th. It should have little or no odor, and the odor should 
not be disagreeable, for diseased meat has a sickly cadav¬ 
erous smell, and sometimes a smell of physic. This is 
very discoverable when the meat is chopped up and 
drenched with warm water. 

5th. It should not shrink or waste much in cooking. 

6th. It should not run to water or become very wet on 
standing for a day or two, but should, on the contrary, 
dry upon the surface. 

7th. When dried at a temperature of 212 deg., or there¬ 
abouts, it should not lose more than from 70 to 74 per 
cent, of its weight, whereas bad meat will often lose as 
much as 80 per cent. The juice of the flesh is alkaline or 
neutral to test paper. 

RAILROADS IN FINLAND. 

People who think of Finland as a sub-arctic country of 
bleak and forbidding aspect may be surprised to hear that 
several railroads have already made a large part of the 
region accessible. A new line, 160 miles long, has just 
been opened to the heart of the country in the midst of 
great forests and perhaps the most wonderful lake region 
in the world. Sportsmen are now within less than a day's 
journey from St. Petersburg of central Finland, where 
there is the best of hunting and fishing and twenty hours 
of sunlight every summer day. The most unique of rail¬ 
roads, however, is still the little line in Norway, north 
of the arctic circle, carrying the product of far northern 
mines to the sea, and famous as the only railroad that has 
yet invaded the polar regions. 

COMPARATIVE SIZE OF THE ARK AND THE 
GREAT EASTERN. 

The following comparison between the size of Noah’s 
ark and the Great Eastern, both being considered in point 
of tonnage, after the old law for calculating the tonnage 
of a vessel, exhibits a remarkable similarity. The cubit 
of the Bible, according to Sir Isaac Newton, is 20£ inches, 











































424 


MULTUM IN PARVO. 


or, to be exact, 20.625 inches. Bishop Wilkins makes 
the cubit 20.88 inches. According to Newton the dimen¬ 
sions of the ark were: Length between perpendicu¬ 
lars, 515.62 feet; breadth, 84.94 feet; depth, 51.56feet; 
keel, or length for tonnage, 464.08 feet. Tonnage, accord¬ 
ing to old law, 18,23158-94. The measurements of the ark, 
according to Wilkins’ calculations were: Length, 54700 
feet; breadth, 91.16 feet; depth, 54.70 feet; keel, 492.31 
feet. Tonnage, 21,761. Notice how surprisingly near 
the Great Eastern came to being constructed after the 
same plan: Length, 680feet; breadth, 83 feet; depth, 60 
feet; keel, 630 feet. Tonnage, 23,092. 

FINGER NAILS AS AN INDICATION OF CHAR¬ 
ACTER. 

A white mark on the nail bespeaks misfortune. 

Pale or lead-colored nails indicate melancholy people. 

Broad nails indicate a gentle, timid, and bashful nat¬ 
ure. 

Lovers of knowledge and liberal sentiments have round 
nails. 

People with narrow nails are ambitious and quarrel¬ 
some. 

Small nails indicate littleness of mind, obstinacy and 
conceit. 

Choleric, martial men, delighting in war, have red and 
spotted nails. 

Nails growing into the flesh at the points or sides indi¬ 
cate luxurious tastes. 

People with very pale nails are subject to much infirm¬ 
ity of the flesh and persecution by neighbors and friends. 

DANGERS OF CELLULOID. 

A curious accident, which happened recently in Paris, 
points out a possible danger in the wearing of combs and 
bracelets of celluloid. A little girl sat down before the 
fire to prepare her lessons. Her hair was kept back by 
a semi-circle comb of celluloid. As her head was bent 
forward to the fire this became warm, and suddenly burst 
into flames. The child’s hair was partly burned off, and 
the skin of the head was so injured that several months 
after, though the burn was healed, the cicatrix formed a 
white patch on which no hair would grow. The burning 
point of celluloid is about 180 degrees, and the comb worn 
by the girl had attained that heat as it was held before the 
fire. 

ODD FACTS ABOUT SHOES. 

Grecian shoes were peculiar in reaching to the middle of 
the legs. 

The present fashion of shoes was introduced into Eng¬ 
land in 1633. 

In the ninth and tenth centuries the greatest princes of 
Europe wore wooden shoes. 

Slippers were in use before Shakespeare’s time, and 
were originally made “ rights ’’and “ lefts.” 

Shoes among the Jews were made of leather, linen, 
rush or wood; soldiers’ shoes were sometimes made of 
brass or iron. 

In the reign of William Rufus of England, in the 
eleventh century, a great beau, “Robert, the Horned,” 
used shoes with sharp points, stuffed with tow, and twisted 
like rams’ horns. 

The Romans made use of two kinds of shoes—the solea, 
or sandal, which covered the sole of the foot, and was worn 
at home and in company, and the calceus, which covered 
the whole foot and was always worn with the toga when a 
person went abroad. 


In the reign of Richard II., shoes were of such absurd 
length as to require to be supported by being tied to the 
knees with chains, sometimes of gold and silver. In 1463 
the English parliament took the matter in hand and 
passed an act forbidding shoes with spikes more than two 
inches in length being worn and manufactured. 

TABLE SHOWING THE AVERAGE VELOCITIES 
OF VARIOUS BODIES. 

A man walks 3 miles per hour or 4 feet per second. 

A horse trots 7 “ “ 10 

A horse runs 20 “ “ 29 “ “ 

Steamboat runs 20 “ “ 26 “ “ 

Sailing vessel runs 10 miles per hour or 14 feet per second. 

Rapid rivers flow 3 “ “ 4 

A moderate wind blows 7 miles per hour or 10 feet per second. 

A storm moves 36 “ “ 52 

A hurricane moves 80 “ “ 117 

A rifle ball 1000 “ “ 1466 

Sound 743 “ " 1142 

Light, 192,000 miles per second. 

Electricity, 288,000 miles per second. 

QUANTITY OF OIL REQUIRED FOR DIFFERENT 

COLORS. 

Heath & Miligan quote the following figures. They 
are color manufacturers: 

100 parts (weight) White Lead require 12 parts of oil. 

Zinc White “ 14 

Green Chrome “ 15 

Chrome Yellow “ 19 

Vermilion “ 25 

Light Red “ 31 

Madder Lake “ 62 

Yellow Ochre “ 66 

Light Ochre “ 72 

Camels Brown “ 75 

Brown Manganese require 
Terre Verte 
Parisian Blue 
Burnt Terreverte 
Berlin Blue 
Ivory Black 
Cobalt 

Florentine Brow* 

Burnt Terra Sienna 
Raw Terra Sienna 


87 part* of oil. 
100 
106 
112 
112 
112 
125 
150 
181 
140 


According to this table, a hundred parts of the quick 
drying white lead are ground with 12 parts of oil, and on 
the other hand slow drying ivory black requires 112 parts 
of oil. 

PAINTING. 

1 gallon Priming Color will cover 50 superficial yards. 


White Zinc 
White Paint 
Lead Color 
Black Paint 
Stone Color 
Yellow Paint 
Blue Color 
Green Paint 


50 

44 

5f 

5® 

44 

44 

45 
45 


Bright Emerald Green will cover 25 superficial yards. 
Bronze Green will cover 45 superficial yards. 

One pound of paint will cover about four superficial 
yards the first coat, and about six yards each additional 
coat. 

RAPID PROCESS OF MARKING GOODS AT ANY 
DESIRED PER CENT. PROFIT. 

Retail merchants, in buying goods by wholesale, buy a 
great many articles by the dozen, such as boots and shoes, 
hats and caps, and notions of various kinds; now the mer¬ 
chant, in buying, for instance, a dozen hats, knows exactly 
what one of these hats will retail for in the market where 






















































MULTUM IN PARVO. 


425 


he deals; and unless he is a good accountant, it will often 
take him some time to determine whether he can afford to 
purchase the dozen hats and make a living profit by selling 
them by the single hat; and in buying his goods by auction, 
as the merchant often does, he has not time to make the 
calculation before the goods are bid off. He therefore 
loses the chance of making good bargains by being afraid 
to bid at random, or if he bids, and the goods are cried 
off, he may have made a poor bargain by bidding thus at a 
venture. It then becomes a useful and practical problem 
to determine instantly what per cent, he would gain if he 
retailed the hat at a certain price, to tell what an article 
should retail for to make a profit of 20 per cent. 

Rule.—Divide wliat the articles cost per dozen by 10. 
which is done by removing the decimal point one place to 
the left. 

For instance, if hats cost $17.50 per dozen, remove the 
decimal point one place to the left, making $1.75, what 
they should be sold for apiece to gain 20 per cent, on the 
cost. If they cost $31.00 per dozen, they should be sold at 
$3.10 apiece, etc. 

THE SEVEN WONDERS OF THE WORLD. 

Pyramids of Egypt. 

Tower, Walls and Terrace Hanging Gardens of Babylon. 

Statue of Jupiter Olympus, on the Capitoline Hill, at 
Rome. 

Temple of Diana, at Ephesus. 

Pharos, or watch-tower, at Alexandria, Egypt. 

Colossus of Rhodes, a statue 105 feet high; overthrown 
by an earthquake 224 B. C. 

Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, a Grecian-Persian city in 
Asia Minor. 

HEAT AND COLD. 

Degrees of heat above zero at which substances melt:— 
Wrought iron, 3,980 degrees; cast iron, 3,479; platinum, 
3,080; gold, 2,590; copper, 2,548; steel, 2,500; glass, 2,377; 
brass, 1,900; silver, 1,250; antimony, 951; zinc, 740; lead, 
594; tin, 421; arsenic, 365; sulphur, 226; beeswax, 151; 
guttapercha, 145; tallow, 97; lard, 95; pitch, 91; ice, 33. 

Degrees of heat above zero at which substances boil:— 
Ether, 98 degrees; alcohol, 173; water, 212; petroleum, 
306; linseed oil, 640; blood heat, 98; eggs hatch, 104. 

QUANTITY OF SEED TO AN ACRE. 

Wheat, 1| to 2 bu.; rye, 1£ to 2 bu.; oats, 3 bu.; barley, 
2 bu.; buckwheat, £ bu.; corn, broadcast, 4 bu.; corn, in 
drills, 2 to 3 bu.; corn, in hills, 4 to 8 qts.; broom corn, 
j- bu.; potatoes, 10 to 15 bu.; rutabagas, f lbs.; millet, \ 
bu.; clover, white, 4 qts.; clover, red, 8 qts.; timothy, 6 
qts.; orchard grass, 2 qts.; red top, 1 to 2 pks.; blue grass, 
2 bu.; mixed lawn grass, | bu.; tobacco, 2 ozs. 

SOLUBLE GLASS FOR FLOORS. 

Instead of the old-fashioned method of using wax for 
polishing floors, etc., soluble glass is now employed to 
great advantage. For this purpose the floor is first well 
cleaned, and then the cracks well filled up with a cement 
of water-glass and powdered chalk or gypsum. After¬ 
ward, a water-glass of 60° to 65°, of the thickness of 
syrup, is applied by means of a stiff brush. Any desired 
color may be imparted to the floor in a second coat of the 
water-glass, and additional coats are to be given until the 
requisite polish is obtained. A still higher finish may be 
given by pummicing off the last layer, and then putting 
on a coating of oil. 


DURABILITY OF A HORSE. 

A horse will travel 400 yards in 4-j minutes at a walk, 
400 yards in 2 minutes at a trot, and 400 yards in 1 minute 
at a gallop. The usual work of a horse is taken at 22,500 
lbs. raised 1 foot per minute, for 8 hours per day. A 
horse will carry 250 lbs. 25 miles per day of 8 hours. An 
average draught-horse will draw 1,600 lbs. 23 miles per 
day on a level road, weight of wagon included. The 
average weight of a horse is 1,000 lbs.; his strength is 
equal to that of 5 men. In a horse mill moving at 3 feet 
per second, track 25 feet diameter, he exerts with the 
machine the power of horses. The greatest amount a 
horse can pull in a horizontal line is 900 lbs.; but he can 
only do this momentarily, in continued exertion, probably 
half of this is the limit. He attains his growth in 5 
years, will live 25, average 16 years. A horse will live 25 
days on water, without solid food, 17 days without eating 
or drinking, but only 5 days on solid food, without 
drinking. 

A cart drawn by horses over an ordinary road will travel 
1.1 miles per hour of trip. A 4-horse team will haulfrom 
25 to 36 cubic feet of lime stone at each load. The time 
expended in loading, unloading, etc., including delays, 
averages 35 minutes per trip. The cost of loading and 
unloading a cart, using a horse cram at the quarry, and 
unloading by hand, when labor is $1.25 per day, and a 
horse 75 cents, is 25 cents per perch=24.75 cubic feet. 
The work done by an animal is greatest when the velocity 
with which he moves is of the greatest with which he 
can move when not impeded, and the force then exerted 
.45 of the utmost force the animal can exert at a dead 
pull. 

COMPARATIVE COST OF FREIGHT BY WATER 

AND RAIL. 

It has been proved by actual test that a single tow-boat 
can transport at one trip from the Ohio to New Orleans 
29,000 tons of coal, loaded in barges. Estimating in this 
way the boat and its tow, worked by a few men, carries 
as much freight to its destination as 3,000 cars and 100 
locomotives, manned by 600 men, could transport. 

HINTS TO YOUNG HOUSEWIVES. 

Glycerine does not agree with a dry skin. 

If yon use powder always wash it off before going to 
bed. 

When you give your cellar its spring cleaning, add a 
little copperas water and salt to the whitewash. 

A little ammonia and borax in the water when washing- 
blankets keeps them soft and prevents shrinkage. 

Sprinkling salt on the top and at the bottom of garden 
walls is said to keep snails from climbing up or down. 

For relief from heartburn or dyspepsia, drink a little 
cold water in which has been dissolved a teaspoonful of 
salt. 

For hoarseness, beat a fresh egg and thicken it with fine 
white sugar. Eat of it freely and the hoarseness will soon 
be relieved. 

If quilts are folded or rolled tightly after washing, then 
beaten with a rolling pin or potato masher, it lightens up 
the cotton and makes them seem soft and new. 

Chemists say that it takes more than twice as much 
sugar to sweeten preserves, sauce, etc., if put in when 
they begin to cook as it does to sweeten after the fruit is 
cooked. 

Tar may be removed from the hands by rubbing with 
the outside of fresh orange or lemon peel and drying 
immediately. The volatile oils dissolve the tar so that it 
can be rubbed off. 



27 
































426 


MULTUM IN PAKVO. 


Moths or any summer flying insects may be enticed to 
destruction by a bright tin pan half filled with kerosene 
set in a dark corner of the room. Attracted by the bright 
pan, the moth will meet his death in the kerosene. 

It may be worth knowing that water in which three or 
four onions have been boiled, applied with a gilding brush 
to the frames of pictures and chimney glasses, will pre¬ 
vent flies from lighting on them and will not injure the 
frames. 


the pattern and pass a warm iron over the fabric, when 
the pattern will become fixed. Any desired color can be 
used, such as Prussian blue, chrome green, yellow, vermil¬ 
ion, etc. Fine white rosin, 2 ounces; gum sandarach, 4 
ounces; color, 2 ounces. Powder very fine, mix, and pass 
through a sieve. 

SALARIES OF THE UNITED STATES OFFICERS, 

PER ANNUM. 


SUPERSTITIONS REGARDING BABIES. 

It is believed by many that if a child cries at its birth 
and lifts up only one hand, it is born to command. It is 
thought very unlucky not to weigh the baby before it is 
dressed. When first dressed the clothes should not be put on 
over the head, but drawn on over the feet, for luck. When 
first taken from the room in which it was born it must be 
carried up stairs before going down, so that it will rise in 
the world. In any case it must be carried up stairs or up 
the street, the first time it is taken out. It is also consid¬ 
ered in England and Scotland unlucky to cut the baby's 
nails or hair before it is twelve months old. The saying: 

Born on Monday, fair in the face; 

Born on Tuesday, full of God's grace; 

Born on Wednesday, the best to be had: 

Born on Thursday, merry and glad; 

Born on Friday, worthily given; 

Born on Saturday, work hard for a living; 

Born on Sunday, shall never know want, 
is known with various changes all over the Christian 
world; one deviation from the original makes Friday's 
child “free in giving.” Thursday has one very lucky 
hour just before sunrise. 

The child that is born on the Sabbath day 

Is bonny and good and gay. 

While 

He who is born on New Year’s morn 

Will have his own way as sure as you're born. 

And 

He who is born on Easter morn 

Shall never know care, or want, or harm. 

SECRET ART OF CATCHING FISH. 

Put the oil of rhodium on the bait, when fishing with a 
hook, and you will always succeed. 

TO CATCH FISH. 

t Take the juice of smallage or lovage, and mix with any 
kind of bait. As long as there remain any kind of fish 
within yards of your hook, you will find yourself busy 
pulling them out. 

CERTAIN CURE FOR DRUNKENNESS. . 

Take of sulphate of iron 5 grains, magnesia 10 grains, 
peppermint water 11 drachms, spirits of nutmeg 1 drachm. 
Administer this twice a day. It acts as a tonic and stimu¬ 
lant and so partially supplies the place of the accustomed 
liquor, and prevents that absolute physical and moral pros¬ 
tration that follows a sudden breaking off from the use of 
stimulating drinks. 

LADIES'STAMPING POWDER. 

For use in stamping any desired pattern upon goods for 
needle work, embroidery, etc. Draw pattern upon heavy 
paper, and perforate with small holes all the lines with 
some sharp instrument, dust the powder through, remove 


President, Vice-President and Cabinet.—President, 
$50,000; Vice-President, $8,000; Cabinet Officers, $8,000 
each. 

United States Senators.—$5,000, with mileage. 

Congress.—Members of Congress, $5,000, Avith mile¬ 
age. 

Supreme Court.—Chief Justice, $10,500; Associate 
Justices, $10,000. 

Circuit Courts.—Justices of Circuit Courts, $6,000. 

Heads of Departments.—Supt. of Bureau of Engrav¬ 
ing and Printing, $4,500; Public Printer, $4,500; Supt. 
of Census, $5,000; Supt. of Naval Observatory, $5,000; 
Supt. of the Signal Service, $4,000; Director of Geologi¬ 
cal Surveys, $6,000; Director of the Mint, $4,500; Com¬ 
missioner of General Land Office, $4,000; Commissioner 
of Pensions, $3,600; Commissioner of Agriculture, 
$3,000; Commissioner of Indian Affairs, $3,000; Com¬ 
missioner of Education $3,000; Commander of Marine 
Corps, $3,500; Supt. of Coast and Geodetic Survey, 
$6,000. 

United States Treasury.—Treasurer, $6,000; Register of 
Treasury, $4,000; Commissioner of Customs, $4,000. 

Internal Revenue Agencies.—Supervising Agents, $12 
per day; 34 other agents, per day, $6 to $8. 

Postoflfice Department, Washington.—Three Assistant 
Postmaster-Generals, $3,500; Chief Clerk, $2,200. 

Postmasters.—Postmasters are divided into four classes. 
First class, $3,000 to $4,000 (excepting New York City, 
which is $8,000); second class, $2,000 to $3,000; third 
class, $1,000 to $2,000; fourth class, less than $1,000. 
The first three classes are appointed by the President, and 
confirmed by the Senate; those of fourth class are 
appointed by the Postmaster-General. 

Diplomatic appointments.—Ministers to Germany, 
Great Britain, France and Russia, $17,500; Ministers to 
Brazil, China, Austria-Hungary, Italy, Mexico, Japan and 
Spain, $12,000; Ministers to Chili, Peru and Central 
Amer., $10,000; Ministers to Argentine Confederation, 
Hawaiian Islands, Belgium, Hayti, Columbia, Nether¬ 
lands, Sweden, Turkey and Venezuela, $7,500; Ministers 
to Switzerland, Denmark, Paraguay, Bolivia and Portu¬ 
gal, $5,000; Minister to Liberia, $4,000. 

Army Officers.—General, $13,500; Lieut.-General, $11,- 
000; Major-General, $7,500; Brigadier-General, $5,500; 
Colonel, $3,500; Lieutenant-Colonel, $3,000; Major, 
$2,500; Captain, mounted, $2,000; Captain, not mounted, 
$1,800; Regimental Adjutant, $1,800; Regimental Quar¬ 
termaster, $1,800; 1st Lieutenant, mounted, $1,600; 1st 
Lieutenant, not mounted, $1,500; 2d Lieutenant,.mounted, 
$1,500; 2d Lieutenant, not mounted, $1,400; Chaplain, 
$1,500. 

Navy Officers.—Admiral, $13,000; Vice-Admiral, $9,- 
000; Rear-Admirals, $6,000; Commodores, $5,000; Cap¬ 
tains, $45,000; Commanders, $3,500; Lieut.-Command¬ 
ers, $2,800; Lieutenants, $2,400; Masters, $1,800; Ensigns, 
$1,200; Midshipmen, $1,000; Cadet Midshipmen, $500; 
Mates, $900; Medical and Pay Directors and Medical and 
Pay Inspectors and Chief Engineers, $4,400; Fleet Sur¬ 
geons, Fleet Paymasters and Fleet Engineers, $4,400; Sur¬ 
geons and Paymasters, $2,800; Chaplains, $2,500. 










































MT7LTUM IN' PARVO. 


427 


CHRONOLOGY OF IMPORTANT EVENTS. 


BEFORE CHRIST. 

The Deluge.2348 

Babylon built.2247 

Birth of Abraham.1993 

Death of Joseph.1635 

Moses born.1571 

Athens founded. 1556 

The Pyramids built.1250 

Solomon's Temple finished.1004 

Rome founded. 753 

Jerusalem destroyed. 587 

Babylon taken by Jews. 538 

Death of Socrates. 400 

Rome taken by the Gauls. 835 

Paper invented in China. 170 

Carthage destroyed. 146 

Caesar landed in Britain. 55 

Caesar killed. 44 

Birth of Christ. 0 

AFTER CHRIST. 

Death of Augustus. 14 

Pilate, governor of Judea. 27 

Jesus Christ crucified. 33 

Claudius visited Britain .. 43 

St. Paul put to death. 67 

Death of Josephus. 93 

Jerusalem rebuilt. 131 

The Romans destroyed 580,000 Jews and banished the 

rest from Judea. 135 

The Bible in Gothic. 373 

Horseshoes made of iron. 481 

Latin tongue ceased to be spoken. 580 

Pens made of quills. 635 

Organs used. 660 

Glass in England. 663 

Bank of Venice established.1157 

Glass windows first used for lights.1180 

Mariner’s compass used.1200 

Coal dug for fuel.1234 

Chimneys first put to houses.1236 

Spectacles invented by an Italian.1240 

The first English House of Commons.1258 

Tallow candles for lights.1290 

Paper made from linen.1302 

Gunpowder invented.1340 

Woolen cloth made in England.1341 

Printing invented.1436 

The first almanac..1470 

America discovered.1492 

First book printed in England.1507 

Luther began to preach.1517 

Interest fixed at ten per cent, in England.1547 

Telescopes invented.1549 

First coach made in England.1564 

Clocks first made in England.1568 

Bank of England incorporated.1594 

Shakespeare died.1616 

Circulation of the blood discovered.1619 

Barometer invented.1623 

First newspaper.1629 

Death of Galileo.1643 

Steam engine invented.1649 

Great fire in London.1666 

Cotton planted in the United States.1759 

Commencement of the American war.1775 

Declaration of American Independence.1776 

Recognition of American Independence.1782 


Bank of England suspended cash payment.1791 

Napoleon I. crowned emperor.1804 

Death of Napoleon.1820 

Telegraph invented by Morse. 1832 

First daguerreotype in France.1839 

Beginning of the American civil war.1861 

End of the American civil war.1865 

Abraham Lincoln died.1865 

Great Chicago Fire.1871 

Jas. A. Garfield died.1881 


INTERESTING FACTS ABOUT OUR BODIES. 

The weight of the male infant at birth is 7 lbs. avoirdu¬ 
pois; that of the female is not quite 6£ lbs. The maxi¬ 
mum weight (140-J lbs.) of the male is attained at the age 
of 40; that of the female (nearly 124 lbs.) is not attained 
until 50; from which ages they decline afterward, the male 
to 127£ lbs., the female to 100 lbs., nearly a stone. The 
full-grown adult is 20 times as heavy as a new-born infant. 
In the first year he triples his weight, afterwards the 
growth proceeds in geometrical progression, so that if 50 
infants in their first year weigh 1,000 lbs., they will in the 
second weigh 1,210 lbs.; in the third 1,331; in the fourth 
1464 lbs.; the term remaining very constant up to the 
ages of 11-12 in females, and 12-13 in males, where it must 
be nearly doubled; afterwards it may be continued, and 
will be found very nearly correct up to the age of 18 or 19, 
when the growth proceeds very slowly. At an equality of 
age the male is generally heavier than the female. Towards 
the age of 12 years only an individual of each sex has the 
same weight. The male attains the maximum weight at 
about the age of 40, and he begins to lose it very sensibly 
toward 60. At 80 he loses about 13.2328 lbs., and the 
stature is diminished 2.756 inches. Females attain their 
maximum weight at about 50. The mean weight of a 
mature man is 104 lbs., and of an average woman 94 lbs. 
In old age they lose about 12 or 14 lbs. Men weigh most 
at 40, women at 50, and begin to lose weight at 60. The 
mean weight of both sexes in old age is that which they 
had at 19. 

When the male and female have assumed their complete 
development they weigh almost exactly 20 times as much 
as at birth, while the stature is about 3^ times greater. 

Children lose weight during the first three days 
after birth; at the age of a week they sensibly increase; 
after one year they triple their weight; then they require 
six years to double their weight, and 13 to quadruple it. 

It has been computed that nearly two years’ sickness is 
experienced by every person before he is 70 years old, and 
therefore that 10 days per annum is the average sickness 
of human life. Till 40 it is but half, and after 50 it rap¬ 
idly increases. The mixed and fanciful diet of man is 
considered the cause of numerous diseases from which ani¬ 
mals are exempt. Many diseases have abated with changes 
of diet, and others are virulent in particular countries, 
arising from peculiarities. 

Human Longevity.—Of 100,000 male and female chil¬ 
dren, in the first month they are reduced to 90,396, or 
nearly a tenth. In the second, to 87,936. In the third, 
to 86,175. In the fourth, to 84,720. In the fifth, to 83,571. 
In the sixth, to 82,526, and at the end of the first year to 
77,528, the deaths being 2 to 9. The next four years 
reduce the 77,528 to 62,448, indicating 37,552 deaths be¬ 
fore the completion of the fifth year. 

At 25 years the 100,000 are half, or 49,995; at 52, one- 
third. At 58i, a fourth, or 25,000; at 67, a fifth; at 76, 
a tenth; at 81, a twentieth, or 5,000; and ten attain 100. 
Children die in large proportions because their diseases can¬ 
not be explained, and because the organs are not habitu¬ 
ated to the functions of life. The mean of life varies in 

_ 












































































































428 


MULTUM IN PARVO. 


different countries from 40 to 45. A generation from father 
to son is about 30 years; of men in general five-sixths die 
before 70, and fifteen-sixteenths before 80. After 80 it is 
rather endurance than enjoyment. The nerves are blunted, 
the senses fail, the muscles are rigid, the softer tubes 
become hard, the memory fails, the brain ossifies, the affec¬ 
tions are buried, and hope ceases. The remaining one- 
sixteenth die at 80; except a one-thirty-third, at 90. The 
remainder die from inability to live, at or before 100. 

About the age of 36 the lean man usually becomes fatter 
and the fat man leaner. Again, between the years of 43 and 
50 his appetite fails, his complexion fades, and his tongue 
is apt to be furred on the least exertion of body or mind. 
At this period his muscles become flabby, his joints weak; 
his spirits droop, and his sleep is imperfect and unrefresh¬ 
ing. After suffering under these complaints a year, or 
perhaps two, he starts afresh with renewed vigor, and 
goes on to 61 or 62, when a similar change takes place, but 
with aggravated symptoms. When these grand periods 
have been successively passed, the gravity of incumbent 
years is more strongly marked, and lie begins to boast of 
his age. 

In Eussia, much more than in any other country, in¬ 
stances of longevity are numerous, if true. In the report 
of the Holy Synod, in 1827, during the year 1825, and 
only among the Greek religion, 848 men had reached up¬ 
ward of 100 years of age; 32 had passed their 120th year, 
4 from 130 to 135. Out of 606,818 men who died in 1826, 
2,765 were above 90; 1,432 above 95, and 848 above 100 
years of age. Among this last number 88 were above 115; 
24 more than 120; 7 above 125, and one 130. Eiley 
asserts that Arabs in the Desert live 200 years. 

On the average, men have their first-born at 30 and 
women at 28. The greatest number of deliveries take 
place between 25 and 35. The greatest number of deliv¬ 
eries take place in the winter months, and in February, 
and the smallest in July, i. e., to February, as 4 to 5 in 
towns and 3 to 4 in the country. The night births are to 
the day as 5 to 4. 

Human Strength.—In Schulze's experiments on human 
strength, he found that men of five feet, weighing 126 lbs., 
could lift vertically 156 lbs. 8 inches; 217 lbs. 1.2 inches. 
Others, 6.1 feet, weighing 183 lbs., 156 lbs. 13 inches, and 
217 lbs. 6 inches; others 6 feet 3 inches, weighing 158 
lbs., 156 lbs. 16 inches, and 217 lbs. 9 inches. By a great 
variety of experiments he determined the mean human 
strength at 30 lbs., with a velocity of 2.5 feet per second; 
or it is equal to the raising half a hogshead 10 feet in a 
minute. 

ETTLES FOE SPELLING. 

Words ending in e drop that letter before the termina¬ 
tion aole, as in move, movable; unless ending in ce or ge, 
when it is retained, as in change, changeable, etc. 

. Words of one syllable, ending in a consonant, with a 
single vowel before it, double the consonants in deriva¬ 
tives; as, ship, shipping, etc. But if ending in a conso¬ 
nant with a double vowel before it, they do not double the 
consonant in derivatives; as, troop, trooper, etc. 

Woids of more than one syllable, ending in a consonant 
preceded by a single vowel, and accented on the last syl¬ 
lable, double that consonant in derivatives; as, commit 
committed; but except chagrin, chagrined. 

All words of one syllable ending in l, with a single 
vowel before it, have ll at the close; as mill, sell. 

All words of one syllable ending in l, with a double 
sail bef ° re ltj have onl J one 1 at the close; as mail, 

77 T , h . e , w . ords . f oretell, distill, instill and fulfill, retain the 
U of their primitives. Derivatives of dull, skill, will and 


full also retain the ll when the accent falls on these words; 
as dullness, skillfull, willfull, fullness. 

Words of more than one syllable ending in l have only 
one l at the close ; as delightful, faithful ; unless the ac¬ 
cent falls on the last syllable ; as befall, etc. 

Words ending in l, double the letter in the termina¬ 
tion ly. 

Participles ending in ing, from verbs ending in e, lose 
the final e ; as have, having ; make, making, etc ; but 
verbs ending in ee retain both; as see, seeing. The word 
dye, to color, however, must retain the e before ing. 

All verbs ending in ly, and nouns ending in merit, retain 
the e final of the primitives ; as brave, bravely ; refine, re¬ 
finement ; except words ending in dge ; as, acknowledge, 
acknowledgment. 

Nouns ending in y, preceded by a vowel, form their 
plural by adding s ; as money, moneys ; but if y is pre¬ 
ceded by a consonant, it is changed to ies in the plural; 
as bounty, bounties. 

Compound words whose primitives end in y, change the 
y into i ; as beauty, beautiful. 

THE USE OF CAPITALS. 

Every entire sentence should begin with a capital. 

Proper names, and adjectives derived from these, should 
begin with a capital. 

All appellations of the Deity should begin with a capital. 

Official and honorary titles should begin with a capital. 

Every line of poetry should begin with a capital. 

Titles of books and the heads of their chapters and di¬ 
visions are printed in capitals. 

The pronoun I and the exclamation O are always cap¬ 
itals. 

The days of the week and the months of the year begin 
with capitals. 

Every quotation should begin with a capital letter. 

Names of religious denominations begin with capitals. 

In preparing accounts each item should begin with a 
capital. 

Any word of very special importance may begin with a 
capital. 

TWENTY CHOICE COUESE DINNEE MENUS. 

PREPARED EXPRESSLY FOR WEBSTER'S ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 

1. Eice Soup, Baked Pike, Mashed Potatoes, Eoast of 
Beef, Stewed Corn, Chicken Fricassee, Celery Salad, Com¬ 
pote of Oranges, Plain Custard, Cheese, Wafers, Coffee. 

2. Mutton Soup, Fried Oysters, Stewed Potatoes, Boiled 
Corn Beef, Cabbage, Turnips, Eoast Pheasants, Onion 
Salad, Apple Pie, White Custard, Bent’s Water Crackers, 
Cheese, Coffee. 

3. Oyster Soup, Eoast Mutton, Baked Potatoes, Breaded 
Yeal Cutlets, Tomato Sauce, Baked Celery, Cabbage 
Salad, Apple Custard, Sponge Cake, Cheese, Coffee. 

4. Macaroni Soup, Boiled Chicken, with Oysters, Mut¬ 
ton Chops, Creamed Potatoes, Stewed Tomatoes, Pickled 
Beets, Peaches and Eice, Plain Cake, Cheese, Coffee. 

5. Tapioca Soup, Boiled Halibut, Duchesse Potatoes, 
Eoast Beef Tongue, Canned Peas, Baked Macaroni, with 
Gravy, Fried Sweet Potatoes, Beet Salad, Cornstarch Pud¬ 
ding, Jelly Tarts, Cheese, Wafers, Coffee. 

6. Vegetable Soup, Boiled Trout, Oyster Sauce, Eoast 
Veal, with Dressing, Boiled Potatoes, Stewed Tomatoes, 
Corn, Egg Salad, Snow Cream, Peach Pie, Sultana Bis¬ 
cuit, Cheese, Coffee. 

7. Potato Soup, Oyster Patties, Whipped Potatoes, 
Eoast Mutton, with Spinach, Beets, Fried Parsnips, Egg 






































MULTUM IN PARVO. 


429 


Sauce, Celery Salad, Boiled Custard, Lemon Tarts, White 
Cake, Cheese, Coffee. 

8 . Veal Soup, Boiled Shad, Caper Sauce, Porterhouse 
Steak, with Mushrooms, Pigeon Pie, Mashed Potatoes, 
Pickles, Rice Sponge Cakes, Cheese, Canned Apricots with 
Cream, Coffee. 

9. Giblet Soup, Scalloped Clams, Potato Cakes, Lamb 
Chops, Canned Beans, Tomatoes, Sweet Potatoes, Salmon 
Salad, Charlotte Russe, Apricot Tarts, Cheese, Coffee. 

10 . Vermicelli Soup, Fried Small Fish, Mashed Pota¬ 
toes, Roast Beef, Minced Cabbage, Chicken Croquettes, 
Beet Salad, Stewed Pears, Plain Sponge Cake, Cheese, 
Coffee. 

11 . Oxtail Soup, Fricasseed Chicken with Oysters, 
Breaded Mutton Chops, Turnips, Duchesse Potatoes, 
Chow-chow Salad, Chocolate Pudding, Nut Cake, Cheese, 
Coffee. 

12. Barley Soup, Boiled Trout, Creamed Potatoes, 
Roast Loin of Veal, Stewed Mushrooms, Broiled Chicken, 
Lettuce Salad, Fig Pudding, Wafers, Cheese, Coffee. 

13. Noodle Soup, Salmon, with Oyster Sauce, Fried 
Potatoes, Glazed Beef, Boiled Spinach, Parsnips, with 
Cream Sauce, Celery, Plain Rice Pudding, with Custard 
Sauce, Current Cake, Cheese, Coffee. 

14. Lobster Soup, Baked Ribs of Beef, with Browned 
Potatoes, Boiled Duck, with Onion Sauce, Turnips, Stewed 
Tomatoes, Lettuce, Delmonico Pudding, Cheese, Sliced 
Oranges, Wafers, Coffee. 

15. Chicken Broth, Baked Whitefish, Boiled Potatoes, 
Canned Peas, Mutton Chops, Tomatoes, Beets, Celery 
Salad, Apple Trifle, Lady Fingers, Cheese, Coffee. 

16. Sago Soup, Boiled Leg of Mutton, Caper Sauce, 
Stewed Potatoes, Canned Corn, Scalloped Oysters, with 
Cream Sauce, Celery and Lettuce Salad, Marmalade Frit¬ 
ters, Apple Custard, Cheese Cakes, Coffee. 

17. Vegetable Soup, Broiled Shad, Lyonnaise Potatoes, 
Pork Chops, with Sage Dressing, Parsnip Fritters, Maca¬ 
roni and Gravy, Cauliflower Salad, Rhubarb Tarts, Silver 
Cake, Cheese, Coffee. 

18. Chicken Soup, with Rice, Codfish, Boiled, with 
Cream Sauce, Roast Veal, Tomatoes, Oyster Salad, Boiled 
Potatoes, Asparagus, Orange Jelly, White Cake, Cheese, 
Coffee. 

19. Macaroni Soup, Fried Shad, Tomato Sauce, Roast 
Mutton, Mashed Potatoes, Boiled Tongue, with Mayon¬ 
naise Dressing, Fried Parsnips, Canned Beans, Lemon 
Puffs, Cheese Cakes, Fruit, Coffee. 

20 . Scotch Broth, Baked Halibut, Boiled Potatoes, 
Breaded Mutton Chops, Tomato Sauce, Spinach, Bean 
Salad, Asparagus and Eggs, Peach Batter Pudding, with 
Sauce, Wafers, Cheese, Coffee. 

TERMS USED IN MEDICINE. 

Anthelmintics are medicines which have the power of 
destroying or expelling worms from the intestinal canal. 

Antiscorbutics are medicines which prevent or cure the 
scurvy. 

Antispasmodics are medicines given to relieve spasm, or 
irregular and painful action of the muscles or muscular 
fibers, as in Epilepsy, St. Vitus’ Dance, etc. 

Aromatics are medicines which have a grateful smell 
and agreeable pungent taste. 

Astringents are those remedies which, when applied to 
the body, render the solids dense and firmer. 

Carminatives are those medicines which dispel flatulency 
of the stomach and bowels. 


Cathartics are medicines which accelerate the action of 
the bowels, or increase the discharge by stool. 

Demulcents are medicines suited to prevent the action 
of acrid and stimulating matters upon the mucous mem¬ 
branes of the throat, lungs, etc. 

Diaphoretics are medicines that promote or cause per¬ 
spirable discharge by the skin. 

Diuretics are medicines which increase the flow of urine 
by their action upon the kidneys. 

Emetics are those medicines which produce vomiting. 

Emmenagogues are medicines which promote the 
menstrual discharge. 

Emollients are those remedies which, when applied to 
the solids of the body, render them soft and flexible. 

Errhines are substances which, when applied to the 
lining membrane of the nostrils, occasion a discharge of 
mucous fluid. 

Epispastices are those which cause blisters when applied 
to the surface. 

Escharotics are substances used to destroy a portion of 
the surface of the body, forming sloughs. 

Expectorants are medicines capable of facilitating the 
excretion of mucous from the chest. 

Narcotics are those substances having the property of 
diminishing the action of the nervous and vascular sys¬ 
tems, and of inducing sleep. 

Rubefacients are remedies which excite the vessels of 
the skin and increase its heat and redness. 

Sedatives are medicines which have the power of allay¬ 
ing the actions of the systems generally, or of lessening 
the exercise of some particular function. 

Sialagogues are medicines which increase the flow of the 
saliva. 

Stimulants are medicines capable of exciting the vital 
energy, whether as exerted in sensation or motion. 

Tonics are those medicines which increase the tone or 
healthy action, or strength of the living system. 

RULES FOR THE PRESERVATION OF HEALTH. 

Pure atmospheric air is composed of nitrogen, oxygen 
and a very small proportion of carbonic acid gas. Air 
once breathed has lost the chief part of its oxygen, and 
acquired a proportionate increase of carbonic acid gas. 
Therefore, health requires that we breathe the same air 
once only. 

The solid part of our bodies is continually wasting and 
requires to be repaired by fresh substances. Therefore, 
food, which is to repair the loss, should be taken with due 
regard to the exercise and waste of the body. 

The fluid part of our bodies also wastes constantly ; 
there is but one fluid in animals, which is water. There¬ 
fore, water only is necessary, and no artifice can produce 
a better drink. 

The fluid of our bodies is to the solid in proportion as 
nine to one. Therefore, alike proportion should prevail 
in the total amount of food taken. 

Light exercises an important influence upon the growth 
and vigor of animals and plants. Therefore, our dwellings 
should freely admit the sun's rays. 

Decomposing animal and vegetable substances yield 
various noxious gases, which enter the lungs and corrupt 
the blood. Therefore, all impurities should be kept away 
from our abodes, and every precaution be observed to se¬ 
cure a pure atmosphere. 










































430 


MULTUM IN PAKVO. 



Warmth is essential to all the bodily functions. There¬ 
fore, an equal bodily temperature should be maintained 
by exercise, by clothing or by fire. 

Exercise warms, invigorates and purifies the body; 
clothing preserves the warmth the body generates; fire im¬ 
parts warmth externally. Therefore, to obtain and pre¬ 
serve warmth, exercise and clothing are preferable to fire. 

Fire consumes the oxygen of the air, and produces 
noxious gases. Therefore, the air is less pure in the 
presence of candles, gas or coal fire, than otherwise, and 
the deterioration should be repaired by increased ventila¬ 
tion. 

The skin is a highly-organized membrane, full of mi¬ 
nute pores, cells, blood-vessels, and nerves; it imbibes 
moisture or throws it off according to the state of the 
atmosphere or the temperature of the body. It also 
“ breathes,” like the lungs (though less actively). All 
the internal organs sympathize with the skin. Therefore, 
it should be repeatedly cleansed. 

Late hours and anxious pursuits exhaust the nervous 
system and produce disease and premature death. There¬ 
fore, the hours of labor and study should be short. 

Mental and bodily exercise are equally essential to the 
general health and happiness. Therefore, labor and study 
should succeed each other. 

Man will live most happily upon simple solids and fluids, 
of which a sufficient but temperate quantity should be 
taken. Therefore, over-indulgence in strong drinks, 
tobacco, snuff, opium, and all mere indulgences, should 
be avoided. 

Sudden alternations of heat and cold are dangerous (es¬ 
pecially to the young and the aged). Therefore,clothing,in 
quantity and quality, should be adapted to the alterna¬ 
tions of night and day, and of the seasons. And there¬ 
fore, also, drinking cold water when the body is hot, and 
hot tea and soups when cold are productive of many evils. 

Never visit a sick person (especially if the complaint be 
of a contagious nature) with an empty stomach, as 
this disposes the system more readily to receive the con¬ 
tagion. And in attending a sick person, place yourself 
where the air passes from the door or window to the bed 
of the diseased; not between the diseased person and any 
fire that is in the room, as the heat of the fire will draw 
the infectious vapor in that direction. 


Mother Shipton’s Prophecy. —The lines known as 
“ Mother Ship ton’s Prophecy ” were first published in Eng¬ 
land in 1485, before the discovery of America, and, of 
course, before any of the discoveries and inventions men¬ 
tioned therein. All the events predicted have come to pass 
except that in the last two lines. 

Carriages without horses shall go. 

And accidents fill the world with woe 
Around the world thoughts shall fly 
In the twinkling of an eye. 

Waters shall yet more wonders do. 

Now strange, yet shall be true. 

The world upside down shall be. 

And gold be found at root of tree. 

Through hills man shall ride, 

And no horse nor ass be at his side. 

Under water man shall walk, 

Shall ride, shall sleep, shall talk. 

In the air men shall be seen 
In white, in black, in green. 

Iron in the water shall float. 

As easy as a wooden boat. 


Gold shall be found ’mid stone. 

In a land that’s now unknown. 

Fire and water shall wonders do, 

England shall at last admit a Jew. 

And this world to an end shall come 
In eighteen hundred and eighty-one. 

Captain Kidd, a notorious American pirate, was born 
about 1650. In 1696 he was entrusted by the British 
Government with the command of a privateer, and sailed 
from New York, for the purpose of suppressing the numer¬ 
ous pirates then infesting the seas. He went to the East 
Indies, where he began a career of piracy, and returned to 
New York in 1698 with a large amount of booty. He was 
soon after arrested, sent to England for trial, and executed 
in 1701. 

Value of Old American Coins. —1793—Half cent, 
75 cents; one cent, $2. 1794—Half cent, 20 cents, one 

cent, 10 cents; five cents, $1.25; fifty cents, $3; one dollar, 
$10. 1795—Half cent, 5 cents; one cent, 5 cents; five 
cents, 25 cents; fifty cents, 55 cents; one dollar, $1.25. 
1796—Half cent, $5; one cent, 10 cents; five cents $1; 
ten cents, 50 cents; twenty-five cents, $1; fifty cents, $10; 
one dollar, $1.50. 1797—Half cent, 5 cents; one cent, 5 

cents; five cents, 50 cents; ten cents, $1; fifty cents, $10; 
one dollar, $1.50. 1798—One cent, 5 cents; ten cents, 

$1; one dollar, $1.50. 1799—One cent, $5; one dollar, 

$1.60. 1800—Half cent, 5 cents; one cent, 3 cents; five 

cents, 25 cents; ten cents 1; one dollar, $1.10. 1801—One 

cent, 3 cents; five cents, $1; ten cents, $1; fifty cents, 
$2; one dollar, $1.25. 1802—Half cent, 50 cents; one 

cent, 2 cents; ten cents, $1; fifty cents, $2; one dollar, 
$1.25. 1803—Half cent, 2 cents; one cent, 2 cents; five 

cents, $10; ten cents, 1; one dollar, $1.10. . 1804—Half 
cent, 2 cents; one cent, $2; five cents, 75 cents; ten cents, 
$2; twenty-five cents, 75 cents; one dollar, $100. 1805— 

Half cent, 2 cents; one cent, 3 cents; five cents, $1.50; 
ten cents, 25 cents. 1806—Half cent, 2 cents; one cent, 
3 cents. 1807—Half cent, 2 cents; one cent, 3 cents; ten 
cents, 25 cents. 1808—Half cent, 2 cents; one cent, 5 
cents. 1809—Half cent, 1 cent; one cent, 25 cents; ten 
cents, 50 cents. 1810—Half cent, 5 cents; one cent, 5 
cents. 1811—Half cent, 25 cents; one cent, 10 cents; ten 
cents, 50 cents. 1812—One cent, 2 cents. 1813—One 
cent, 5 cents. 1815—Fifty cents, $5. 1821—One cent, 5 
cents. 1822—Ten cents, $1. 1823—One cent, 5 cents; 
twenty-five cents, $10. 1824—Twenty-five cents, 40 cents. 

1825—Half cent, 2 cents. 1826—Half cent, 2 cents; one 
cent, 50 cents. 1827—One cent, 3 cents; twenty-five 
cents, $10. 1828—Half cent, 1 cent; twenty-five cents, 

30 cents. 1829—Half cent, 2 cents. 1830—Half cent, 
2 cents. 1832-’33-’34—Half cent, 2 cents. 1835—Half 
cent, 1 cent. 1836—Fifty cents, $3; one dollar, $3. 
1838—Ten cents, 25 cents. 1839—One dollar, $10. 1846 

—Five cents, 50 cents. 1849-’50—Half cent, 5 cents. 
1851—Half cent, 1 cent; twenty-five cents, 30 cents; one 
dollar, $10.90. 1852—Twenty-five cents, 30 cents; fifty 

cents, $2; one dollar, $10. 1853—Half cent, 1 cent; 

twenty cents (with no arrows), $2.50; one dollar, $1.25. 
1854—Half cent, 2 cents; one dollar, $2. 1855-’57—Half 

cent, 5 cents; onedollar, $1.50. 1856—Half cent, 5 cents; 
one dollar, $1.50. 1858—One dollar, $10. 1863-’4-’5— 

Three cents, 25 cents. 1866—Half cent, 6 cents; three 
cents, 25 cents; five cents, 10 cents; twenty-five cents, 30 
cents. 1867—Three cents, 25 cents; five cents, 10 cents. 
1868-’9—Three cents, 25 cents. 1870—Three cents, 15 
cents. 1871—Two cents, 10 cents; three cents, 25 cents. 
1873—Two cents, 50 cents; three cents, 50 cents. 1877- 

—Twenty cents, $1.50. These prices are for good ordi¬ 
nary coins without holes. Fine specimens are worth 
more. 





































MULTUM IN PAKVO. 


431 


Leaning Tower of Pisa. —The leaning tower of Pisa 
was commenced in 1152, and was not finished till the four¬ 
teenth century. The cathedral to which this belongs was 
erected to celebrate a triumph of the Pisans in the harbor 
of Palermo in 1063, when allied with the Normans to 
drive the Saracens out of Sicily. It is a circular build¬ 
ing, one hundred feet in diameter and 179 feet in extreme 
height, and has fine mosaic pavements, elaborately carved 
columns, and numerous bas-reliefs. The building is of 
white marble. The tower is divided into eight stories, 
each having an outside gallery of seven feet projection, and 
the topmost story overhangs the base about sixteen feet, 
though, as the center of gravity is still ten feet within the 
base, the building is perfectly safe. It has been supposed 
that this inclination was intentional, but the opinion that 
the foundation has sunk is no doubt correct. It is most 
likely that the defective foundation became perceptible be¬ 
fore the tower had reached one-half its height, as at that 
elevation the unequal length of the columns exhibits an 
endeavor to restore the perpendicular, and at about the 
same place the walls are strengthened with iron bars. 

What causes the water to flow out of an artesian well?— 
The theoretical explanation of the phenomenon is easily 
understood. The secondary and tertiary geological forma¬ 
tions often present the appearance of immense basins, the 
boundary or rim of the basin having been formed by an 
upheaval of adjacent strata. In these formations it often 
happens that a porous stratum, consisting of sand, sand¬ 
stone, chalk or other calcareous matter, is included be¬ 
tween two impermeable layers of clay, so as to form a flat 
porus U tube, continuous from side to side of the valley, 
the outcrop on the surrounding hills forming the mouth of 
the tube. The rain filtering down through the porous 
layer to the bottom of the basin forms there a subter¬ 
ranean pool, which, with the liquid or semi-liquid column 
pressing ujion it, constitutes a sort of huge natural hydro¬ 
static bellows. Sometimes the pressure on the superincum¬ 
bent crust is so great as to cause an upheaval or disturb¬ 
ance of the valley. It is obvious, then, that when a hole 
is bored down through the upper impermeable layer to the 
surface of the lake, the water will be forced up by the nat¬ 
ural law of water seeking its level to a height above the 
surface of the valley, greater or less, according to the ele¬ 
vation of the level in the feeding column, thus forming a 
natural mountain on precisely the same principle as that 
of most artificial fountains, where the water supply comes 
from a considerable height above the jet. 

How Many Cubic Feet There Are In a Ton of 
Coal. —There is a difference between a ton of hard coal 
and one of soft coal. For that matter, coal from differ¬ 
ent mines, whether hard or soft, differs in weight, and 
consequently in cubic measure, according to quality. 
Then there is a difference according to size. To illus¬ 
trate, careful measurements have been made of Wilkes- 
barre anthracite, a fine quality of hard coal, with the fol¬ 
lowing results: 

Cubic feet Cubic feet 
in ton of in ton of 

Size of coal. 2,240 lbs. 2.000 lbs. 

Lump. 33.2 28.8 

Broken. 33.9 30.3 

Egg.. 34.5 30.8 

Stone. 34.8 31.1 

Chestnut. 35.7 31.9 

Pea. 36.7 32.8 

For soft coal the following measures may be taken as 
nearly correct; it is simply impossible to determine any 
exact rule, even for bituminous coal of the same district: 
Briar Hill coal, 44.8 cubic feet per ton of 2,240 pounds; 
Pittsburgh, 47.8; Wilmington, Ill., 47; Indiana block 
coal, 42 to 43 cubic feet. 


The dimensions of the great wall of China and of what 
it is built.—It runs from a point on the Gulf of Liantung, 
an arm of the Gulf of Pechili in Northeastern China, 
westerly to the Yellow River; thence makes a great bend 
to the south for nearly 100 miles, and then runs to the 
northwest for several hundred miles to the Desert of Gobi. 
Its length is variously estimated to be from 1,250 to 1,500 
miles. For the most of this distance it runs through a 
mountainous country, keeping on the ridges, and winding 
over many of the highest peaks. In some places it is only 
a formidable rampart, but most of the way it is composed 
of lofty walls of masonry and concrete, or impacted lime 
and clay, from 12 to 16 feet in thickness, and from 15 to 
30 or 35 feet in height. The top of this wall is paved for 
hundreds of miles, and crowned with crenallated battle¬ 
ments, and towers 30 to 40 feet high. In numerous places 
the wall climbs such steep declivities that its top ascends 
from height to height in flights of granite steps. An 
army could march on the top of the wall for weeks and 
even months, moving in some places ten men abreast. 

Limits of Natural Vision.—This question is too 
indefinite for a specific answer. The limits of vision vary 
with elevation, conditions of the atmosphere, intensity of 
illumination, and other modifying elements in different 
cases. In a clear day an object one foot above a level 
plain may be seen at the distance of 1.31 miles; one ten 
feet high, 4.15 miles; one twenty feet high, 5.86 miles; 
one 100 feet high, 13.1 miles; one a mile high, as the top 
of a mountain, 95.23 miles. This allows seven inches (or, 
to be exact, 6.99 inches) for the curvature of the earth, 
and assumes that the size and illumination of the object are 
sufficient to produce an image. Five miles may be taken 
as the extreme limit at which a man is visible on a flat 
plain to an observer on the same level. 

The Niagara Suspension Bridge. —For seven miles 
below the falls, Niagara river flows through a gorge vary¬ 
ing in width from 200 to 400 yards. Two miles below 
the falls the river is but 350 feet wide, and it is here that 
the great suspension bridge, constructed in 1855 by Mr. 
Roebling, crosses the gorge, 245 feet above the water. 
The length of the span, from tower to tower, is 821 feet, 
and the total length of the bridge is 2,220 feet. The 
length of the span, which is capable of sustaining a strain 
of 10,000 tons, is 821 feet from tower to tower, and the 
total length of the bridge is 2,220 feet. It is used both 
for railway and wagon traffic, the wagon-road and foot-way 
being directly under the railway bed. There is another 
suspension bridge across the Niagara river at a distance of 
only about fifty rods from the falls, on the American side. 
This is only for carriages and foot travel. It was finished 
in 1869. it is 1,190 feet long from cliff to cliff, 1,268 feet 
from tower to tower, and 190 feet above the river, which 
at this point is a little over 900 feet in width. 

The Speed of Sound. —It has been ascertained that a 
full human voice, speaking in the open air, calm, can be 
heard at a distance of 460 feet; in an observable breeze a, 
powerful human voice with the wind is audible at a dis¬ 
tance of 15,840 feet; the report of a musket, 16,000 feet; 
a drum, 10,560 feet; music, a strong brass band, 15,840 
feet; very heavy cannonading, 575,000 feet, or 90 miles. In 
the Arctic regions conversation has been maintained 
over water a distance of 6,766 feet. In gases the velocity 
of sound increases with the temperature; in air this 
increase is about two feet per second for each degree centi¬ 
grade. The velocity of sound in oxygen gas at zero C. is 
1,040 feet; in carbonic acid, 858 feet; in hydrogen, 4,164 
feet. In 1827 Colladon and Sturm determined experi¬ 
mentally the velocity of sound in fresh water; the experi¬ 
ment was made in the Lake of Geneva, and it was found to 
be 4,174 feet per second at a temperature of 15 degrees C. 















































MULTUM IN PARVO. 


The velocity of sound in alcohol at 20 degrees C. is 4,218 
feet; in ether at zero, 3,801; in sea water at 20 degrees 
C., 4,768. By direct measurements, carefully made, by 
observing at night the interval which elapses between the 
flash and report of a cannon at a known distance, the 
velocity of sound has been about 1,090 per second at the 
temperature of freezing water. 

Description of the Yellowstone Park. —The Yel¬ 
lowstone National Park extends sixty-five miles north and 
south, and fifty-five miles east and west, comprising 3,575 
square miles, and is all 6,000 feet or more above sea-level. 
Yellowstone Lake, twenty miles by fifteen, has an altitude 
of 7,788 feet. The mountain ranges which hem in the 
valleys on every side rise to the height of 10,000 to 12,000 
feet, and are always covered with snow. This great park 
contains the most striking of all the mountains, gorges, falls, 
rivers and lakes in the whole Yellowstone region. The 
springs on Gardiner’s River cover an area of about one 
square mile, and three or four square miles thereabout are 
occupied by the remains of springs which have ceased to 
flow. The natural basins into which these springs flow are 
from four to six feet in diameter and from one to four feet 
in depth. The principal ones are located upon terraces 
midway up the sides of the mountain. The banks of the 
Yellowstone River abound with ravines and canons, which 
are carved out of the heart of the mountains through the 
hardest of rocks. The most remarkable of these is the 
canon of Tower Creek and Column Mountain. The latter, 
which extends along the eastern bank of the river for 
upward of two miles, is said to resemble the Giant’s Cause¬ 
way. The canon of Tower Creek is about ten miles in 
length and is so deep and gloomy that it is called “The 
Devil’s Den.” Where Tower Creek ends the Grand Canon 
begins. It is twenty miles in length, impassable 
throughout, and inaccessible at the water’s edge, except 
at a few points. Its rugged edges are from 200 to 500 
yards apart, and its depth is so profound that no sound 
ever reaches the ear from the bottom. The Grand Canon 
contains a great multitude of hot springs of sulphur, sul¬ 
phate of copper, alum, etc. In the number and magni¬ 
tude of its hot springs and geysers, the Yelowstone Park 
surpasses all the rest of the world. There are probably 
fifty geysers that throw a column of water to the height 
of from 50 to 200 feet, and it is stated that there are not 
fe wer than 5,000 springs; there are two kinds, those depos¬ 
iting lime and those depositing silica. The temperature 
of the calcareous springs is from 160 to 170 degrees, while 
that of the others rises to 200 or more. The principal 
collections are the upper and lower geyser basins of the 
Madison River, and the calcareous springs on Gardiner’s 
River. I he great falls are marvels to which adventur¬ 
ous travelers have gone only to return and report that 
the}" are parts of the wonders of this new American wonder¬ 
land. 

. Designations of Groups of Animals.— The ingenu¬ 
ity of the sportsman is, perhaps, no better illustrated than 
by the use he puts the English language to in designating 
particular groups of animals. The following is a list of 
the terms which have been applied to the various classes: 

A covey of patridges, A nicle of pheasants, A wisp of 
snipe, A flight of doves or swallows, A muster of peacocks, 
A siege of herons, A building of rooks, A brood of grouse 
A plump of wild fowl, A stand of plovers, A watch of 
nightingales, A clattering of choughs, A flock of geese A 
herd or bunch of cattle, A bevy of quails, A cast of hawks, 
H1\ \ A ?? dot . trell > A swarm of bees, A school of whales, A 
" \ shoal of herrings, A herd of swine, A skulk of foxes, A 
pack of wolves, A drove of oxen, A sounder of hogs, A 

ga°n|of dk 11 ^ 78 , A P ride of lions > A sleuth of bears, A 


The Bunker Hill Monument. —The monument is a 
square shaft, built of Quincy granite, 221 feet high, 31 
feet square at the base and 15 at the top. Its foundations 
are inclosed 12 feet under ground. Inside the shaft is a 
round, hollow cone, 7 feet wide at the bottom and 4 feet 
2 inches at the top, encircled by a winding staircase of 
224 stone steps, which leads to a chamber immediately 
under the apex, 11 feet in diameter. The chamber has 
four windows, which afford a wide view of the surrounding 
country, and contains two cannons, named respectively 
Hancock and Adams, which were used in many engage¬ 
ments during the war. The corner-stone of the monu¬ 
ment was laid on the fiftieth anniversary of the battle, 
June 17, 1825, by Lafayette, who was then visiting Amer¬ 
ica, when Webster pronounced the oration. The monu¬ 
ment was completed, and June 17, 1843, was dedicated, 
Webster again delivering the oration. 

The Seven Wise Men of Greece. —The names gener¬ 
ally given are Solon, Chilo, Pittacus, Bias, Periander (in 
place of whom some give Epimenides), Cleobulus, and 
Thales. They were the authors of the celebrated mottoes 
inscribed in later days in the Delphian Temple. These 
mottoes were as follows: 

“ Know thyself.”—Solon. 

“ Consider the end.”—Chilo. 

“ Know thy opportunity.”—Pittacus. 

“Most men are bad.”—Bias. 

“ Nothing is impossible to industry.”—Periander. 

“Avoid excesses.”—Cleobulus. 

“ Suretyship is the precursor of ruin.”—Thales. 

First Steamboat on the Mississippi. —Nicholas J. 
Roosevelt was the first to take a steamboat down the great 
river. His boat was built at Pittsburgh, in the year 1811, 
under an arrangement with Fulton and Livingston, from 
Fulton’: plans. It was called the “New Orleans,” was 
about 20C tons burden, and was propelled by a stern-wheel, 
assisted, when the wind was favorable, by sails carried on 
two masts. The hull was 138 feet long, 30 feet beam, and 
the cost of the whole, including engines, was about $40,- 
000. The builder, with his family, an engineer, a pilot, 
and six “ deck hands,” left Pittsburgh in October, 1811, 
reaching Louisville in about seventy hours (steaming about 
ten miles an hour), and New Orleans in fourteen days, 
steaming from Natchez. 

The Explorations of Fremont. —Among the earliest 
efforts of Fremont, after he had tried and been sickened 
by the sea, were his experiences as a surveyor and engineer 
on railroad lines from Charleston to Augusta, Ga., and 
Charleston to Cincinnati. Then he accompanied an army 
detachment on a military reconnoissance of the mountain¬ 
ous Cherokee country in Georgia, North Carolina and 
Tennessee, made in the depth of winter. In 1838-9 he 
accompanied M. Nicollet in explorations of the country 
between the Missouri and the British line, and his first 
detail of any importance, after he had been commissioned 
by President Van Buren, was to make an examination of 
the river Des Moines, then on the Western frontier. In 
1841 he projected his first trans-continental expedition, 
and left Washington May 2, 1842, and accomplished the 
object of his trip, examined the South Pass, explored the 
Wind River mountains, ascended in August, the highest 
peak of that range, now known as Fremont’s Peak, and 
returned, after an absence of four months. His report of 
the expedition attracted great attention in the United 
States and abroad. Fremont began to plan another and a 
second expedition. He determined to extend his explora¬ 
tions across the continent; and in May, 1843, commenced 
his journey with thirty-nine men, and September 6, after 
traveling over 1,700 miles, arrived at the Great Salt Lake; 
there made some important discoveries, and then pushed 










































MULTUM IN PARVO. 


433 


on to the upper Columbia, down whose valley he proceed¬ 
ed to Fort Vancouver, near its mouth. On Nov. 10 , he 
set out to return East, selecting a southeasterly course, 
leading from the lower part of the Columbia to the upper 
Colorado, through an almost unknown region, crossed by 
high and rugged mountains. He and his party suffered 
incredible hardships in crossing from the Great Basin to 
Sutter’s Fort on the Sacramento; started from there March 
24, proceeded southward, skirted the western base of the 
Sierra Nevada, crossed that range through a gap, entered 
the Great Basin; again visited the Great Salt Lake, from 
which they returned through the South Pass to Kansas, 
in July, 1844, after an absence of fourteen months. In the 
spring of 1845 Fremont set out on a third expedition to 
explore the Great Basin and the maritime region of Ore¬ 
gon and California; spent the summer examining the head¬ 
waters of the rivers whose springs are in the grand divide 
of the continent; in October camped on the shores of the 
Great Salt Lake: proceeded to explore the Sierra Nevada, 
which he again crossed in the dead of winter; made his 
way into the Valley of the San Joaquin; obtained permis¬ 
sion, at Monterey, from the Mexican authorities there, to 
proceed with his expedition, which permission was almost 
immediately revoked, and Fremont peremptorily ordeder 
to leave the country without delay, but he refused, and a 
collision was imminent, but was averted, and Fremont pro¬ 
ceeded toward San Joaquin. Near Tlamath Lake, Fremont 
met. May 9, 1846, a party in search of him, with dis¬ 
patches from Washington, ordering him to watch over the 
interests of the United States in California, as there was 
reason to believe that province would be transferred to 
Great Britain. He at once returned to California; General 
Castro was already marching against our settlements; the 
settlers rose in arms, flocked to Fremont’s camp, and, with 
him as leader, in less than a month, all Northern Cali¬ 
fornia was freed from Mexican authority; and on July 4 
Fremont was elected Governor of California by the Amer¬ 
ican settlers. Later came the conflict between Commo¬ 
dore Stockton and General Kearney; and Fremont resigned 
his commission as Lieutenant-Colonel, to which he had 
been promoted. In October, 1848, he started across the 
continent on a fourth expedition, outfitted at his own ex¬ 
pense, to find a practicable route to California. In attempt¬ 
ing to cross the great Sierra, covered with snow, his guide 
lost his way, and the party encountered horrible suffering 
from cold and hunger, a portion of them being driven to 
cannibalism; he lost all his animals (he had 120 mules when 
he started), and one-third of his men (he had thirty-three) 
perished, and he had to retrace his steps to Santa Fe. He 
again set out, with thirty men, and, after a long search, 
discovered a secure route, which led to the Sacramento, 
where he arrived in the spring of 1849. He led a fifth ex¬ 
pedition across the continent in 1853, at his own expense, 
and found passes through the mountains in the line of 
latitude 38 deg., 39 min., and reached California after 
enduring great hardships; for fifty days his party lived on 
horse-flesh, and for forty-eight hours at a time without 
food of any kind. These are the barest outlines of five 
expeditions of which many volumes have been written, but 
will hint at Fremont’s work in the West which entitled 
him to the name of the “Pathfinder.” 

Chinese Proverbs. —The Chinese are indeed remarka¬ 
bly fond of proverbs. They not only employ them in 
conversation—and even to a greater degree than the Span¬ 
iards, who are noted among Europeans for the number 
and excellence of their proverbial sayings—but they have 
a practice of adorning their reception rooms with these 
sententious bits of wisdom, inscribed on decorated scrolls 
or embroidered on rich crapes and brocades. They carve 
them on door-posts and pillars, and emblazon them on the 


walls and ceilings in gilt letters. The following are a few 
specimens of this sort of literature: As a sneer at the 
use of unnecessary force to crush a contemptible enemy, 
they say: “ He rides a fier 3 dog to catch a lame rabbit.” 
Similar to this is another, “ To use a battle-ax to cut off a 
hen’s head.” They say of wicked associates: “To cher¬ 
ish a bad man is like nourishing a tiger; if not well-fed 
he will devour you.” Here are several others mingling 
wit with wisdom: “ To instigate a villain to do wrong is 
like teaching a monkey to climb trees;” “To catch fish 
and throw away the net,” which recalls our saying, 
“ Using the cat’s paw to pull the chestnuts out of the 
fire;” “To climb a tree to catch a fish” is to talk much 
to no purpose; “A superficial scholar is a sheep dressed in 
a tiger’s skin;” “A cuckoo in a magpie’s nest,” equiva¬ 
lent to saying, “he is enjoying another’s labor without 
compensation-” “If the blind lead the blind they will 
both fall into the pit;” “A fair wind raises no storm;” 
“ Vast chasms can be filled, but the heart of man is never 
satisfied;” “The body may be healed, but the mind is 
incurable;” “He seeks the ass, and lo! he sits upon him;” 
“ He who looks at the sun is dazzled; he who hears the 
thunder is deafened,” i. e., do not come too near the pow¬ 
erful; “Prevention is better than cure;” “Wine and 
good dinners make abundance of friends, but in adversity 
not one of them is to be found.” “Let every man sweep 
the snow from before his own door, and not trouble him¬ 
self about the frost on his neighbor’s tiles.” The follow¬ 
ing one is a gem of moral wisdom: “Only correct your¬ 
self on the same principle that you correct others, and 
excuse others on the same principles on which you excuse 
yourself.” “Better not be, than be nothing.” “One 
thread does not make a rope; one swallow does not make 
a summer.” “Sensuality is the chief of sins, filial duty 
the best of acts.” “The horse’s back is not so safe as the 
buffalo’s ”—the former is used by the politician, the latter 
by the farmer. “ Too much lenity multiplies crime.” “ If 
you love your son give him plenty of the rod; if you hate 
him cram him with dainties.” “He is my teacher who 
tells me my faults, he my enemy who speaks my virtues.” 
Having a wholesome dread of litigation, they say of one 
who goes to law, “ He sues a flea to catch a bite.” Their 
equivalent for our “coming out at the little end of the 
horn” is, “The farther the rat creeps up (or into) the 
cow’s horn, the narrower it grows.” The truth of their 
saying that “ The fame of good deeds does not leave a 
man’s door, but his evil acts are known a thousand miles 
off,” is illustrated in our own daily papers every morning. 
Finally, we close this list with a Chinese proverb which 
should be inscribed on the lintel of every door in Christen¬ 
dom: “The happy-hearted man carries joy for all the 
household.” 

Mason and Dixon’s Line. —Mason and Dixon’s line 
is the concurrent State line of Maryland and Pennsylvania. 
It is named after two eminent astronomers and mathe- 
meticians, Charles Mason and Jeremiah Dixon, who were 
sent out from England to run it. They completed the 
survey between 1763 and 1767, excepting thirty-six miles 
surveyed in 1782 by Colonel Alex. McLean and Joseph 
Neville. It is in the latitude of 39 deg. 43 min. 26.3 sec. 

Great Fires of History. —The loss of life and prop¬ 
erty in the willful destruction by fire and sword of the 
principal cities of ancient history—Nineveh, Babylon, 
Persepolis, Carthage, Palmyra, and many others—is 
largely a matter of conjecture. The following is a memo¬ 
randum of the chief conflagrations of the current era: 

In 64, A. D., during the reign of Nero, a terrible fire 
raged in Borne for eight days, destroying ten of the four¬ 
teen wards. The loss of life and destruction of property 
is not known. 

























434 


MULTUM IN PARVO. 


In 70, A. D., Jerusalem was taken by the Romans and 
a large part of it given to the torch, entailing an enormous 
destruction of life and property. 

In 1106 Venice, then a city of immense opulence, was 
almost wholly consumed by a fire, originating in accident 
or incendiarism. 

In 1212 the greater part of London was burned. 

In 1666 what is known as the Great Fire of London 
raged in the city from September 2 to 6, consuming 13,200 
houses, with St. Paul’s Church, 86 parish churches, 6 
chapels, the Guild Hall, the Royal Exchange, the Custom 
House, 52 companies halls, many hospitals, libraries and 
other public edifices. The total destruction of property 
was estimated at $53,652,500. Six lives were lost, and 436 
acres burnt over. 

In 1679 a fire in Boston burned all the warehouses, 
eighty dwellings, and vessels in the dock-yards; loss esti¬ 
mated at $1,000,000. 

In 1700 a large part of Edinburgh was burned; loss un¬ 
known. 

In 1728 Copenhagen was nearly destroyed; 1,650 houses 
burned. 

In 1736 a fire in St. Petersburg burned 2,000 houses. 

In 1729 a fire in Constantinople destroyed 12,000 
houses, and 7,000 people perished. The same city suffered 
a conflagration in 1745, lasting five days; and in 1750 a 
series of three appalling fires: one in January, consuming 
10,000 houses; another in April destroying property to 
the value of $5,000,000, according to one historian, and 
according to another, $15,000,000; and in the latter part 
of the year another, sweeping fully 10,000 houses more 
out of existence. It seemed as if Constantinople was 
doomed to utter annihilation. 

In 1751 a fire in Stockholm destroyed 1,000 houses and 
another fire in the same city in 1759 burned 250 houses 
with a loss of $2,420,000. 

In 1752 afire in Moscow swept away 18,000 houses, in¬ 
volving an immense loss. 

In 1758 Christiania suffered a loss of $1,250,000 by con¬ 
flagration. 

In 1760 the Portsmouth (England) dock yards were 
burned, with a loss of $2,000,000. 

In 1764 a fire in Konigsburg, Prussia, consumed the 
public buildings, with a loss of $3,000,000; and in 1769 the 
city was almost totally destroyed. 

In 1763 a fire in Smyrna destroyed 2,600 houses, with a 
loss of $1,000,000; in 1772 a fire in the same city carried 
off 3,000 dwellings and 3,000 to 4,000 shops, entailing a 
loss of $20,000,000; and in 1796 there were 4,000 shops, 
mosques, magazines, etc., burned. 

In 1776, six days after the British seized the city, a fire 
swept off all the west side of New York city, from Broad¬ 
way to the river. 

In 1771 a fire in Constantinople burned 2,500 houses; 
another in 1778 burned 2,000 houses; in 1782 there were 
600 houses burned in February, 7,000 in June, and on 
August 12 during a conflagration that lasted three days, 
i0,000 houses, 50 mosques, and 100 corn-mills, with a loss 
of 100 lives, Two years later a fire, on March 13, de¬ 
stroyed two-thirds of Pera, the loveliest suburb of Con¬ 
stantinople, and on August 5 a fire in the main city, 
lasting twenty-six hours, burned 10,000 houses. In this 
same fire-scourged city, in 1791, between March and July, 
there were 32,000 houses burned, and about as many more 
m 1795; and in 1799 Pera was again swept with fire, with 
a loss of 13,000 houses, including manv buildings of srreat 
magnificence. & & 

In 1784 a fire and explosion in the dock yards, Brest, 
caused a loss of $5,000,000. 

But the greatest destruction of life and property by 



conflagration, of which the world has anything like accu¬ 
rate records, must be looked for within the current cen¬ 
tury. Of these the following is a partial list of instances 
in which the loss of property amounted to $3,000,000 and 
upward: 

Property 

Dates. Cities. destroyed. 

1802— Liverpool. $5,000,000 

1803— Bombay. 3,000,600 

1805—St. Thomas. 30,000,000 

1808—Spanish Town. 7,500,000 

1812—Moscow, burned five days; 30,800 

houses destroyed. 150,000,000 

1816—Constantinople, 12,000 dwellings, 

3,000 shops. . 

1820—Savannah. 4,000,000 

1822—Canton nearly destroyed. . 

1828—Havana, 350 houses. . 

1835—New York (“Great Fire”). 15,000,000 

1837— St. Johns, N. B. 5,000,000 

1838— Charleston, 1,158 buildings. 3,000,000 

1841— Smyrna, 12,000 houses. . 

1842— Hamburg, 4,219 buildings, 100 lives 

lost. 35,000,000 

1845—New York, 35 persons killed. 7,500,000 

1845—Pittsburgh, 1,100 buildings. 10,000,000 

1845—Quebec, May 28, 1,650 dwellings..-. 3,750,000 

1845— Quebec, June 28, 1,300 dwellings.... . 

1846— St. Johns, Newfoundland. 5,000,000 

1848—Constantinople, 2,500 buildings. 15,000,000 

1848— Albany, N. Y., 600 houses. 3,000,000 

1849— St. Louis. 3,000,000 

1851—St. Louis, 2,500 buildings. 11,000,000 

1851—St. Louis, 500 buildings. 3,000,000 

1851—San Francisco, May 4 and 5, many 

lives lost. 10,000,000 

1851— San Francisco, June. 3,000,000 

1852— Montreal, 1,200 buildings. 5,000,000 

1861— Mendoza destroyed by eartquake and 

fire, 10,000 lives lost. . 

1862— St. Petersburg. 5,000,000 

1862—Troy, N. Y., nearly destroyed. . 

1862—Valparaiso almost destroyed... . 

1864— Novgorod, immense destruction of 

property. . 

1865— Constantinople, 2,800 buildings 

burned. . 

1866— Yokohama, nearly destroyed. . 

1865— Carlstadt, Sweden, all consumed but 

Bishop’s residence, hospital and 
jail; 10 lives lost. . 

1866— Portland, Me., half the city. 11,000,000 

1866—Quebec, 2,500 dwellings, 17 churches . 

1870— Constantinople, Pera, suburb. 26,000,000 

1871— Chicago—250 lives lost, 17,430 build¬ 

ings burned, on 2,124 acres. 192,000,000 

1871— Paris, fired by the Commune. 160,000,000 

1872— Boston. 75,000,000 

1873— Yeddo, 10,000 houses. . 

1877—Pittsburgh, caused by riot. 3,260,000 

1877—St. Johns, N. B., 1,650 dwellings, 18 

lives lost. 12,500,000 

From the above it appears that the five greatest fires 
on record, reckoned by destruction of property, are: 

Chicago fire, of Oct. 8 and 9, 1871. $192,000,000 

Paris fires, of Mav, 1871. 160,000,000 

Moscow fire, of Sept. 14-19, 1812. 150,000,000 

Boston fire, Nov. 9-10,1872. 75,000,000 

London fire, Sept. 2-6,1666. 53,652,500 

Hamburg fire, May 5-7, 1842. 35,000,000 
















































































































MULTUM IN PARVO. 


435 







Taking into account, with the fires of Paris and Chica¬ 
go, the great Wisconsin and Michigan forest fires of 1871, 
in which it is estimated that 1,000 human beings perished 
and property to the amount of over $3,000,000 was con¬ 
sumed, it is plain that in the annals of conflagrations that 
year stands forth in gloomy pre-eminence. 

Wealth of the United States per Capita.—T he 
following statistics represent the amount of taxable 
property, real and personal, in each State and Territory, 
and also the amount per capita: 

Total. Per capita. 

Maine. $235,978,716 362.09 

New Hampshire. 164,755,181 474.81 

Vermont. 86,806,755 261,24 

Massachusetts. 1,584,756,802 888.77 

Rhode Island. 252,536,673 913.23 

Connecticut. 327,177,385 525.41 

New Jersey. 572,518,361 506.06 

New York. 2,651,940,000 521.74 

Pennsylvania. 1,683,459,016 393.08 

Delaware. 59,951,643 408.92 

Maryland. 497,307,675 533.07 

District of Columbia. 99,401,787 845.08 

Virginia. 308,455,135 203.92 

West Virginia. 139,622,705 225.75 

North Carolina. 156,100,202 111.52 

South Carolina. 153,560,135 154.24 

Georgia. 239,472,599 155.82 

Florida. 30,938,309 114.80 

Alabama. 122,867,228 97.32 

Mississippi. 110,628,129 97.76 

Louisiana. 160,162,439 170.39 

Texas. 320,364,515 201.26 

Arkansas. 86,409,364 176.71 

Kentucky. 350,563,971 212.63 

Tennessee. 211,778,538 137.30 

Ohio. 1,534,360,508 479.77 

Indiana. 727,815,131 367.89 

Illinois. 786,616,394 255.24 

Michigan. 517,666,359 316.23 

Wisconsin. 438,971,751 333.69 

Iowa. 398,671,251 245.39 

Minnesota. 258,028,687 330.48 

Missouri . 432,795,801 245.72 

Kansas. 160,891,689 161.52 

Nebraska. 90,585,782 200.23 

Colorado. 74,471,693 383.22 

Nevada. 29,291,459 470.40 

Oregon. 52,522,084 300.52 

California. 584,578,036 676.05 

Arizona. 9,270,214 229.23 

Dakota. 20,321,530 150.33 

Idaho. 6,440,876 197.51 

Montana. 18,609,802 475.23 

New Mexico. 11,362,406 95.04 

Utah. 24,775,279 172.09 

Washington. 23,810,603 316.98 

Wyoming. 13,621,829 655,24 

Total.$16,902,993,543 337.00 

Table for Measuring an Acre.—T o measure an 
acre in rectangular form is a simple question in arithmetic. 
One has only to divide the total number of square yards in 
an acre, 4,840, by the number of yards in the known side 
or breadth to find the unkown side in yards. By this proc¬ 
ess it appears that a rectangular strip of ground— 

5 yards wide by 968 yards long is 1 acre. 

10 yards wide by 484 yards long is 1 acre. 

20 yards wide by 242 yards long is 1 acre. 

40 yards wide by 121 yards long is 1 acre. 



80 yards wide by 60£ yards long is 1 acre. 

70 yards wide by 69-£ yards long is 1 acre. 

60 yards wide by 80f yards long is 1 acre. 

The Language of Gems. —The language of the various 
precious stones is as follows: 

Moss Agate—Health, prosperity and long life. 

Amethyst—Prevents violent passions. 

Bloodstone—Courage, wisdom and firmness in affection. 

Chrysolite—Frees from evil passions and sadness. 

Emerald—Insures true love, discovers false. 

Diamonds—Innocence, faith and virgin purity, friends. 

Garnet—Constancy and fidelity in every engagement. 

Opal—Sharpens the sight and faith of the possessor. 

Pearl—Purity; gives clearness to physical and mental 
sight. 

Ruby—Corrects evils resulting from mistaken friend¬ 
ship. 

Sapphire—Repentance; frees from enchantment. 

Sardonyx—Insures conjugal felicity. 

Topaz—Fidelity and friendship; prevents bad dreams. 

Turquoise—Insures prosperity in love. 

Great Salt Lake and the Dead Sea. —Great Salt 
Lake is a shallow body of water, its average depth being 
but a little more than three feet, while in many parts it is 
much less. The water is transparent, but excessively salt; 
it contains about 22 per cent of common salt, slightly 
mixed with other salts, and forming one of the purest and 
most concentrated brines in the world. Its specific grav¬ 
ity is 1.17. The water is so buoyant that a man may float 
in it at full length upon his back, having his head and neck, 
his legs to the knee, and both arms to the elbow, entirely 
out of water. If he assumes a sitting posture, with his arms 
extended, his shoulders will rise above the water. Swim¬ 
ming, however, is difficult as the lower limbs tend to rise 
above the surface, and the brine is so strong that to swal¬ 
low even a very little of it will cause strangulation. The 
waters of the Dead Sea, on the other hand, are nearly 
black, and contain much sulphur and bitumen, as well as 
salt. It is also very deep, varying from thirteen feet near 
the south end of the lake to more than 1,300 feet in the 
northern part. Its buoyancy is quite equal to that of Great 
Salt Lake, for travelers say that a man can float prone 
upon the surface for hours without danger of sinking, and 
in a sitting position is held breast-high above the water. 

Some Famous War Songs. —The slavery war developed 
several Union song-writers whose stirring verses have kept 
on singing themselves since the close of that great struggle. 
Two among them are best remembered nowadays, both 
men who wrote the words and composed the music to their 
own verses. Chicago lays claim to one. Dr. George F. 
Root, and Boston to the other, Henry C. Work. The song 
“ Marching Through Georgia,” as every one knows, was 
written in memory of Sherman’s famous march from 
Atlanta to the sea, and words and music were the com¬ 
position of Henry C. Work, who died not many months 
ago (in 1884). The first stanza is as follows: 

Bring the good old bugle, boys, we’ll sing another song— 
Sing it with spirit that will start the world along— 

Sing it as we used to sing it, fifty thousand strong, 

While we were marching through Georgia. 

Chorus— 

“Hurrah 1 hurrah! we bring the jubilee! 

Hurrah! hurrah! the flag that makes you free!” 

So we sang the chorus from Atlanta to the sea. 

While we were marching through Georgia. 

Among the other songs of Work the following are best 
known: *‘ Kingdom Coming,” or “ Say, Darkey, Hab You 
Seen de Massa?” “ Babylon is Fallen,” “ Grafted into 

































































































436 


MULTUM IN PARYO. 



the Army” and “ Corporal Schnapps.” This record 
would be incomplete were we to fail to mention some of 
the many ringing songs of George F. Root, songs which 
have made the name of Root famous in thousands upon 
thousands of households in the West. Some of these songs 
are: “ Battle Cry of Freedom,” “ Tramp, Tramp, Tramp,” 
“ On, on, on, the Boys Came Marching,” “Just Before 
the Battle, Mother,” “Just After the Battle,” “Lay Me 
Down and Save the Flag,” “ Stand Up for Uncle Sam, My 
Boys.” The well known song, “ Wrap the Flag Around 
Me, Boys,” was composed by R. Stewart Taylor, and 
“ When Johnny Cories Marching Home” by Louis Lam¬ 
bert. 

The Cost of Royalty in England. —Her Majesty: 

Privy purse.£60,000 

Salaries of household.131,260 

Expenses of household.172,500 

Royal bounty, etc. 13,200 

Unappropriated. 8,040- 


£385,000 

Prince of Wales. 40,000 

Princess of Wales. 10,000 

Crown Princess of Prussia. 8,000 

Duke of Edinburgh. 25,000 

Princess Christian of Schleswig-Holstein. 6,000 

Princess Louise (Marchioness of Lome). 6,000 

Duke of Connaught. 25,000 

Duke of Albany. 25,000 

Duchess of Cambridge. 6,000 

Duchess of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. 3,000 

Duke of Cambridge. 12,000 

Duchess of Teck. 5,000 

Some Great Rivers. —From UaswelPs little work for 
engineers and mechanics the following figures are taken, 
showing the lengths of the largest rivers on the various 
continents: 


EUROPE. 


Name. 

Volga, Russia. 

Miles. 

..2,500 

Danube. 

..1,800 

Rhine. 

.. 840 

Vistula. 

.. 700 

ASIA. 

Yeneisy and Selenga..3,580 

Kiang. 


Hoang Ho. 

..3,040 

Amoor. 


Euphrates. 


Ganges. 


Tigris. 


AFRICA. 

Nile. 



Niger.2,400 

Gambia.1,000 

The figures as to the lengt 


SOUTH AMERICA. 

Name. Miles. 

Amazon and Beni... .4,000 

Platte.2,700 

Rio Madeira.2,300 

Rio Negro.1,650 

Orinoco.1,600 

Uruguay.1,100 

Magdalena. 900 

NORTH AMERICA. 

Mississippi and Mis¬ 
souri .4,300 

Mackenzie.2,800 

Rio Bravo .2,300 

Arkansas.2,070 

Red River.1,520 

Ohio and Alleghany. .1,480 
St. Lawrence.1,450 

of the Nile are estimated. 


The Amazon, with its tributaries (including the Rio Negro 
and Madeira), drains an area of 2,330,000 square miles; 
the Mississippi and Missouri, 1,726,000 square miles; the 
Yeneisy (or Yenisei, as it is often written) drains about 
1,000,000 square miles; the Volga, about 500,000. In this 
group of great rivers the St. Lawrence is the most remark¬ 
able. It constitutes by far the largest body of fresh water 
in the world. Including the lakes and streams, which it 
comprises in its widest acceptation, the St. Lawrence cov¬ 
ers about 73,000 square miles; the aggregate, it is esti¬ 
mated, represents not less than 9,000 solid miles—a mass 
of water which would have taken upward of forty years to 
pour over Niagara at the computed rate of 1,000,000 cubic 



feet in a second. As the entire basin of this water system 
falls short of 300,000 square miles, the surface of the land 
is only three times that of the water. 

How the United States Got Its Lands. —The Uni¬ 
ted States bought Louisiana, the vast region between the 
Mississippi River, the eastern and northern boundary of 
Texas (then belonging to Spain), and the dividing ridge 
of the Rocky Mountains, together with what is now Ore¬ 
gon, Washington Territory, and the western parts of 
Montana and Idaho, from France for $11,250,000. This 
was in 1803. Before the principal, interest, and claims 
of one sort and another assumed by the United States 
were settled, the total cost of this “Louisiana purchase,” 
comprising, according to French construction and our 
understanding, 1,171,931 square miles, swelled to $23,500,- 
000, or almost $25 per section—a fact not stated in cyclo¬ 
pedias and school histories, and therefore not generally 
understood. Spain still held Florida and claimed a part 
of what we understood to be included in the Louisiana 
purchase—a strip up to north latitude 31—and disputed 
our boundary along the south and west, and even claimed 
Oregon. We bought Florida and all the disputed land 
east of the Mississippi and her claim to Oregon, and 
settled our southwestern boundary dispute for the sum of 
$6,500,000. Texas smilingly proposed annexation to the 
United States, and this great government was “taken in” 
December 29, 1845, Texas keeping her public lands and 
giving us all her State debts and a three-year war (costing 
us $66,000,000) with Mexico, who claimed her for a run¬ 
away from Mexican jurisdiction. This was a bargain that 
out-yankeed the Yankees, but the South insisted on it 
and the North submitted. After conquering all the terri¬ 
tory now embraced in New Mexico, a part of Colorado, 
Arizona, Utah, Nevada and California, we paid Mexico 
$25,000,000 for it—$15,000,000 for the greater part of it 
and $10,000,000 for another slice, known as the “ Gads¬ 
den purchase.” In 1867 we bought Alaska from Russia 
for $7,200,000. All the several amounts above named 
were paid long ago. As for all the rest of our landed pos¬ 
sessions, we took them with us when we cut loose from 
mother Britain’s apron string, but did not get a olear title 
until we had fought ten years for it—first in the Revolu¬ 
tionary War, costing us in killed 7,343 reported—besides 
the unreported killed—and over 15,000 wounded, and 
$135,193,103 in money; afterward in the War of 1812-15, 
costing us in killed 1,877, in wounded 3,737, in money 
$107,159,003. We have paid everybody but the Indians, 
the only real owners, and, thanks to gunpowder, sword, 
bayonet, bad whisky, small-pox, cholera and other weap¬ 
ons of civilization, there are not many of them left to 
complain. Besides all the beads, earrings, blankets, pots, 
kettles, brass buttons, etc., given them for land titles in 
the olden times, we paid them, or the Indian agents, in 
one way and another, in the ninety years from 1791 to 
1881, inclusive, $193,672,697.31, to say nothing of the 
thousands of lives sacrificed and many millions spent in 
Indian wars, from the war of King Philip to the last fight 
with the Apaches. 

Illustrious Men and Women. —It is not likely that 
any two persons would agree as to who are entitled to the 
first fifty places on the roll of great men and great women. 
Using “great” in the sense of eminence in their profes¬ 
sions, of great military commanders the following are 
among the chief: Sesostris, the Egyptian conqueror, who is 
represented as having subdued all Asia to the Oxus and 
the Ganges, Ethiopia, and a part of Europe; Cyrus 
the Great; Alexander the Great; Hannibal; Che-Hwanti, 
who reduced all the kingdoms of China and Indo-China to 
one empire, and constructed the Great Wall; Caesar; Gen¬ 
ghis Khan, the Tartar chief, who overran all Asia and a 








































































































MULTUM IN PARVO. 


437 


considerable part of Europe; Napoleon Bonaparte; Ulysses 
S. Grant, and General Yon Moltke. Among the most 
illustrious benefactors of mankind, as statesmen, lawgivers 
aud patriots, stand Moses, David, Solon, Numa Pompilius, 
Zoroaster, Confucius, Justinian, Charlemagne, Cromwell, 
Washington and Lincoln. Eminent among the philoso¬ 
phers, rhetoricians and logicians stand Socrates, Plato, 
Aristotle, Seneca, the two Catos, and Lord Bacon; among 
orators, Pericles, Demosthenes, Cicero, Mirabeau, Burke, 
Webster and Clay; among poets, Homer, Virgil, Dante, 
Milton, and Shakespeare; among painters and sculptors, 
Phidias, Parrhasius, Zenxis, Praxiteles, Scopas, Michael 
Angelo, Raphael and Rubens; among philanthropists, 
John Howard; among inventors, Archimedes, Watt, Ful¬ 
ton, Arkwright, Whitney and Morse; among astronomers, 
Copernicus, Galileo, Tycho Brahe, Newton, La Place and 
the elder Herschel. Here are sixty names of distinguished 
men, and yet the great religious leaders, excepting Moses 
and Zoroaster, have not been named. Among these stand 
Siddhartha or Buddha, Mahomet, Martin Luther, John 
Knox and John Wesley. Then the great explorers and 
geographers of the world have not been noticed, among 
whom Herodotus, Strabo, Pliny, Vasco de Gama, Colum¬ 
bus and Humboldt barely lead the van. 

Of eminent women there areSeling, wife of the Emperor 
Hwang-ti, B. C. 2637, who taught her people the art of 
silk-raising and weaving; Semiramis, the Assyrian Queen; 
Deborah, the heroic warrior prophetess of the Israelites; 
Queen Esther, who, with the counsel of her cousin, Mor- 
decai, not only saved the Jews from extermination, but 
lifted them from a condition of slavery into prosperity and 
power; Dido, the founder of Carthage; Sappho, the emi¬ 
nent Grecian poetess; Hypatia, the eloquent philosopher; 
Mary, the mother of Christ; Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra; 
the mother of St. Augustine; Elizabeth of Hungary; 
Queen Elizabeth of England; Queen Isabella of Spain; 
the Empress Maria Theresa; Margaret the Great of Den¬ 
mark; Catherine the Great of Russia, Queen Victoria; 
Florence Nightingale; Mme. de Stael: Mrs. Fry, the phi¬ 
lanthropist; among authoresses, Mrs. Hemans, Mrs. Sig¬ 
ourney, Mrs. Browning, “George Sand,” “George Eliot,” 
and Mrs. Stowe; and among artists, Rosa Bonheur, and 
our own Harriet Hosmer. 

The Suez Canal. —The Suez Canal was begun in 1,858 
and was formally opened in November, 1869. Its cost, in¬ 
cluding harbors, is estimated at $100,000,000. Its length is 
100 miles, 75 of which were excavated; its width is gener¬ 
ally 325 feet at the surface, and 75 feet at the bottom, and 
its depth 26 feet. The workmen employed were chiefly 
natives, and many were drafted by the Khedive. The 
number of laborers is estimated at 30,000. The British 
government virtually controls the canal as it owns most of 
the stock. 

Sending Vessels Oyer Niagara Falls. —There have 
been three such instances. The first was in 1827. Some 
men got an old ship—the Michigan—which had been used 
on lake Erie, and had been pronounced unseaworthy. For 
mere wantonness they put aboard a bear, a fox, a buffalo, a 
dog and some geese and sent it over the cataract. The 
bear jumped from the vessel before it reached the rapids, 
swam toward the shore, and was rescued by some humane 
persons. The geese went over the falls, and came to the 
shore below alive, and, therefore,became objects of great 
interest, and were sold at high prices to visitors at the 
Falls. The dog, fox, and buffalo were not heard of or seen 
again. Another condemned vessel, the Detroit, that had 
belonged to Commodore Perry’s victorious fleet, was started 
over the cataract in the winter of 1841, but grounded about 
midway in the rapids, and lay there till knocked to pieces 



by the ice. A somewhat more picturesque instance was 
the sending over the Canada side of a ship on fire. This 
occurred in 1837. The vessel was the Caroline, which had 
been run in the interest of the insurgents in the Canadian 
rebellion. It was captured by Colonel McNabb, an officer 
of the Canada militia, and by his orders it was set on fire 
then cut loose from its moorings. All in flames, it went 
glaring and hissing down the rapids and over the precipice, 
and smothered its ruddy blaze in the boiling chasm below. 
This was witnessed by large crowds on both sides of the 
falls, and was described as a most magnificent sight. Of 
course there was no one on board the vessel. 

Old Time Wages in England. —The following rates 
of daily wages “determined ” by the Justices of Somerset, 
in 1685, answer this question very fairly. Somerset being 
one of the average shires of England. The orthography 
is conformed to original record: 

s. d. 

Mowers per diem, findeing themselves. 1 2 

Mowers at meate and drinke. 0 7 

Men makeing hay per diem, findeing themselves.. 0 10 

Men at meate and drinke. 0 6 

Women makeing hay. 0 7 

Women at meate and drinke. 0 4 

Men reapeing corne per diem, findeing themselves 1 2 

Men reapinge corne at meate and drinke. 0 8 

Moweing an acre of grasse, findeing themselves.. 1 2 

Moweing an acre of grasse to hay. 1 6 

Moweing an acre of barley. . 1 1 

Reapeinge and bindeingean acre of wheate. 3 0 

Cuttinge and bindeinge an acre of beanes and 

hookinge. 2 0 

The shilling is about 24 cents and the penny 2 cents. 

Declaration of Independence Signers. —The fol¬ 
lowing is the list of names appended to that famous 
document, with the colony which each represented in 
Congress: 

New Hampshire—Josiah Bartlett; William Whipple, 
Matthew Thornton. 

Massachusetts—John Hancock, John Adams, Samuel 
Adams, Robert Treat Paine. 

Rhode Island—Elbridge Gerry, Stephen Hopkins, Will¬ 
iam Ellery. 

Connecticut—Roger Sherman, Samuel Huntington, 
William Williams, Oliver Wolcott. 

New York—William Floyd, Philip Livingston, Francis 
Lewis, Lewis Morris. 

New Jersey—Richard Hockton, John Witherspoon, 
Francis Hopkinson, John Hart, Abraham Clark. 

Pennsylvania—Robert Morris, Benjamin Rush, Benja¬ 
min Franklin, John Morton, George Clymer, James 
Smith, George Taylor, James Wilson, George Ross. 

Delaware—Csesar Rodney, George Reed, Thomas Mc¬ 
Kean. 

Maryland—Samuel Chase, Thomas Stone, William 
Paca, Charles Carroll, of Carrollton. 

Virginia—George Wythe, Richard Henry Lee, Thomas 
Jefferson, Benjamin Harrison, Thomas Nelson, Jr., Fran¬ 
cis Lightfoot Lee, Carter Braxton. 

North Carolina—William Hooper, Joseph Hewes, John 
Penn. 

South Carolina—Edward Rutledge, Thomas Heyward, 
Jr., Thomas Lynch, Jr., Arthur Middleton. 

Georgia—Button Gwinntet, Lyman Hall, George Wal¬ 
ton. 

Life of Ethan Allen.— Colonel Ethan Allan was 
captured in an attack upon Montreal, September 25,1775. 
He was sent as prisoner to Great Britain, ostensibly for 
trial, but in a few months was sent back to America, and 














































438 


MULTUM 1ST PARVO. 


confined in prison ships and jails at Halifax and New 
York till May 3, 1778, when he was exchanged. During 
most of his captivity he was treated as a felon and kept 
heavily ironed, but during 1777 was allowed restricted lib¬ 
erty on parole. After his exchange he again offered his 
services to the patriot army, but because of trouble in Ver¬ 
mont was put in command of the militia in that State. 
The British authorities were at that time making especial 
efforts to secure the allegiance of the Vermonters, and it 
was owing to Allen’s skillful negotiations that the question 
was kept open until the theater of war was changed, thus 
keeping the colony on the American side, but avoiding the 
attacks from the British that would certainly have fol¬ 
lowed an open avowal of their political preferences. Allen 
died at Burliugton, Vt., February 13, 1789. 

Burial Customs. —Among the early Christians the 
dead were buried with the face upward and the feet tow¬ 
ard the east, in token of the resurrection at the coming 
again of the Sun of Righteousness. It cannot be said, 
however, that the custom was first used by the Christians. 
It was in practice among early pagan nations also, and is 
regarded as a survival of the ideas of the fire-worshipers. 
The sun, which was the impersonation of deity to many 
primitive races, had his home in their mythology in the 
east, and out of respect for him the dead were placed fac¬ 
ing this quarter, among certain tribes always in a sitting 
posture. It may also be remarked that among other races 
the position was reversed, the dead body being placed 
with its feet toward the west, because the region of sunset 
was the home of the departed spirits. 

The Surrender of Lee to Grant. —The surrender 
of General Lee was made at the house of a farmer named 
McLean, in Appomattox village, that house having been 
selected by General Lee himself at General Grant’s request 
for the interview. General Grant went thither, and was 
met by General Lee on the threshold. The two went into 
the parlor of the house, a small room, containing little 
furnishing but a table and several chairs. About twenty 
Union officers besides General Grant were present, among 
them the members of the General’s staff. The only Con¬ 
federate officer with General Lee was Colonel Marshall, 
who acted as hi3 secretary. General Lee, as well as his aid, 
was in full uniform, and wore a burnished sword which was 
given him by the State of Virginia; General Grant was in 
plain uniform, without a sword. After a brief conversa¬ 
tion, relative to the meeting of the two generals while sol¬ 
diers in Mexico, General Lee adverted at once to the object 
of the interview by asking on what terms the surrender of 
his army would be received. General Grant replied that 
officers and men must become prisoners of war, giving up 
of course all munitions, weapons and supplies, but that a 
parole would be accepted. General Lee then requested 
that the terms should be put in writing, that he might 
sign them. General Badeau says that while General Grant 
was writing the conditions of surrender he chanced to look 
up and his eye caught the glitter of General Lee’s sword, 
and that this sight induced him to insert the provision that 
the “officers should be allowed to retain their side-arms, 
horses and personal property.” This historian thinks 
that General Lee fully expected to give up his sword, and 
that General Grant omitted this from the terms of surrender 
out of consideration for the feelings of a soldier. Badeau 
says that General Lee was evidently much touched by the 
clemency of his adversary in this regard. The Confeder¬ 
ate chief now wrote his acceptance of the terms offered and 
signed them.. He further requested that the cavalry and 
artillery soldiers might be allowed to retain their horses as 
well as the officers, to which General Grant consented, and 
asked that a supply train left at Danville might be allowed 
to pass on, as his soldiers were without food. The reply 


of General Grant to this was an order that 25,000 rations 
should be immediately issued from the commissariat of the 
National army to the Army of Northern Virginia. The 
formal jiapers were now drawn up and signed, and the in¬ 
terview which ended one of the greatest wars of modern 
times was over. 

Colored Population at Each Census. —The follow¬ 
ing will show the white and colored population of the 
United States, from 1790 to 1880, inclusive: 

,-Colored.-> 


Year. 

White. 

Free. 

Slaves. 

1790. 

. 3,172,006 

59,527 

697,681 

1800. 

. 4,306,446 

108,435 

893,602 

1810. 

. 5,862,073 

186,446 

1,191,362 

1820. 

. 7,862,166 

223,634 

1,538,022 

1830. 

.10,538,378 

319,599 

2,009,043 

1840. 

.14,195,805 

386,293 

2,487,355 

1850. 

.19,553,068 

434,495 

3,204,313 

1860.. 

.26,922,537 

488,070 

3,953,760 

1870 . 

.33,589,377 

4,880,009 

None. 

1880. 

.43,402,970 

6,580,973 

None. 


Arctic Explorations.— From 1496 to 1 857 there were 
134 voyages and land journeys undertaken by governments 
and explorers of Europe and America to investigate the 
unknown region around the North Pole. Of these, sixty- 
three went to the northwest, twenty-nine via Behring 
Straits, and the rest to the northeast or due north. Since 
1857 there have been the notable expeditions of Dr. Hayes, 
of Captain Hall, those of Nordenskjold, and others sent 
by Germany, Russia and Denmark; three voyages made by 
James Lamont, of the Royal Geographical Society, Eng¬ 
land, at his own expense; the expeditions of Sir George 
Nares, of Leigh Smith, and that of the ill-fated Jeannette; 
the search expeditions of the Tigress, the Juniata, and 
those sent to rescue Lieutenant Greely; further, all the 
expeditions fitted out under the auspices of the Polar Com¬ 
mission—in which the Greely expedition was included— 
and a number of minor voyages, making a sum total of 
some sixty exploring journeys in these twenty-seven years. 

The Battle of Waterloo.— The battle of Waterloo 
was fought June 18, 1815, between the allied British, 
Netherland and German troops under Wellington and the 
French under Napoleon. On June 16 Napoleon had 
attacked the Prussians under Blucher at Ligny and forced 
them to retreat toward Wavre, and Marshal Ney at the 
same time attacked the British and Dutch forces at Quatre 
Bras, but was forced to retire after an engagement of five 
hours. Napoleon’s object, however, which was to prevent 
a union of the Prussians with Wellington’s main army, 
was partially gained. The latter commander, having 
learned the next morning of Blucher’s repulse, moved on 
to Waterloo expecting that the Prussian commander, 
according to previous arrangement, would join him there 
as speedily as possible. On June 17 Napoleon also moved 
toward Waterloo with the main body of his army, having 
directed Marshal Grouchy with 34,000 men and ninety-six 
guns to pursue Blucher’s command toward Wavre. Both 
armies bivouacked on the field of Waterloo, and the next 
morning Napoleon, confident that Grouchy would prevent 
the arrival of the Prussians, delayed attack until the ground 
should become dry, a heavy shower having fallen on the 
day previous. The forces under Wellington occupied a 
semi-circular ridge a mile and a half in length, and the 
French were on an opposite ridge, the two being sepa¬ 
rated by a valley about 500 yards wide. The plan of 
Napoleon was to turn the allied left, force it back upon 
center, and gain possession of the enemy’s line of retreat. / 
To draw off Wellington’s attention to his right, French \ 
troops were sent about 11 o’clock to attack the chateau of 
Houguemont, which the English had fortified. After a J 






















































MULTUM IN PARVO. 


439 


fight of more than two hours this was still in the posses¬ 
sion of its defenders. About 1 o'clock a Prussian corps 
under Bulow was seen approaching on the French right, 
and Napoleon, finding it necessary to send 10,000 men to 
check their advance, w T as obliged to change the plan of 
battle. He therefore ordered a fierce attack upon the 
allied center. Wellington massed his troops there, and 
the battle was obstinately maintained for five hours, with 
varying success to the participants, both commanders 
hourly expecting re-enforcements. Wellington was wait¬ 
ing for Blucher and Napoleon for Grouchy. The French 
at last were gaining ground; the allied troops in the cen¬ 
ter were wavering under Ney's impetuous onslaughts. 
General Durutte had forced back the left, and Bulow's 
troops on the right had been forced to yield the position 
they had taken. Now, however, there were rumors that 
Bluchers army was approaching and the allies again ral¬ 
lied. At 7 o'clock Napoleon, despairing of the approach 
of Grouchy, determined to decide the day by a charge of 
the Old Guard, which had been held in reserve. At this 
stage the advance of Prussian horse on the allied left 
forced back General Durutte's troops, and the Old Guard 
formed in squares to cover this retreat. Ney’s division 
surrounded, made a gallant struggle—their brave leader 
still unwounded, though five horses had been shot under 
him, heading them on foot, sword in hand—but were 
forced to give way. The Old Guard held their ground 
against overwhelming numbers. Finally, when five 
squares were broken, the Emperor gave the order to “fall 
back." The cry “The Guard is repulsed" spread con¬ 
sternation through the French army and threatened to 
turn retreat into precipitate flight. Napoleon, seeing this, 
reformed the Guard in order to give a rallying point for 
the fugitives. Failing in this, he declared that he would 
die within the square, but Marshal Soult hurried him 
away. The heroic band, surrounded, was bidden to sur¬ 
render. “ The Old Guard dies, but never surrenders" is 
the reply popularly attributed to General Cambronne, and 
with the cry of “Vive l’Empereur !" the remnant of the 
Guard made a last charge upon the enemy and perished 
almost to a man. The forces of Blucher being now upon 
the field, the rout of the French was complete, and the 
Prussians pursued the fleeing troops, capturing guns and 
men. There is no doubt that the failure of Grouchy to 
come upon the field caused Napoleon to lose his last great 
battle. It was subsequently asserted that this marshal 
was bribed, but there seems to be no real foundation for so 
base a charge. The trouble was that he had been ordered 
by Napoleon to follow the Prussians toward Wavre and 
thought it necessary to follow the strict letter of his 
instructions. Before he reached the village the main 
body of the Prussian force was on its way to Waterloo, 
but one division had been left there to occupy his atten¬ 
tion. Engaged in skirmishing with this, he paid no atten¬ 
tion to the advice of his subordinate generals who, hearing 
the terrible cannonading at Waterloo, besought him to 
go to the aid of the army there. Napoleon believing that 
lie was either holding back Blucher’s forces or was hotly 
pursuing them, did not recall him to the main army, and 
the decisive battle was lost. Grouchy was summoned 
before a council of war, but the court declared itself 
incompetent to decide his case, and nothing further came 
of it. 

Our National Cemeteries. — National Cemeteries 
for soldiers and sailors may be said to have origi¬ 
nated in 1850, the army appropriation bill of that 
year appropriating money for a cemetery near the 
City of Mexico, for the interment of the remains of 
soldiers who fell in the Mexican War. The remains of 
Federal soldiers and sailors who fell in the war for the 


Union have been buried in seventy-eight cemeteries ex¬ 
clusive of those interred elsewhere, a far greater number. 
In the subjoined list are given the names and locations of 
the National Cemeteries with the number therein buried, 
known and unknown. We have no means of knowing 
what cemeteries also contain the bodies of Southern 
soldiers : 


Beverly, N. J. 


Laurel, Baltimore, Md, 


Battle, D. C_ 

Grafton, W. Ya. 


Ball's Bluff, Ya.. 
Cold Harbor, Ya. 


Culpepper, Ya. 


Fort Harrison, Ya. 
Glendale, Ya. 


Richmond, Ya. 
Seven Pines Ya. 
Staunton, Ya... 


Yorktown, Ya- 


Raleigh, N. C.... 
Salisbury, N. C... 
Wilmington, N. C. 


Florence, S. C, 


Barrancas, Fla. 
Mobile, Ala.... 


Natchez, Miss. 


Alexandria, La, 


Port Hudson, La. 


San Antonio, Texas. 
Fayetteville, Ark.., 
Fort Smith, Ark... 


Fort Donelson, Tenn. 


Lebanon, Ky. 


Known. 

3,675 

Unkn’n. 

76 

3,096 


142 

7 

2,644 

1,608 

1,967 

1,880 

28 

2,289 

197 

2,853 

1,811 

1,627 

166 

232 

6 

5,313 

288 

13 


634 

620 

11,911 

4,349 

3,434 

124 

1 

24 

672 

1,281 

3,779 

1,374 

454 

910 

1,171 

155 

2,487 

12,770 

239 

575 

233 

961 

4,868 

494 

2,197 

3,993 

841 

5,700 

150 

1,208 

233 

520 

2,094 

2,361 

748 

1,434 

2,174 

1,077 

625 

553 

94 

12,032 

710 

1,398 

4,748 

4,493 

199 

2,799 

12,878 

959 

7,182 

2,963 

791 

657 

751 

112 

1,788 

3,920 

308 

2,780 

3,896 

12,704 

534 

772 

2,468 

495 

6,833 

5,675 

596 

3,218 

1,409 

1,379 

307 

167 

431 

781 

706 

1,152 

3,260 

2,337 

7,993 

4,963 

158 

511 

2,089 

1,046 

5,159 

8,817 

11,824 

4,692 

1,229 

2,361 

3,820 

2,314 

2,477 

1,165 

3,342 

583 

346 

12 

591 

277 









































































































440 


MULTUM IN PARVO. 


Known. Unkn’n. 


Lexington, Ky. 824 105 

Logan’s, Ky. 345 366 

Crown Hill, Indianapolis, Ind. 686 36 

New Albany, Ind. 2,138 676 

Camp Butler, Ill. 1,007 355 

Mound City, Ill. 2,505 2,721 

Rock Island, Ill. 280 9 

Jefferson Barracks, Mo. 8,569 2,906 

Jefferson City, Mo. 348 412 

Springfield, Mo . 845 713 

Fort Leavenworth, Kas. 821 913 

Fort Scott, Kas. 388 161 

Keokuk, Iowa. 610 21 

Fort Gibson, I. T. 212 2,212 

Fort McPherson, Neb. 149 291 

City of Mexico, Mexico. 254 750 


The Catacombs of Paris. —The so-called catacombs of 
Paris were never catacombs in the ancient sense of the 
word, and were not devoted to purposes of sepulture until 
1784. In that year the Council of State issued a decree 
for clearing the Cemetery of the Innocents, and for remov¬ 
ing its contents, as well as those of other graveyards, into 
the quarries which had existed from the earlier times 
under the city of Paris and completely undermined the 
southern part of the city. Engineers and workmen were 
sent to examine the quarries and to prop up their roofs 
lest the weight of buildings above should break them in. 
April 7, 1786, the consecration of the catacombs was per¬ 
formed with great solemnity, and the work of removal 
from the cemeteries was immediately begun. This work 
was all performed by night; the bones were brought in 
funeral cars, covered with a pall, and followed by priests 
chanting the service of the dead, and when they reached 
the catacombs the bones were shot down the shaft. As 
the cemeteries were cleared by order of the government, 
their contents were removed to this place of general 
deposit, and these catacombs further served as convenient 
receptacles for those who perished in the revolution. At 
first the bones were heaped up without any kind of order 
except that those from each cemetery were kept separate, 
but in 1810 a regular system of arranging them was com¬ 
menced, and the skulls and bones were built up along the 
wall. From the main entrance to the catacombs, which is 
near the barriers d’ Enfer, a flight of ninety steps 
descends, at whose foot galleries are seen branching in 
various directions. Some yards distant is a vestibule of 
octagonal form, which opens into a long gallery lined 
with bones from floor to roof. The arm, leg and thigh 
bones are in front, closely and regularly piled, and their 
uniformity is relieved by three rows of skulls at equal dis¬ 
tances. Behind these are thrown the smaller bones. This 
gallery conducts to several rooms resembling chapels, lined 
with bones variously arranged. One is called the “ Tomb 
of the Revolution,” another the “Tomb of Victims,” the 
latter containing the relics of those who perished in the 
early period of the revolution and in the “Massacre of 
September. It is estimated that the remains of 3,000,000 
human beings lie in this receptacle. Admission to these 
catacombs has for years been strictly forbidden on account 
of the unsafe condition of the roof. They are said to com¬ 
prise an extent of about 3,250,000 square yards. 

History of the Telephone.— The principle of the tel¬ 
ephone, that sounds could be conveyed to a distance by a 
distended wire, was demonstrated by Robert Hook in 1667, 
but no practical application was made of the discovery 
until 1821, when Professor Wheatstone exhibited his 
“ Enchanted Lyre,” in which the sounds of a music-box 
were conveyed from a cellar to upper rooms. The first 
true discoverer of the speaking telephone, however, was 


Johann Philipp Reis, a German scientist and professor in 
the institute at Friedrichsdorf. April 25, 1861, Reis 
exhibited his telephone at Frankfort. This contained all 
the essential features of the modern teler 1 one, but as its 
commercial value was not at all comprenended, little 
attention was paid to it. Reis, after trying in vain to 
arouse the interest of scientists in his discovery, died in 
1874, without having reaped any advantage from it, and 
there is no doubt that his death was hastened by the dis¬ 
tress of mind caused by his continual rebuffs. Meanwhile, 
the idea was being worked into more practical shape by 
other persons. Professor Elisha Gray and Professor A. G. 
Bell, and later by Edison. There is little doubt that Pro¬ 
fessor Gray’s successful experiments considerably antedated 
those of the others, but Professor Bell was the first to 
perfect his patent. February 12, 1877, Bell’s articulating 
telephone was tested by experiments at Boston and Salem, 
Mass., and was found to convey sounds distinctly from one 
place to the other, a distance of eighteen miles. This tele¬ 
phone was exhibited widely in this country and in Europe 
during that year, and telephone companies were established 
to bring it into general use. Edison’s carbon “loud-speak¬ 
ing” telephone was brought out in 1878. It is not worth 
while to go into details of the suits on the subject of priority 
of invention. The examiner of patents at Washington, July 
21, 1883, decided that Professor Bell was the first inventor, 
because he was the first to complete his invention and 
secure a full patent. Since 1878 there have been many 
improvements in the different parts of the telephone, ren¬ 
dering it now nearly perfect in its working. 

Secession and Readmission of Rebel States.— 


Seceded. Readmitted. 

South Carolina.Dec. 20, 1860. June 11, 1868. 

Mississippi.Jan. 9, 1861. Feb. 3, 1870. 

Alabama.Jan. 11, 1861. June 11, 1868. 

Florida.Jan. 11, 1861. June 11, 1868. 

Georgia.Jan. 19, 1861. April 20, 1870. 

Louisiana.Jan. 26, 1861. June 11, 1868. 

Texas.Feb. 1, 1861. Mar. 15, 1870. 

Virginia.April 16, 1861. Jan. 15, 1870. 

Arkansas.May 6, 1861. June 20, 1868. 

North Carolina.May 21, 1861. June 11, 1868. 

Tennessee.June 24, 1861. July, 1866. 


The Earthquake of 1811-12.—The earthquake shocks 
felt on the shores of the Lower Mississippi in the years 
1811-12 are recorded as among the most remarkable phe¬ 
nomena of their kind. Similar instances where earth dis¬ 
turbances have prevailed, severely and continuously, far 
from the vicinity of a volcano, are very rare indeed. In this 
instance, over an extent of country stretching for 300 
miles southward from the mouth of the Ohio river, the 
ground rose and sank in great undulations, and lakes 
were formed and again drained. The shocks were attended 
by loud explosions, great fissures—generally traveling 
from northeast to southwest, and sometimes more than 
half a mile in length—were opened in the earth, and from 
these openings mud and water were thrown often to the 
tops of the highest trees. Islands in the Mississippi were 
sunk, the current of the river was driven back by the 
rising of its bed, and overflowed the adjacent lands. More 
than half of New Madrid county was permanently sub¬ 
merged. The inhabitants noticed that these earth move¬ 
ments were sometimes vertical and sometimes horizontal, 
the former being by far the most serious in their effects. 
These disturbances ceased March 26, 1812, simultaneously 
with the great earthquake which destroyed the city of 
Caracas, South America. 

The Dark Day in New England. —On May 19,1780, 
there was a remarkable darkening of the sky and atmos¬ 
phere over a large part of New England, which caused 



































































MULTUM IN PARVO. 


441 


much alarm among those who witnessed it. The darkness 
began between teu and eleven o’clock on the day named, 
and continued in some places through the entire day, and 
was followed by an unusually intense degree of blackness 
during the ensuing night. This phenomenon extended 
from the northeastern part of New England westward as 
far as Albany, and southward to the coast of New Jersey. 
The most incense and prolonged darkness, however, was 
confined to Massachusetts, especially to the eastern half 
of the State. It came up from the southwest, and over¬ 
hung the country like a pall. It was necessary to light 
candles in all the houses, and thousands of good people, 
believing that the end of all things terrestrial had come, 
betook themselves to religious devotions. One incident 
of the occasion has been woven into verse with excellent 
effect by the poet Whittier. The Connecticut Legislature 
was in session on that day, and as the darkness came on 
and grew more and more dense, the members became 
terrified, and thought that the day of judgment had 
come; so a motion was made to adjourn. At this, a Mr. 
Davenport arose and said: “ Mr. Speaker, it is either the 
day of judgment, or it is not. If it is not, there is no 
need of adjourning. If it is, I desire to be found doing 
my duty. I move that candles be brought and that we 
proceed to business.” Mr. Davenport’s suggestion was 
taken, candles were brought in, and business went on as 
usual. As to the explanation of this phenomenon, scien¬ 
tists have been much puzzled. It was plain from the 
falling of the barometer that the air was surcharged with 
heavy vapor. The darkness then, it might be said, was 
only the result of a dense fog, but the question of the 
cause of so remarkable a fog was still unanswered. Omit¬ 
ting this unascertained primary cause, then. Professor 
Williams, of Harvard College, who subsequently made a 
thorough investigation of the matter, gave it as his 
opinion that this unprecedented quantity of vapor had 
gathered in the air in layers so as to cut off the rays of 
light, by repeated refraction, in a remarkable degree. He 
thought that the specific gravity of this vapor must have 
been the same as that of the air, which caused it to be 
held so long in suspension in the atmosphere. In this 
case the extent of the darkness would coincide with the 
area of the vapor, and it would continue until a change 
in the gravity of the air caused the vapors to ascend or 
descend. In some places when the darkness cleared it 
was as if the vapor was lifted and borne away by the wind 
like a dark pall, and in others, after a period of intense 
darkness the atmosphere gradually lightened again. In our 
day, a phenomenon of this kind would be thoroughly inves¬ 
tigated to its most remote possible cause; but then owing 
to the sparse settlement of the country and the difficulties 
of travel, the investigation of distant causes could not be 
made. Large fires may have prevailed that spring in the 
forests of Western New York and Pennsylvania—a region 
then an absolute wilderness—the smoke of which was 
borne through the upper regions of the atmosphere, to 
fall when it came to a locality of less buoyant air, down to 
the lower strata. We say these fires may have recently 
preceded this day, and served as its sufficient cause, but we 
have only presumptive evidence that they did occur. Had 
Professor Williams entertained a supposition of the pre¬ 
vious existence of such fires, he had then no means of 
verifying it, and long before the advent of railroads and 
telegraphs, or even of stage lines, the scientific theories 
of the dark day had passed from the general memory. 

A Short History of the Liberty Bell. —In 1751 the 
Pennsylvania Assembly authorized a committee to procure 
a bell for their State House. November 1st of that year 
an order was sent to London for “a good bell of about 
2,000 pounds weight.” To this order were added the fol¬ 


lowing directions: “Let the bell be cast by the best 
workmen and examined carefully before it is shipped, with 
the following words well shaped in large letters around it, 
viz.: * By order of the Assembly of the Province of 
Pennsylvania, for the State House, in the city of Phila¬ 
delphia, 1752.’ And underneath, ‘Proclaim Liberty 
Through All the Land Unto All the Inhabitants Thereof. 
—Levit. xxv. 10.’” In due time, in the following year, 
the bell reached Philadelphia, but when it was hung, early 
in 1753, as it was being first rung to test the sound, it 
cracked without any apparent reason, and it was necessary 
to have it recast. It was at first thought to be necessary 
to send it back to England for the purpose, but some “ in¬ 
genious workmen” in Philadelphia wished to do the cast¬ 
ing and were allowed to do so. In the first week of June, 
1753, the bell was again hung in the belfry of the State 
House. On July 4, 1776, it was known throughout the 
city that the final decision on the question of declaring 
the colonies independent of Great Britain was to be made 
by the Continental Congress, in session at the State 
House. Accordingly the old bellman had been stationed 
in the belfry on that morning, with orders to ring the 
bell when a boy waiting at the door of the State House 
below should signal to him that the bill for independence 
had been passed. Hour after hour the old man stood at 
his post. At last, at 2 o’clock, when he had about con¬ 
cluded that the question would not be decided on that 
day at least, the watchman heard a shout from below, 
and looking down saw the boy at the door clapping his 
hands and calling at the top of his voice: “Ring! ring!” 
And he did ring, the story goes, for two whole hours, being 
so filled with excitement and enthusiasm that he could 
not stop. When the British threatened Philadelphia, in 
1777, the precious bell was taken down and removed to 
the town of Bethlehem for safety. In 1778 it was 
returned to the State House and a new steeple built for it. 
Several years after it cracked, for some unknown reason, 
under a stroke of the clapper, and its tone was thus 
destroyed. An attempt was made to restore its tone by 
sawing the crack wider, but without success. This bell 
was sent to New Orleans during the winter to be exhibited 
in the World’s Fair there. The Pullman Company gave 
one of their handsomest cars for the transit. It was in 
the charge of three custodians appointed by the Mayor 
of Philadelphia, who did not leave it night or day, and 
guarded it as fully as possible against accident. A pilot 
engine preceded the train carrying the bell over the entire 
route. It left Philadelphia Jan. 24, 1885, and returned 
in June. 

The Antarctic Polar Regions. —The climate of the 
southern polar regions is much more severe than that at 
the north pole, the icefields extending 10 degrees nearer 
the equator from the south than from the north. Within 
the'arctic circle there are tribes of men living on the bor¬ 
ders of the icy ocean on both the east and west hemis¬ 
pheres, but within the antarctic all is one dreary, unin¬ 
habitable waste. In the extreme north the reindeer and 
the musk-ox are found in numbers, but not a single land 
quadruped exists beyond 50 degrees of southern latitude. 
Flowers are seen m summer by the arctic navigator as far 
as 78 degrees north, but no plant of any description, not 
even a moss or a lichen, has been observed beyond Cock- 
burn Island, in 64 degrees 12 minutes south latitude. In 
Spitzbergen, 79 degrees north, vegetation ascends the 
mountain slopes to a height of 3,000 feet, but on every 
land within or near the antarctic circle the snow-line 
descends to the water’s edge. The highest latitude ever 
reached at the south is 78 degrees 10 minutes, while in the 
north navigators have penetrated to 84 degrees. The rea¬ 
son for this remarkable difference is the predominance of 








































442 


MULTUM IN PARVO. 


large tracts of land in the northern regions, while in the 
south is a vast expanse of ocean. In the north continental 
masses form an almost continuous belt around the icj sea, 
while in the southern hemisphere the continents taper 
down into a broad extent of frigid waters. In the north 
the plains of Siberia and of the Hudson’s Bay territories, 
warmed by the sunbeams of summer, become at that sea¬ 
son centers of radiating heat, while the antarctic lands, of 
small extent, isolated in the midst of a polar ocean and 
chilled by cold sea winds, act at every season as refriger¬ 
ators of the atmosphere. Further in the north the cold 
currents of the polar sea, having but two openings of any 
extent through which they can convey drift ice, have their 
chilly influence confined to comparatively narrow limits, 
but the cold currents of the antarctic seas have scope to 
branch out freely on all sides and carry their ice even into 
temperate waters. Finally, at the northern hemisphere, 
the Gulf Stream conveys warmth even to the shores of 
Spitzbergen and Nova Zembla, while on the opposite 
regions of the globe no traces of warm currents have been 
observed beyond 55 degrees of south latitude. 

The Language Used by Christ. —The language used 
by Christ was the Aramaic, the dialect of Northern Syria. 
The Israelites were much in contact with Aramaean popu¬ 
lations, and some words from that tongue became incor¬ 
porated into the Hebrew at a very early date. At the time 
of Hezekiah, Aramaic had become the official language of 
both Judea and Assyria; that is, the language spoken at the 
courts. After the fall of Samaria the Hebrew inhabitants 
of Northern Israel were largely carried into captivity, and 
their place was taken by colonists from Syria, who proba¬ 
bly spoke Aramaic as their mother tongue. The fall of 
the Jewish Kingdom hastened the decay of Hebrew as a 
spoken language—not that the captives forgot their own 
language, as is generally assumed, but after the return to 
Judea the Jews found themselves, a people few in number, 
among a large number of surrounding populations using 
the Aramaic tongue. When the latest books of the Old 
Testament were written, Hebrew, though still the language 
of literature, had been supplanted by Aramaic as the lan¬ 
guage of common life. From that time on the former 
tongue was the exclusive property of scholars, and has no 
history save that of a merely literary language. 

How Ancient Temples and Pyramids Were Built.— 
This is beyond modern conjecture, so imperfect is our 
understanding of the extent of the mechanical knowledge 
of the ancients. Their appliances are believed to have 
been of the simplest order, and their implements exceed- 
m gly crude, and yet they were able to convey these enor- 
mous blocks of stones for vast distances, over routes most 
difficult, and having accomplished this, to raise them to 
great height, and fit them in place without the aid of 
either cement or mortar to cover up the errors of the stone¬ 
cutter. How all this was done is one of the enigmas of 
modern science. It has been generally believed that 
inclined planes of earth were used to enable the workmen 
to raise the huge stones to their places, the earth being 
cleared away afterward. But it is possible that the an¬ 
cients had a more extended knowledge of mechanical powers 
than we usually give them credit for, and that they made 

use of machinery very like that employed by moderns for 
littmg great weights. Large cavities are found in some of 
the stones m the pyramids, which may have been worn by 
the toot of a derrick turning in them. That there were 
enormous numbers of men employed in the building of 
these ancient structures is well known; these results of 
tneir great aggregated strength we see, but they left no 
record ot tne means by which this strength was focused 
and biought most effectually to bear on their mighty 


The First Atlantic Cable. —As early as 1842 Pro¬ 
fessor Morse declared a submarine cable connection be¬ 
tween America and Europe to be among the possibilities, 
but no attempt toward this great achievement was -made 
until 1854, when Cyrus Field established a company, 
which secured the right of landing cables in Newfound¬ 
land for fifty years. In 1858 soundings between Ireland 
and Newfoundland were completed, showing a maximum 
depth of 4,400 meters. Having succeeded in laying a 
cable between Nova Scotia and Newfoundland, Mr. Field 
secured the co-operation of English capitalists in his en¬ 
terprise. The laying of the cable was begun August 7, 
1857, from the port of Valencia, Ireland, but on the third 
day it broke, and the expedition had to return. Early in 
the following year another attempt was made. The cable 
was laid from both ends at the same time, was joined in 
mid-ocean, but in lowering it was broken. Again, in the 
same year, the attempt was made, and this time connection 
was successfully made. The first message over the line 
was sent August 7, 1858. The insulation of this cable, 
however, was defective, and by September 4th had quite 
failed. Some time was now spent in experiments, con¬ 
ducted by scientists, to secure a more perfect cable. A 
new company was formed, and in 1865 the work again be¬ 
gan. The Great Eastern was employed to lay the cable, 
but when it was partly laid serious defects in the line were 
discovered and in repairing these it broke. The apparatus 
for recovering the wire proving insufficient the vessel re¬ 
turned to England. A new company, called the Anglo- 
American, was formed in 1866, and again the Great East¬ 
ern was equipped for the enterprise. The plan of the new 
expedition was not only to lay a new cable, but also to 
take up the end of the old one and join it to a new piece, 
thus obtaining a second telegraph line. The vessel sailed 
from Valencia July 13, 1866, and July 27 the cable was 
completely laid to Heart's Content, Newfoundland, and a 
message announcing the fact sent over the wire to Lord 
Stanley. Queen Victoria sent a message of congratulation 
to President Buchanan on the 28th. September 2d the 
lost cable of 1865 was recovered and its laying completed 
at Newfoundland September 8, 1866. 

Engraving on Eggs. —The art of engraving on eggs 
is very puzzling to the uninitiated, but in reality it is very 
simple. It merely consists in writing upon the egg-shell 
with wax or varnish, or simply with tallow, and then im¬ 
mersing the egg in some weak acid, such, for example, as 
vinegar, dilute hydrochloric acid, or etching liquor. 
Wherever the varnish or wax has not protected the shell, 
the lime of the latter is decomposed and dissolved in the 
acid, and the writing or drawing remains in relief. In 
connection with this art a curious incident is told in his¬ 
tory. In the month of August, 1808, at the time of the 
Spanish war, there was found in a church in Lisbon an 
egg, on which was plainly foretold the utter destruction 
of the French, who then had control of the city. The 
story of the wonderful prophecy spread through the town, 
causing the greatest excitement among the superstitious 
populace, and a general uprising was expected. This, 
however, the French commander cleverly thwarted by 
causing a counter-prophecy, directly denying the first, to 
be engrossed on several hundred eggs, which were then 
distributed in various parts of the city. The astonished 
Portuguese did. not know what to think of this new phe¬ 
nomenon, but its “ numerousness,” if we may so call it, 
caused it to altogether outweigh the influence of the first 
prediction, and there were no further symptoms of revolt 
against the French. 

Cayenne Pepper.— The name of the plant genus from 
which cayenne pepper is obtained is capsicum, a name also 
given to the product of the plant. This genus belongs to 


























































MULTUM IN' PARVO. 


443 


the solanaceae, or night shade family, and has no relation 
to the family piperacese, which produces the shrub yield¬ 
ing black pepper. The plant which yields cayenne pepper 
is identical with the common red pepper of our gardens. 
It is an annual, a native of tropical countries, where it 
thrives luxuriantly even in the dryest soils, but it is also 
cultivated in other parts of the world. It grows to the 
height of two or three feet, and bears a fruit in the shape 
of a conical pod or seed-vessel, which is green when im¬ 
mature, but bright scarlet or orange when ripe. This pod, 
with its seeds, has a very pungent taste, and is used when 
green for pickling, and when ripe and dried is ground to 
powder to make cayenne pepper, or is used for medicine. 
This powder has a strongly stimulating effect, and is be¬ 
lieved to aid digestion. It is also employed externally to 
excite the action of the skin. 

The Big Trees of California. —There are several 
groves of Big Trees in California, the most famous of 
which are the Calaveras grove and the Mariposa grove. 
The Calaveras grove occupies what may be described 
as a band or belt 3,200 feet long and 700 in width. It is be¬ 
tween two slopes, in a depression in the mountains, and 
has a stream winding through it, which runs dry in the 
summer time. In this grove the Big Trees number 
ninety-three, besides a great many smaller ones, which 
would be considered very large if it were not for the pre¬ 
sence of these monarchs of the forest. Several of the Big 
Trees have fallen since the grove was discovered, one has 
been cut down, and one had the bark stripped from it to 
the height 116 feet from the ground. The highest now 
standing is the “ Keystone State,” 325 feet high and 45 
feet in circumference; and the largest and finest is the 
“ Empire State.” There are four trees over 300 feet in 
height, and 40 to 61 feet in circumferenbe. The tree 
which was cut down occupied five men twenty-two days, 
which would be at the rate of one man 110 days, or nearly 
four months’work, not counting Sundays. Pump augers 
were used for boring through the giant. After the trunk 
was severed from the stump it required five men with im¬ 
mense wedges for three days to topple it over. The bark 
was eighteen inches thick. The tree would have yielded 
more than 1,000 cords of four-foot wood and 100 cords of 
bark, or more than 1,100 cords in all. On the stump of 
the tree was built a house, thirty feet in diameter, which 
the Rev. A. H. Tevis, an observant traveler, says con¬ 
tains room enough in square feet, if it were the right 
shape, for a parlor 12x16 feet, a dining-room 10x12, a 
kitchen 10x12, two bed-rooms 10 feet square each, a pan¬ 
try 4x8, two clothes-presses 1£ feet deep and 4 feet wide, 
and still have a little to spare! The Mariposa grove is part 
of a grant made by Congress to be set apart for public use, 
resort and recreation forever. The area of the grant is 
two miles square and comprises two distinct groves about 
half a mile apart. The upper grove contains 365 trees, 
of which 154 are over fifteen feet in diameter, besides a 
great number of smaller ones. The average height of the 
Mariposa trees is less than that of the Calaveras, the high¬ 
est Mariposa tree being 272 feet; but the average size of 
the Mariposa is greater than that of Calaveras. The 
“ Grizzly Giant,” in the lower grove, is 94 feet in circum¬ 
ference and 31 feet in diameter; it has been decreased by 
burning. Indeed, the forests at times present a somewhat 
unattractive appearance, as, in the past, the Indians, to 
help them in their hunting, burned off the chaparral and 
rubbish, and thus disfigured many of these splendid trees 
by burning off nearly all the bark. The first branch of 
the “Grizzly Giant” is nearly two hundred feet from the 
ground and is six feet in diameter. The remains of a tree, 
now prostrate, indicate that it had reached a diameter of 
about forty feet and a height of 400 feet; the trunk is hol¬ 


low and will admit of the passage of three horsemen riding 
abreast. There are about 125 trees of over forty feet in 
circumference. Besides these two main groves there are 
the Tolumne grove, with thirty big trees; the Fresno 
grove, with over eight hundred spread over an area 
of two and a half miles long and one to two broad; 
and the Stanislaus grove, the Calaveras group, with from 
700 to 800. There should be named in this connection 
the petrified forest near Calitoga, which contains portions 
of nearly one hundred distinct trees of great size, scat¬ 
tered over a tract of three or four miles in extent; the 
largest of this forest is eleven feet in diameter at the base 
and sixty feet long. It is conjectured that these prostrate 
giants were silicified by the eruption of the neighboring 
Mount St. Helena, which discharged hot alkaline waters 
containing silica in solution. This petrified forest is con¬ 
sidered one of the great natural wonders of California. 

History of the City of Jerusalem. —The earliest 
name of Jerusalem appears to have been Jebus, or poeti¬ 
cally, Salem, and its king in Abraham’s time was Melchize- 
dek. When the Hebrews took possession of Canaan, the 
city of Salem was burned, but the fortress remained in 
the hands of the Jebusites till King David took it by 
storm and made it the capital of his kingdom. From that 
time it was called Jerusalem. During the reigns of David 
and Solomon it attained its highest degree of power. 
When ten of the Jewish tribes seceded under Jeroboam 
they made Shechem (and later Samaria) the capital of 
their kingdom of Israel, and Jerusalem remained the capi¬ 
tal of the smaller but more powerful kingdom of Judah. 
The city was taken by Shishak, King of Egypt, in 971 B. C., 
was later conquered and sacked by Joash, King of Israel, 
and in the time of Ahaz, the King of Syria came against 
it with a large force, but could not take it. The city was 
besieged in Hezekiah’s reign, by the army of Sennacherib, 
King of Assyria, but was saved by the sudden destruction 
of the invading army. After the death of Josiah, the city 
was tributary for some years to the King of Egypt, but 
was taken after repeated attempts by the Babylonians 
under Nebuchadnezzar in 586 B. C., and was left a heap 
of ruins. The work of rebuilding it began by order of 
King Cyrus about 538 B. C., who allowed the Jewish peo¬ 
ple who had been carried into captivity to return for this 
purpose. From this time Jerusalem enjoyed comparative 
peace for several hundred years and grew to be an import¬ 
ant commercial city. When Alexander invaded Syria it sub¬ 
mitted to him without resistance. After his death it be¬ 
longed for a time to Egypt and in 198 B. C., passed with 
the rest of Judea under the rule of Syria. Antiochus the 
Great ruled it with mildness and justice, but the tyranny 
of his son, Antiochus Epiphanes, brought about the revolt, 
headed by the Maccabees, through which Jerusalem gained 
a brief independence. In 63 B. C., Pompey the Great 
took the city, demolished the walls and killed thousands 
of the people, but did not plunder it. However, nine 
years later Crassus robbed the temple of all its treasures. 
The walls were soon after rebuilt under Antipater, the 
Roman procurator, but when Herod came to rule over the 
city with the title of King, given him by the Roman Sen¬ 
ate, he was resisted and only took possession after an 
obstinate siege, which was followed by the massacre of 
great numbers of the people. Herod improved and en¬ 
larged the city, and restored the temple on a more mag¬ 
nificent scale than in Solomon’s time. Jerusalem is said 
at this time to have had a population of over 200,000. 
This period of wealth and prosperity was also rendered 
most memorable for Jerusalem by the ministry and cruci¬ 
fixion of Christ. About A. D. 66, the Jews, goaded to 
desperation by the tranny of the Romans, revolted, garri¬ 
soned Jerusalem, and defeated a Roman army sent against 














































444 


MULTUM IK PARYO. 


them. This was the beginning of the disastrous war which 
ended with the destruction of the city. It was taken by 
Titus, in the year 70, after a long siege, all the inhabitants 
were massacred, or made prisoners, and the entire city left 
a heap of ruins. The Emperor Hadrian built on the site 
of Jerusalem a Roman city, under the name of Elia Capi¬ 
tolina, with a temple of Jupiter, and Jews were forbidden 
to enter the city under pain of death. Under Constantine 
it was made a^place of pilgrimage for Christians, as the 
Emperor’s mother, Helena, had with much pains located 
the various sites of events in the history of Christ. The 
Emperor Julian, on the contrary, not only allowed the 
Jews to return to their city, but also made an attempt, 
which ended in failure, to rebuild their temple. In 614 
the Persian Emperor Chosroes invaded the Roman empire. 
The Jews joined his army, and after conquering the north¬ 
ern part of Palestine, the united forces laid siege to and 
took Jerusalem. The Jews wreaked vengeance on the 
Christians for what they had been forced to endure, and 
20,000 people were massacred. The Persians held rule in 
the city for fourteen years; it was then taken by the 
Romans again, but in 636 the Caliph Omar beseiged it. 
After four months the city capitulated. It was under the 
rule of the Caliphs for 400 years, until the Seljuk Turks 
in 1077 invaded Syria and made it a province of their 
empire. Christian pilgrims had for many years kept up the 
practice of visiting tne tomb of Christ, as the Caliphs did 
not interfere with their devotions any further than by exact¬ 
ing a small tribute from each visitor. But the cruelties 
practiced upon the pilgrims by the Turks were many, and 
report of them soon roused all Europe to a pitch of indig¬ 
nation, and brought about that series of holy wars, which 
for a time restored the holy sepulcher into Christian hands. 
Jerusalem was stormed and taken July 15, 1099, and 
50,000 Moslems were slaughtered by their wrathful Chris¬ 
tian foes. The new sovereignty was precariously main¬ 
tained until 1187, when it fell before the power of Saladin. 
Jerusalem, after a siege of twelve days, surrendered. 
Saladin, however, did not put his captives to death, but 
contented himself with expelling them from the city. 
Jerusalem passed into the hands of the Franks by treaty, 
in 1229, was retaken by the Moslems in 1239, once more 
restored in 1243, and finally conquered in 1244 by a horde 
of Kharesmian Turks. In 1517 Palestine was conquered 
by Sultan Selin I., and since then has been under the rule 
of the Ottoman Empire, except for a brief period—from 
1832 to 1840, when it was in the hands of Mahomet Ali, 
Pasha of Egypt, and his son Ibrahim had his seat of 
government in Jerusalem. 

The Black Death.— This great plague, known as the 
<( Black Death,” was the most deadly epidemic ever known. 
It is believed to have been an aggravated outburst of the 
Oriental plague, which from the earliest records of history 
has periodically appeared in Asia and Northern Africa. 
There had been a visitation of the plague in Europe in 
1342; the Black Death, in terrible virulence, appeared in 
1348-9; it also came in milder form in 1361-2, and again 
in 1369. The prevalence and severity of the pestilence 
during this century is ascribed to the disturbed conditions 
of the elements that preceded it. For a number of years 
Asia and Europe had suffered from mighty earthquakes 
furious tornadoes, violent floods, clouds of locusts darken¬ 
ing the air and poisoning it with their corrupting bodies. 
Whether these natural disturbances were the cause of the 
plague is not certainly known, but many writers on the 
.subject regard the connection as both probable and possible. 
I he disease was brought from the Orient to Constantino¬ 
ple, and early in 1347 appeared in Sicily and several coast 
towns of Italy. After a brief pause the pestilence broke 
out at Avignon in January, 1348; advanced thence to 


Southern France, Spain and Northern Italy. Passing 
through France and visiting, but not yet ravaging, Ger¬ 
many, it made its way to England, cutting down its first 
victims at Dorset, in August, 1348. Thence it traveled 
slowly, reaching London early in the winter. Soon it 
embraced the entire kingdom, penetrating to every rural 
hamlet, so that England became a mere pest-house. The 
chief symptoms of the disease are described as “spitting, 
in some cases actual vomiting, of blood, the breaking out 
of inflammatory boils in parts, or over the whole of the 
body, and the appearance of those dark blotches upon the 
skin which suggested its most startling name. Some of 
the victims died almost on the first attack, some in twelve 
hours, some in two days, almost all within the first three 
days.” The utter powerlessness of medical skill before the 
disease was owing partly to the physicians’ ignorance of 
its nature, and largely to the effect of the spirit of terror 
which hung like a pall over men’s minds. After some 
months had passed, the practice of opening the hard boils 
was adopted, with very good effect, and many lives were 
thus saved. But the havoc wrought by the disease in Eng¬ 
land was terrible. It is said that 100,000 persons died in 
London, nearly 60,000 in Norwich, and proportionate 
numbers in other cities. These figures seem incredible, 
but a recent writer, who has spent much time in the inves¬ 
tigation of records, asserts that at least half the popula¬ 
tion, or about 2,500,000 souls, of England perished in this 
outbreak. The ravages of the pestilence over the rest of 
the world were no less terrible. Germany is said to have 
lost 1,244,434 victims; Italy, over half the population. 
On a moderate calculation, it may be assumed that there 
perished in Europe during the first appearance of the 
Black Death, fully 25,000,000 human beings. Concerning 
the Orient we have less reliable records, but 13,000,000 are 
said to have died in China, and 24,000,000 in the rest of 
Asia and adjacent islands. The plague also ravaged North¬ 
ern Africa, but of its course there little is known. The 
horrors of that dreadful time were increased by the fear¬ 
ful persecutions visited on the Jews, who were accused of 
having caused the pestilence by poisoning the public wells. 
The people rose to exterminate the hapless race, and killed 
them by fire and torture wherever found. It is impossible 
for us to conceive of the actual horror of such times. 

Mighty Hammers.— An authority on scientific sub¬ 
jects give the weights of the great hammers used in the 
iron works of Europe, and their date of manufacture, as 
follows: At the Terni Works, Italy, the heaviest hammer 
weighs 50 tons, and was made in 1873; one at Alexan- 
drovski, Russia, was made the following year of like 
weight. In 1877, one was finished at Creusot Works, 
France, weighing 80 tons; in 1885, one at the Cockerill 
Works, Belgium, of 100 tons, and in 1886, at the Krupp 
Works, Essen, Germany, one of 150 tons. The latter be¬ 
ing the heaviest hammer in the world. 

Assassination of President Garfield. —July 2> 
1881, at 9:25 a. m., as President Garfield was entering the 
Baltimore & Potomac Railroad depot at Washington, pre¬ 
paratory to taking the cars for a two weeks’ jaunt in New 
England, he was fired upon and severely wounded by 
Charles Jules Guiteau, a native of Illinois, but of French 
descent. The scene of the assassination was the ladies’ 
reception-room at the station. The President and Mr. 
Blaine, arm in arm, were walking slowly through the aisle 
between two rows of benches on either side of the 
room; when Guiteau entered by a side door on the left of 
the gentlemen, passed quickly around the back of the 
benches till directly behind the President, and fired the 
shot that struck his arm. Mr. Garfield walked about ten 
feet to the end of the aisle, and was in the act of turning 
to face his assailant when the second shot struck him in 













































MULTUM IN PARVO. 


445 





the small of the back, and he fell. The assassin was 
immediately seized and taken to jail. The wounded pres¬ 
ident was conveyed in an ambulance to the White House. 
As he was very faint, the first fear was of internal hemor¬ 
rhage, which might cause speedy death. But as he rallied 
in a few hours, this danger was thought to be averted and 
inflammation was now feared. But as symptoms of this 
failed to appear, the surgeons in attendance concluded that 
no important organ had been injured, that the bullet 
would become encysted and harmless, or might possibly 
be located and successfully removed. By the 10th of July, 
the reports were so favorable, that the president’s recovery 
was regarded as certain, and public thanksgivings were 
offered in several of the States, by order of the governors, 
for his deliverance. The first check in the favorable 
symptoms occurred on July 18, and July 23 there was a 
serious relapse, attended with chills and fever. The 
wound had been frequently probed but without securing 
any favorable result. The induction balance was used to 
locate the ball, and was regarded as a success, though 
subsequently its indications were known to have been alto¬ 
gether erroneous. The probings, therefore, in what was 
assumed to be the track of the ball, only increased the 
unfavorable symptoms. During the entire month of 
August these reports were alternately hopeful and dis¬ 
couraging, the dangerous indications being generally on 
the increase. By August 25, his situation was understood 
to be very critical, though an apparent improvement on 
the 26th and 28th again aroused hope. At his own earnest 
desire the president was removed, September 6, to Elberon 
Park, near Long Branch, N. J., in the hope that the 
cooler air of the seaside might renew his strength more 
rapidly. However, the improvement hoped for did not 
appear. On September 16, there was a serious relapse, 
with well-marked symptoms of blood poisoning, and Sep¬ 
tember 19 the president died. A post-mortem examina¬ 
tion showed that the ball, after fracturing one of the ribs, 
had passed through the spinal column, fracturing the body 
of one of the vertebra, driving a number of small frag¬ 
ments of bone into the soft parts adjacent, and lodging 
below the pancreas, where it had become completely 
encysted. The immediate cause of death was hemorrhage 
from one of the small arteries in the track of the ball, but 
the principal cause was the poisoning of the blood from 
suppuration. 

Coins of Foreign Countries. —The following care¬ 
fully prepared summary indicates the coins in use in the 
various countries, taking their names in alphabetical 
order: 

Argentine Republic—Gold coins: 20 peso piece, $19.94; 
10 pesos, $9.97; 5 pesos, $4.98. Silver: 1 peso, 99 cents. 
The copper coin of the country is the centisimo, 100 of 
which make a peso or dollar. 

Austria—Gold coins: 8 gulden piece, $3.86; 4 gulden, 
$1.93. Silver: Marie Theresa thaler, $1.02; 2 gulden, 96 
cents; 1 gulden, 48 cents; £ gulden, 12 cents; 20 kreutzer, 
10 cents; 10 kreutzer, 5 cents. Of the small copper coin 
current, known as the kreutzer, 100 make a gulden. 

Brazil—Gold coins: 20 milrei piece, $10.91; 10 milreis, 
$5.45. Silver: 2 milreis, $1.09; 1 milreis, 55 cents; •§• 
milreis, 27 cents. The Portuguese rei is used for copper 
money, worth about £ of a cent. 

Chili—Gold coin: 10 pesos (or 1 condor), $9.10; 5 pesos, 
$4.55; 2 pesos, $1.82. Silver; 1 peso, 91 cents; 50 centa¬ 
vos, 45 cents; 20 centavos 18 cents; 10 centavos, 9 cents; 
5 centavos, 4 cents. The copper coin is 1 centavo, 100th 
of a peso. 

Colombia—Gold coins: Twenty peso piece, $19.30; 10 
pesos, $9.65; 5 pesos, $4.82; 2 pesos, $1.93. Silver: 1 
peso, 96 cents; 20 centavos, 19 cents; 10 centavos, 10 cents; 



5 centavos, 5 cents. The copper centavo of Colombia is 
identical in value with our cent. (Thecurrency of Coloum- 
bia is also used in Venezuela.) 

Denmark—Gold coins: Twenty kroner piece, $5.36; 10 
kroner, $2.68. Silver: Two kroner, 53 cents; 1 krone, 27 
cents; 50 ore, 13 cents; 40 ore, 10 cents; 25 ore, 6-£ cents; 
10 ore, 2% cents. One hundred of the copper ore make one 
krone. 

France—Gold coins: One hundred franc piece, $19.30; 
50 francs, $9.65; 20 francs, $3.85; 10 francs, 1.93; 5 
francs, 96 cents. Silver: Five francs, 96 cents; 2 francs, 38 
cents; 1 franc, 19 cents; 50 centimes, 10 cents; 20 cen¬ 
times, 4 cents. The copper coins are the sou, worth about 
9-£ mills, and the centime, 2 mills. 

Germany—Gold coins: Twenty-mark piece, $4.76; 10 
marks, $2.38; 5 marks, $1.19. Silver: Five marks, $1.19; 
2 marks, 48 cents; 1 mark 24 cents; 50 pfennige, 12 cents; 
20 pfennige, 5 cents. One hundred copper pfennige make 
one mark. 

Great Britain—Gold coins: Pound or sovereign, $4.86; 
guinea, $5.12. Silver: Five shillings or crown, $1.25; 
half crown, 62|- cents; shilling, 25 cents; sixpence, 12£ 
cents. Also a three-penny piece and a four-penny piece, 
but the latter is being called in, and is nearly out of cir¬ 
culation. The copper coins of Great Britain are the penny, 
half-penny and farthing. 

India—Gold coins: Thirty rupees or double mohur, 
$14.58; 15 rupees or mohur, $7.29; 10 rupees, $4.86; 5 
rupees, $2.43. Silver: One rupee, 48 cents, and coins 
respectively of the value of one-half, one-fourth and one- 
eighth rupee. In copper there is the pie, one-fourth of a 
cent; the pice, f of a cent; the ana, 3 cents. 

Japan—Gold coins: Twenty yen, $19.94; 10 yen, $9.97; 
5 yen, $4.98; 2 yen, $1.99; 1 yen, 99 cents. Silver: The 
50, 20, 10 and 5 sen pieces, answering respectively to 50, 
20, 10 and 5 cents. In copper there is the sen, answer¬ 
ing to 1 cent. 

Mexico—Gold coins: Sixteen dollar piece, $15.74; 8 dol¬ 
lars, $7.87; 4 dollars, $3.93; 2 dollars, $1.96; 1 dollar 98 
cents. Silver: 1 dollar, 98 cents; 50-cent piece, 49 cents; 
25 cents, 24 cents. The Mexican cent, like our own, 
equals one-hundreth of a dollar. 

Netherlands—Gold coins: Ten-guilder piece, $4.02; 5 
guilders, $2.01. Silver: 2£ guilders, $1; 1 guilder, 40 
cents; half-guilder, 20 cents; 25 cents, 10 cents; 10 cents, 
4 cents; 5 cents, 2 cents. The Dutch copper cent is one- 
hundreth of the guilder. 

Peru—Gold coins: Twenty-sol piece, $19.30; 10 sol, 
$9.65; 5 sol, $4.82; 2 sol, $1.93; 1 sol, 96 cents. Silver: 
1 sol, 96 cents; 50 centesimos, 48 cents; 20, 10 and 5 cen- 
tesimos, worth respectively 19, 10 and 5 cents. It will be 
noted that the Peruvian coinage is almost identical with 
that of Colombia. It is also used in Bolivia. 

Portugal—Gold coins: Crown, $10.80; half-crown, 
$5.40; one-fifth crown, $2.16; one-tenth crown, $1.08. 
These gold pieces are also known respectively as 10, 5, 2 
and 1 dollar pices. The silver coins are the 500, 200, 100 
and 5 reis coins, worth respectively 54, 21, 11 and 5 cents. 
One thousand reis are equal to one crown. 

Russia—Gold coins: Imperial or 10-ruble piece, $7.72; 5 
rubles, $3.86; 3 rubles, $2.31. Silver: ruble, 77 cents; 
half-ruble, 38 cents; quarter-ruble, 19 cents; 20 copecks, 
15 cents; 10 copecks, 7 cents; 5 copecks, 4 cents; 100 
copecks are worth 1 ruble. 

Turkey—Gold coins: Lira or medjidie, $4.40; half-lira, 
$2.20; quarter-lira, $1.10. The silver unit is the piastre, 
worth 4 cents of our currency, and silver coins of 1, 2, 5, 
10 and 20 piastres are current. 

The currency of Denmark is also in use in Norway and 
Sweden, these three countries forming the Scandinavian 

















































446 


MULTUM IX PARVO. 



\ 


Union. Belgium, France, Greece, Italy, Roumania, Ser- 
via, Spain and Switzerland are united in the Latin Union, 
and use the French coinage. The units in the different 
States are, it is true, called by different names; as in France, 
Belgium and Switzerland, franc and centime; in Italy, lira 
and centesimo; in Greece, drachm and lej)ta; inRoumania, 
lei and bani; in Servia, dinar and para; in Spain, peseta 
and centesimo; but in all cases the value is the same.. 

The similarity in the coinage of different countries is 
worth notice. A very slight change in the percentage of 
silver used would render the half-guilder of Austria, the 
krone of the Scandinavian Union, the franc of the Latin 
Union, the mark of Germany, the half-guilder of Holland, 
the quarter-ruble of Russia, the 200-reis piece of Portugal, 
the 5-piastre piece of Turkey, the half-milreis of Brazil 
and the half-rupee of India, all interchangeable with the 
English shilling, and all of them about the value of the 
quarter-dollar of North and South American coinage. 
With the exception of Brazil, the other South American 
States, as well as Mexico and the Central American coun¬ 
tries, are all rapidly approximating a uniform coinage, 
•which the needs of commerce will unquestionably soon 
harmonize with that of the United States. Curiously 
enough, the great force that is assimilating the alien 
branches of the human race is not Christianity but trade. 

A History of the Panic of 1857.—The cause of the 
panic of 1857 was mainly the rage for land speculation 
Avhich had run through the country liko an epidemic. 
Paper cities abounded, unproductive railroads were opened, 
and to help forward these projects, irresponsible banks 
were started, or good banks found themselves drawn into 
an excessive issue of notes. Every one was anxious to 
invest in real estate and become rich by an advance in 
prices. Capital was attracted into this speculation by the 
prospect of large gains, and so great was the demand for 
money that there was a remarkable advance in the rates of 
interest. In the West, where the speculative fever was at 
its highest, the common rates of interest were from 2 to ft 
per cent, a month. Everything was apparently in the 
most prosperous condition, real estate going up steadily, 
the demand for money constant, and its manufacture by 
the banks progressing successfully, when the failure of 
the “Ohio Life and Trust Company,” came, August 24, 
1857, like a thunderbolt from a clear sky. This was fol¬ 
lowed by the portentous mutterings of a terrible coming 
storm. One by one small banks in Illinois, Ohio, and 
everywhere throughout the West and South went down. 
September 25-26 the banks of Philadelphia suspended 
payment, and thus wrecked hundreds of banks in Pennsyl¬ 
vania, Maryland and adjoining States. October 13-14, 
after a terrible run on them by thousands of depositors, 
the banks of New York suspended payment. October 14 
all the banks of Massachusetts went down, followed by a 
general wreckage of credit throughout New England. 
The distress which followed these calamities was very 
great, tens of thousands of workmen being unemployed 
for months. The New York banks resumed payment 
again December 12, and were soon followed by the banks 
in other cities. The darkest period of the crisis now 
seemed past, although there was much heartrending suf¬ 
fering among the poor during the winter which followed. 
The commercial reports for the year 1857 showed 5,123 
commercial failures, with liabilities amounting to $291 - 
750,000. 

The History of Plymouth Rock.—A flat rock near 
the vicinity of New Plymouth is said to have been the one 
on which the great body of the Pilgrims landed from the 
Mayflower. The many members of the colony, who died 
in the winter of 1620-21, were buried near" this rock. 
About 1738 it was proposed to build a wharf along the 


shore there. At this time there lived in New Plymouth 
an old man over 90 years of age named Thomas Faunce, 
who had known some of the Mayflower’s passengers when 
a lad, and by them had been shown the rock on which 
they had landed. On hearing that it was to be covered 
with a wharf the old man wept, and it has been said that 
his tears probably saved Plymouth Rock from oblivion. 
After the Revolution it was found that the rock was quite 
hidden by the sand washed upon it by the sea. The sand 
was cleared away, but in attempting to take up the rock 
it was split in two. The upper half was taken to the vil¬ 
lage and placed in the town square. In 1834 it was 
removed to a position in front of Pilgrim Hall and enclosed 
in an iron railing. In September, 1880, this half of the 
stone was taken back to the shore and reunited to the 
other portion. A handsome archway was then built over 
the rock, to protect it in part from the depredations of 
relic hunters. 

Grant’s Tour Around the World. —General Grant 
embarked on a steamer at the Philadelphia wharf for his 
tour around the world May 17, 1877. He arrived at Queens¬ 
town, Ireland, May 27. Thence he went to Liverpool, 
Manchester, and on to London. He remained in that city 
several weeks, and was made the recipient of the most 
brilliant social honors. July 5th he went to Belgium, and 
thence made a tour through Germany and Switzerland. 
He then visited Denmark, and August 25 returned to 
Great Britain, and until October spent the time in visiting 
the various cities of Scotland and England. October 24th 
he started for Paris, where he remained a month, then 
went on to Lyons, thence to Naples, and subsequently with 
several friends he made a trip on the Mediterranean, visit¬ 
ing the islands of Sicily, Malta and others. Thence going 
to Egypt, the pyramids and other points of note were vis¬ 
ited, and a journey made up the Nile as far as the first 
cataract. The programme of travel next included a visit 
to Turkey and the Holy Land, whence, in March, the party 
came back to Italy through Greece, revisited Naples, went 
to Turin and back to Paris. After a few weeks spent in 
the social gayeties of that city, the Netherlands was chosen 
as the next locality of interest, and The Hague, Rotterdam, 
and Amsterdam were visited in turn. June 26, 1878, the 
General and his party arrived in Berlin. After staying 
there some weeks they went to Christiana and Stockholm, 
then to St. Petersburg, Moscow and Warsaw, and back over 
German soil to Vienna. Another trip was now made 
through Switzerland, and, then returning to Paris, a start 
was made for a journey through Spain and Portugal, in 
which Victoria, Madrid, Lisbon, Seville and other impor¬ 
tant towns were visited. A trip was also made from Cadiz 
to Gibraltar by steamer. After another brief visit to Paris, 
General Grant went to Ireland, arriving at Dublin January 
3, 1879; visited several points of interest in that country, 
then, by way of London and Paris, went to Marseilles, 
whence he set sail by way of the Mediterranean Sea and the 
Suez Canal for India. He reached Bombay February 13th. 
Thence visited Allahabad, Agra and rode on an elephant 
to Amber; also went to Benares, Delhi, Calcutta and Ran¬ 
goon, spent a week in Siam, then went by steamer to China. 
After spending some time at Canton, Pekin and other 
places he went to Japan for a brief visit. He went to 
Nagasaki, Tokio and Yokahama, and at last, September 
3, 1879, set sail from Tokio on his return to the United 
States. September 20th he arrived in the harbor of San 
Francisco. After some weeks spent in visiting the points 
of interest in California and Oregon he returned to his 
home in the Eastern States. 

History of Vassar College. —Vassar College is on the 
east bank of the Hudson, near Poughkeepsie, N. Y. It was 
founded in 1861. In that year Matthew Vassar, a wealthy 















































MULTUM IN PARYO. 


447 


brewer of Poughkeepsie, gave to an incorporated board of 
trustees the sum of $408,000 and 200 acres of land for the 
endowment of a college for women. The building was 
constructed from plans approved by him, at a cost of about 
$200,000. The college was opened in September, 1865, 
with eight professors and twenty other instructors, and 300 
students. The first president of the college was Professor 
Milo P. Jewett; the second Dr. John II. Raymond; the 
third, the Rev. Samuel Caldwell. The college has a fine 
library, with scientific apparatus and a museum of natural 
history specimens. 

The Origin of Chess. —So ancient is chess, the most 
purely intellectual of games, that its origin is wrapped in 
mystery. The Hindoos say that it was the invention of 
an astronomer, who lived more than 5,000 years ago, and 
was possessed of supernatural knowledge and acuteness. 
Greek historians assert that the game was invented by 
Palamedes to beguile the tedium of the siege of Troy. 
The Arab legend is that it was devised for the instruction 
of a young despot by his father, a learned Brahmin, to 
teach the youth that a king, no matter how powerful, was 
dependent upon his subjects for safety. The probability 
is that the game was the invention of some military genius 
for the purpose of illustrating the art of war. There is 
no doubt that it originated in India, for a game called by 
the Sanscrit name of Cheturanga—which in most essential 
points strongly resembles modern chess, and was unques¬ 
tionably the parent of the latter game—is mentioned in 
Oriental literature as in use fully 2,000 years before the 
Christian area. In its gradual diffusion over the world 
the game has undergone many modifications and changes, 
but marked resemblances to the early Indian game are 
still to be found in it. From India, chess spread into 
Persia, and thence into Arabia, and the Arabs took it to 
Spain and the rest of Western Europe. 

The Dark Ages. —The Dark Ages is a name often ap¬ 
plied by historians to the Middle Ages, a term comprising 
about 1,000 years, from the fall of the Roman Empire in 
the fifth century to the invention of printing in the 
fifteenth. The period is called “ dark” because of the gen¬ 
erally depraved state of European society at this time, the 
subserviency of men’s minds to priestly domination, and 
the general indifference to learning. The admirable civil¬ 
ization that Rome had developed and fostered, was swept 
out of existence by the barbarous invaders from Northern 
Europe, and there is no doubt that the first half of the 
medieval era, at least, from the year 500 to 1000, was one 
of the most brutal and ruffianly epochs in history. The 
principal characteristics of the middle ages were the feudal 
system and the papal power. By the first the common 
people were ground into a condition of almost hopeless 
slavery, by the second the evolution of just and equitable 
governments by the ruling classes was rendered impossible 
through the intrusion of the pontifical authority into civil 
affairs. Learning did not wholly perish, but it betook it¬ 
self to the seclusion of the cloisters. The monasteries were 
the resort of many earnest scholars, and there were pre¬ 
pared the writings of historians, metaphysicians and theo¬ 
logians. But during this time man lived, as the historian 
Symonds says, “enveloped in a cowl.” The study of 
nature was not only ignored but barred, save only as it 
ministered in the forms of alchemy and astrology to the 
one cardinal medieval virtue—credulity. Still the period 
saw many great characters and events fraught with the 
greatest importance to the advancement of the race. 

The Greatest Depth of the Ocean ever Meas¬ 
ured. —The deepest verified soundings are those made in 
the Atlantic Ocean, ninety miles off the island of St. 
Thomas, in the West Indies, 3,875 fathoms, or 23,250 feet. 
Deeper water has been reported south of the Grand Bank 


of Newfoundland, over 27,000 feet in depth, but additional 
soundings in that locality did not corroborate this. Some 
years ago, it was claimed that very deep soundings, from 
45,000 to 48,000 feet, had been found off the coast of South 
America, but this report was altogether discredited on ad¬ 
ditional investigation in these localities. The ship Chal¬ 
lenger, which in 1872-74 made a voyage round the globe 
for the express purpose of taking deep sea soundings in all 
the oceans, found the greatest depth touched in the Pacific 
Ocean less than 3,000 fathoms, and the lowest in the At¬ 
lantic 3,875 fathoms, as given above. 

The Army of the Revolution. —It is not positively 
known how many men from the colonies served in the war. 
The official tabular statement indicates a total of recorded 
years of enlistment and not a total of the men who served. 
Ilence, a man who served from April 19, 1775, until the 
formal cessation of hostilities, April 19, 1783, counted as 
eight men in the aggregate. In this basis of enlisted 
years, the following table gives the contributions of the va¬ 
rious States: New Hampshire, 12,497; Massachusetts, 
69,907; Rhode Island, 5,908; Connecticut, 31,939; New 
York, 17,781; New Jersey, 10,726; Pennsylvania, 25,- . 
678; Delaware, 2,386; Maryland, 13,912; Virginia,26,- 
678; North Carolina, 7,263; South Carolina, 6,417; 
Georgia, 2,679; Total, 233,771. 

The World’s Decisive Battles. —The fifteen decis¬ 
ive battles of the world from the fifth century before 
Christ to the beginning of the nineteenth century of the 
present era, are as follows: 

The battle of Marathon, in which the Persian hosts 
were defeated by the Greeks under Miltiades, B. C. 490. 

The defeat of the Athenians at Syracuse, B. C. 413. 

The battle of Arbela, in which the Persians under 
Darius were defeated by the invading Greeks under Alex¬ 
ander the Great, B. C. 331. 

The battle of the Metaurus, in which the Carthaginian 
forces under Hasdrubal were overthrown by the Romans, 
B. C. 207. 

Victory of the German tribes under Arminius over the 
Roman legions under Varus, A. D. 9. (The battle was 
fought in what is now the province of Lippe, Germany, 
near the source of the river Ems.) 

Battle of Chalons, where Attila, the terrible King of the 
Huns, was repulsed by the Romans under Aetius, A. D. 
451. 

Battle of Tours, in which the Saracen Turks invading 
Western Europe were utterly overthrown by the Franks 
under Charles Martel, A. D. 732. 

Battle of Hastings, by which William the Conqueror 
became the ruler of England, Oct. 14, 1066. 

Victory of the French under Joan of Arc over the Eng¬ 
lish at Orleans, April 29, 1429. 

Defeat of the Spanish Armada by the English naval 
force, July 29 and 30, 1588. 

Battle of Blenheim, in which the French and Bavarians 
were defeated by the allied armies of Great Britain and 
Holland under the Duke of Marlborough, Aug. 2, 1704. 

Battle of Pultowa, the Swedish army under Charles 
XII, defeated by the Russians under Peter the Great, 
July 8, 1709. 

Victory of the American army under General Gates 
over the British under General Burgoyne at Saratoga, 
Oct. 17, 1777. 

Battle of Valiny, where the allied armies of Prussia and 
Austria were defeated by the French under Marshal Kel- 
lerman, Sept. 20, 1792. 

Battle of Waterloo, the allied forces of the British and 
Prussians defeated the French under Napoleon, the final 
overthrow of the great commander, Jun6 18, 1815. 



















































448 


MULTUM IN PARVO. 


These battles are selected as decisive, because of the 
important consequences that followed them, hew stu¬ 
dents of history, probably, would agree with Prof. Creasy, 
in restricting the list as he does. Many other conflicts 
might be noted, fraught with great importance to the 
human race, and unquestionably " decisive ’ in their 
nature; as, for instance, the victory of Sobieski over the 
Turkish army at Vienna, Sept. 12, 1683. Had the 
Poles and Austrians been defeated there, the Turkish 
general might readily have fulfilled his threat " to stable 
his horses in the Church of St. Peter’s at Rome,” and all 
Western Europe would, no doubt, have been devastated by 
the ruthless and bloodthirsty Ottomans. Of important and 
decisive battles since that of Waterloo we may mention in 
our own Civil War those of Gettysburg, by which the inva¬ 
sion of the North was checked, and at Chattanooga, Nov. 
23 and 25, 1863, by which the power of the Confederates 
in the southwest received a deadly blow. 

The Wandering Jew.— There are various versions of 
the story of " The Wandering Jew,” the legends of whom 
have formed the foundation of numerous romances, poems 
and tragedies. One version is that this person was a ser¬ 
vant in the house of Pilate, and gave the Master a blow as 
He was being dragged out of the palace to go to His 
death. A popular tradition makes the wanderer a mem¬ 
ber of the tribe of Naphtali, who, some seven or eight 
years previous to the birth of the Christ-child left his 
father to go with the wise men of the East whom the star 
led to the lowly cot in Bethlehem. It runs, also, that the 
cause of the killing of the children can be traced to the 
stories this person related when he returned to Jerusalem 
of the visit of the wise men, and the presentation of the 
gifts they brought to the Divine Infant, when He was 
acknowledged by them to be the king of the Jews. He 
was lost sight of for a time, when he appeared as a car¬ 
penter who was employed in making the cross on which 
the Saviour was to be lifted up into the eyes of all men. 
As Christ walked up the way to Calvary, He had to pass 
the workshop of this man, and when He reached its door, 
the soldiers, touched by the suffenngs of the Man of Sor¬ 
rows, besought the carpenter to allow Him to rest there 
for a little, but he refused, adding insult to a want of 
charity. Then it is said that Christ pronounced his 
doom, which was to wander over the earth until the second 
coming. Since that sentence was uttered, he has wan¬ 
dered, courting death, but finding it not, and his punish¬ 
ment becoming more unbearable as the generations come 
and go. He is said to have appeared in the sixteenth, 
seventeenth, and even as recently as the eighteenth cen¬ 
tury, under the names of Cartaphilus, and Ahasuerus, by 
which the Wandering Jew has been known. One of the 
legends described him as a shoemaker of Jerusalem, at 
whose door Christ desired to rest on the road to Calvary, 
but the man refused, and the sentence to wander was 
pronounced. 

Some Memorable Dark Days. —During the last hun¬ 
dred years there have been an unusually large number of 
dark days recorded. As has been suggested by several 
writers, this may have been the result of the careful scien¬ 
tific observations of modern times, as well as of the fre¬ 
quency of these phenomena. The dark day in the begin¬ 
ning of this century about which so much has been 
said and written occurred Oct. 21, 1816. The first day of 
the same month and year is also represented as “a close 
dark day.” Mr. Thomas Robie, who took observations at 
Cambridge, Mass., has this to offer in regard to the phe¬ 
nomenon. " On Oct. 21 the day was so dark that people 
were forced to light candles to eat their dinners by ; which 
could not be from an eclipse, the solar eclipse being the 
fourth of that month.” The day is referred to by another 


writer as " a remarkable dark day in New England and 
New York,” and it is noted, quaintly by a third, that."in 
October, 1816, a dark day occurred after a severe winter 
in New England.” Nov. 26, 1816, was a dark day^ in 
London, and isdescribed "in the neighborhood of Wal¬ 
worth and Camberwell so completely dark that some of 
the coachmen driving stages were obliged to get down and 
lead their horses with a lantern.” The famous dark day 
in America was May 19, 1780. The phenomenon began 
about 10 o’clock in the forenoon. The darkness increased 
rapidly, and "in many places it was impossible to read 
ordinary print.” There was widespread fear. Many 
thought that the Day of Judgment was at hand. At 
that time the Legislature of Connecticut was in session at 
Hartford. The House of Representatives, being unable to 
transact their business, adjourned. A proposal to ad¬ 
journ the council was under consideration. When the 
opinion of Colonel Davenport was asked, he answered: "I 
am against an adjournment. The day of judgment is ap¬ 
proaching or it is not. If it is not, there is no cause for 
adjournment; if it is, I choose to be found doing my duty. 
I wish, therefore, that candles may be brought.” In 
Whittier’s " Tent on the Beach ” is given a beautiful poet¬ 
ical version of this anecdote. It is suggested by several 
authorities that the cause of the dark day in 1780 should 
be attributed simply to the presence of ordinary clouds of 
very unusual volume and density. These instances are, of 
course, grouped with phenonena of which not a great deal 
is known, and can in no way be classed with those occur- 
rances occasioned by the smoke from extensive forest fires, 
volcanic eruptions, or fogs. 

The Remarkable Story of Charlie Ross. —Charlie 
Ross was the son of Christian K. Ross of Germantown, 
Pa., and at the time of his disappearance was a little over 
4 years of age. The child and a brother 6 years old were 
playing July 1, 1874, in the streets of Germantown, when 
a couple of men drove up in a buggy and persuaded the 
children, with promises of toys and candies, to get in and 
ride with them in the vehicle. After driving around the 
place fora little time, the older brother, Walter Ross, was 
put out of the conveyance, and the strangers gave him 25 
cents, telling him to go to a store near at hand and buy 
some candy and torpedoes for himself and Charlie. Walter 
did as he was told, but when he came out of the store the 
men with Charlie and the vehicle had disappeared. It was 
believed at first by the relatives and friends of the missing 
boy that he would be returned in a short time, as they sup¬ 
posed he might have been taken by some drunken men. 
Time passed, however, but no trace of the child had been 
discovered. In a few weeks a letter was received by Mr. 
Ross to the effect that if he would pay $20,000 his son 
would be returned, but that the parent need not search for 
Charlie, as all efforts to find the abducted boy or his cap- 
tors would only be attended with failure; and it was stated 
that if this amount was not paid, Charlie would be killed. 
The father answered this and a long correspondence ensued, 
while the search was prosecuted in all directions. Mr. 
Ross wanted the child delivered at the time the money was 
paid, but to this the abductors refused to agree. It is 
stated that more than $50,000 were expended to recover 
the child. At one time two gentlemen were two days in 
Fifth Avenue Hotel, New York, with the $20,000 ransom 
money to be given to the child-thieves, but they did not 
appear. The search was continued, and the officers of the 
law were looking up any and all evidence, until they had 
located the two men. These were found Dec. 4, 1874, 
committing a burglary in the house of Judge Van Brunt, 
Bay Ridge, L. I.; the burglary was discovered, the bur¬ 
glars seen and shot by persons residing in an adjoining 
residence. One of the men was killed instantly, the 










































MULTUM IN PARVO. 


449 


other lived several hours, and confessed that he and his 
companion had abducted Charlie Ross, but that the dead 
thief, Mosher by name, was the one who knew where the 
boy was secreted. Walter Ross identified the burglars as 
the men who had enticed him and Charlie into the buggy. 
There the case rested. No new fact has been developed. 
The missing child has never been found. Many times 
have children been reported who resembled Charlie, and 
Mr. Ross has traveled far and near in his endless search, 
only to return sadly and report that his boy was still miss- 
ing. No case in recent years has excited such universal 
sympathy as that of Charlie Ross. 

The Blue Laws on Smoking. —There were some very 
stringent laws in Massachusetts against the use of tobacco 
in public, and while the penalties were not so heavy, yet 
they were apparently rigidly enforced for a time. We 
quote from a law passed in October, 1632, as follows: “It 
is ordered that noe person shall take any tobacco publique- 
ly, under paine of punishment; also that every one shall 
pay Icl. for every time hee is convicted of takeing tobacco 
in any place, and that any Assistant shall have power to 
receave evidence and give order for levyeing of it, as also 
to give order for the levyeing of the officer’s charge. This 
order to begin the 10th of November next.” In Septem¬ 
ber, 1634, we discover another law on the same article: 
“Victualers, or keepers of an Ordinary, shall not suffer 
any tobacco to be taken in their howses, under the penalty 
of 5s. for every offence, to be payde by the victuler, and 
12rf. by the party that takes it. Further, it is ordered, 
that noe person shall take tobacco publiquely, under the 
penalty of 2s. 6cT., nor privately, in his owne house, or in 
the howse of another, before strangers, and that two or 
more shall not take it togeather, anywhere, under the 
aforesaid penalty for every offence.” In November, 1637, 
the record runs: “All former laws against tobacco are re¬ 
pealed, and tobacco is sett at liberty;” but in September, 
1638, “the [General] Court, finding that since the repealing 
of the former laws against tobacco, the same is more abused 
then before, it hath therefore ordered, that no man shall 
take any tobacco in the fields, except in his journey, or at 
meale times, under paine of 12 d. for every offence; nor 
shall take any tobacco in (or so near) any dwelling house, 
barne, corne or hay rick, as may likely indanger the fire- 
ingthereof, upon paine of 10s. for every offence; nor shall 
take any tobacco in any inne or common victualing house, 
except in a private roome there, so as neither the master of 
the same house nor any other guests there shall take of¬ 
fence thereat, which if they do, then such person is forth¬ 
with to forbeare, upon paine of 12s. 6rf. for every offence. 
Noe man shall kindle fyre by gunpowder, for takeing to¬ 
bacco, except in his journey, upon paine of 12^. for every 
offence.” 

The Remarkable Caves—Wyandotte and Mam¬ 
moth. —Wyandotte Cave is in Jennings township, Craw¬ 
ford county, Ind., near the Ohio river. It is a rival of 
the great Mammoth Cave in grandeur and extent. Explo¬ 
rations have been made for many miles. It excels the 
Mammoth Cave in the number and variety of its stalag¬ 
mites and stalactites, and in the size of several of its 
chambers. One of these chambers is 350 feet in length, 
245 feet in height, and contains a hill 175 feet high, on 
which are three fine stalagmites. Epsom salts, niter and 
alum have been obtained from the earth of the cave. The 
Mammoth Cave is in Edmondson county, near Green 
River, about seventy-five miles from Louisville. Its 
entrance is reached by passing down a wild, rocky ravine 
through a dense forest. The cave extends some nine 
miles. To visit the portions already traversed, it is said, 
requires 150 to 200 miles of travel. The cave contains a 
succession of wonderful avenues, chambers, domes, 


abysses, grottoes, lakes, rivers, cataracts and other mar¬ 
vels, which are too well known to need more than a refer¬ 
ence. One chamber—the Star—is about 500 feet long, 70 
feet wide, 70 feet high, the ceiling of which is composed 
of black gypsum, and is studded with innumerable white 
points, that by a dim light resemble stars, hence the name 
of the chamber. There are avenues one and a half and 
even two miles in length, some of which are incrusted 
with beautiful formations, and present the appearance of 
enchanted palace halls. There is a natural tunnel about 
three-quarters of a mile long, 100 feet wide, covered with 
a ceiling of smooth rock 45 feet high. There is a cham¬ 
ber having an area of from four to five acres, and there 
are domes 200 and 300 feet high. Echo River is some 
three-fourths of a mile in length, 200 feet in width at 
some points, and from 10 to 30 in depth, and runs beneath 
an arched ceiling of smooth rock about 15 feet high, 
while the Styx, another river, is 450 feet long, from 15 to 
40 feet wide, and from 30 to 40 feet deep, and is spanned 
by a natural bridge. Lake Lethe has about the same 
length and width as the river Styx, varies in depth from 
3 to 40 feet, lies beneath a ceiling some 90 feet above its 
surface, and sometimes rises to a height of 60 feet. 
There is also a Dead Sea, quite a somber body of water. 
There are several interesting caves in the neighborhood, 
one three miles long and three each about a mile in 
length. 

The South Sea Bubble. —The “South Sea Bubble,” as 
it is generally called, was a financial scheme which occu¬ 
pied the attention of prominent politicians, communities, 
and even nations in the early part of the eighteenth cen¬ 
tury. Briefly the facts are: In 1711 Robert Hartley, 
Earl of Oxford, then Lord Treasurer, proposed to fund a 
floating debt of about £10,000,000 sterling, the interest, 
about 1600,000, to be secured by rendering permanent the 
duties upon wines, tobacco, wrought silks, etc. Purchas¬ 
ers of this fund were to become also shareholders in the 
“South Sea Company,” a corporation to have the monopoly 
of the trade with Spanish South America, a part of the 
capital stock of which was to be the new fund. But Spain, 
after the treaty of Utrecht, refused to open her commerce 
to England, and the privileges of the “South Sea Com¬ 
pany” became worthless. There were many men of wealth 
who were stockholders, and the company continued to 
flourish, while the ill success of its trading operations was 
concealed. Even the Spanish War of 1718 did not shake 
the popular confidence. Then in April, 1720, Parliament, 
by large majorities in both Houses, accepted the company’s 
plan for paying the national debt, and after that a frenzy 
of speculation seized the nation, and the stock rose to 
£300 a share, and by August had reached £1,000 a share. 
Then Sir John Blunt, one of the leaders, sold out, others 
followed, and the stock began to fall. By the close of 
September the company stopped payment and thousands 
were beggared. An investigation ordered by Parliament 
disclosed much fraud and corruption, and many promi¬ 
nent persons were implicated, some of the directors were 
imprisoned, and all of them were fined to an aggregate 
amount of £2,000,000 for the benefit of the stockholders. 
A great part of the valid assets was distributed among 
them, yielding a dividend of about 33 per cent. 

Area of North America. —The following figures show 
the extent of the United States as compared with the 
British possessions in North America: United States, 
3,602,884 square miles. British possessions—Ontario, 
121,260; Quebec, 210,020; Nova Scotia, 18,670; New 
Brunswick, 27,037; British Columbia, 233,000; Manitoba, 
16,000; N. W. and Hudson Bay Territories, 2,206,725; 
Labrador and Arctic Ocean Islands, make a total of 3,500,- 
000 . 



































GIVING A CONCISE AND COMPREHENSIVE EXPLANATION OF BOTH SINGLE AND DOUBLE ENTRY-NECESSITY AND 

ADVANTAGES OF A KNOWLEDGE OF BOOK-KEEPING. 


The object of book-keeping is to exhibit a distinct and 
correct state of one’s affairs, and to enable companies, 
firms, and individuals to ascertain at any time the nature 
and extent of their business, the amount of their profits 
or available income, or, as the case may be, the extent of 
their losses. 

The necessity for a knowledge of book-keeping is not 
confined to those engaged in business. There is no class 
of men who can afford to dispense with it, since all are 
called upon to handle money and keep accounts of greater 
or less magnitude. It is not sufficient for a man to say, 
“ I do not understand book-keeping myself, but I can 
employ a book-keeper who will know everything neces¬ 
sary.” Such a man places himself at the mercy of his 
employe, and is liable to be continually deceived by false 
entries, fraudulent balances, and in various ways which a 
skillful and unscrupulous accountant can avail himself of. 

It is the merchant’s first duty to be thoroughly informed 
in all branches of his business, so that he may not only 
direct it, but also be competent to detect and expose error 
and fraud, and to know at any moment his exact business 
standing. It is not too much, therefore, to assert that 
book-keeping should constitute an essential part of the 
education of every young man and woman. The posses¬ 
sion of such knowledge will the more thoroughly prepare 
them for the great struggle of life, and enable them to 
earn a fair and honorable livelihood by the employment of 
their skill. 

, Ifc is not to be expected that every one can become a 
first-class book-keeper any more than that every one can 
become a great artist, but it is possible for all to obtain 
such a knowledge of the essential principles of book¬ 
keeping as will enable them to keep an ordinary set of 
books accurately, and with credit to themselves. 

To those engaged in trade or commercial pursuits, or 
who expect to enter upon them, book-keeping is abso¬ 
lutely necessary, as by it all transactions should be regu¬ 
lated and their results exhibited. The more simple the 
system the better; but care must be taken that the plan 
adopted is sufficiently comprehensive and explanatory to 
satisfy not only the person keeping the books, but those 
who may have occasion to refer to them; for however sat¬ 
isfactory it may be to a merchant to follow a system which 
is intelligible to himself alone, circumstances might arise 
to render the inspection of others necessary, and from 
their inability to follow out the transactions in the books, 


suspicions would probably be engendered for which there 
was no real foundation. Hence the necessity for the 
adoption of certain recognized and approved systems, 
which, being plain and easily understood, must prove sat¬ 
isfactory to all concerned. 

Book-keeping, when conducted on sound principles, is 
invaluable; it not only shows the general results of a com¬ 
mercial career, but admits of analysis, by which the suc¬ 
cess or failure, the value or utter worthlessness of its com¬ 
ponent parts, or each particular transaction, can be easily 
ascertained. In a word, on the one hand it promotes 
order, regularity, fair dealing, and honorable enterprise; 
on the other it defeats dishonesty, and preserves the integ¬ 
rity of man when dealing with his fellows. 

THE PROPER SYSTEM TO BE ADOPTED. 

The cpiestions to which a satisfactory system gives the 
merchant ready and conclusive answers are such as relate— 
1. To the extent to which his capital and credit will enti¬ 
tle him to transact business; 2. To the assurance he has 
that all his obligations are honestly fulfilled; 3. To the 
ascertainment of the success or failure of his commercial 
dealings, and the position of his affairs from time to time. 

There are two recognized systems of book-keeping, 
namely, by “Single Entry” and by “Double Entry.” 
Although the system of “Single Entry” has nearly 
passed out of use, it will be well to glance at it before 
passing on to the other and more generally used system of 
“ Double Entry.” 

THE SYSTEM OF SINGLE ENTRY. 

This is a clumsy and awkward way of keeping books, 
and is used only by the smallest traders. It is little better 
than the old time plan of keeping accounts on a slate, and 
erasing them when paid. The system is denoted by the 
name; transactions being posted singly, or only once in 
the Ledger. Three books are generally kept—the cash 
book, day book and ledger, although the first named is not 
essential, the cash entries being passed through the day 
book. Its only use is to check the balance of cash in 
hand. 

In the day book are entered daily all the purchases and 
sales, whether for cash or credit; and all the credit entries 
are then transferred to accounts opened in the ledger, that 
is, all goods sold on credit are charged against the cus¬ 
tomers, and wdiat are purchased are carried to the credit 
of the parties supplying them. In the same way when 





















































































































































BOOK-KEEPING. 


451 



cash is received from a customer for goods sold on credit, 
it is posted on his account, and the reverse entry is made 
when a merchant pays for the goods he has bought. Thus 
it will be seen that only personal accounts are entered in 
the ledger. 

BALANCE SHEET BY SINGLE ENTRY. 

To frame a balance sheet or state of affairs on this sys¬ 
tem, the book-keeper brings down the balances due by 
customers to the merchant, also his stock of goods as val¬ 
ued by the last inventory taken at current market prices, 



and the cash he may have in hand, on thv left-hand side of 
the sheet, whilst on the right-hand side of the sheet he 
enters the balances still due by nim for goods he has pur¬ 
chased, or money lent to him, and the capital, if any, 
with which he commenced business. The amounts on 
each side of the sheet are then added and proved, and the 
difference between the amounts of the two columns is 
either profit or loss; if profit, the merchant's capital is 
increased to that extent; if loss, then he is so much the 
poorer. 


SPECIMEN OF A BALANCE SHEET BY SINGLE ENTRY. 


The following “ Specimen of a Balance Sheet by Single Entry" will make plain the working and ultimate 
results of the system: 


ASSETS. 


To sundry customers for goods sold, per list 
To goods in stock, per inventory and valua¬ 
tion. 

To cash in hand ...... 




LIABILITIES. 



$2,500 

00 

Bv sundry merchants for goods purchased, 
per list.. 

$1,000 

00 

4,875 

85 

By capital put into the business. 

3,000 

00 

986 

75 

Profit on business to date. 

4,362 

60 

$8,362 

60 


$8,362 

60 


It will be observed that the assets exceed the liabilities 
(including capital) by $4,362.60. That sum being profit 
must be added to the capital; if in the next or following 
years any loss should emerge, as a matter of course such 
deficiency must be deducted from the merchant's capital, 
as he is that much poorer than when he opened the year. 

The advantages of single entry are simplicity and easy 
adaptation to small retail trades, as the ledger contains 
only outstanding debts due to or by the merchant. The 
disadvantage is the difficulty of ascertaining the profits or 
losses on various goods, or on the several departments of a 
business. 

THE SYSTEM OF DOUBLE ENTRY. 

It is now universally admitted that the “ System of 
Double Entry " is the best adapted for heavy, responsible, 
or speculative trades, and for extensive mercantile con¬ 
cerns. As its name implies, it so differs from the system 
already described, that every transaction must be recorded 
doubly in the ledger; that is to say, accounts must be 
opened in that book, to which all entries in the subsidiary 
books are twice carried—to the debit of one account, and 
the credit of another. 

The advantage of this system may be briefly stated as 
follows: 

1. Unless the debit balances exactly correspond with 
the credit balances the books are wrong, and the error 
must be discovered by comparison. 

2. The discovery of such errors is more easily accom¬ 
plished than in any other system. 

3. Accounts can be readily analyzed. 

4. The profit, or loss, on individual transactions can be 
ascertained without difficulty. Against these advantages 
the writer knows of no single disadvantage that can be 
pleaded.' 

Before entering upon an explanation of the system, we 
must direct the reader's attention to 

THE GOLDEN RULE OF DOUBLE ENTRY 
which may be concisely stated in six words, viz.: Every 
debit must have its credit. 

By bearing this constantly in mind, and applying it to 
each and all of the details of practical book-keeping, the 
difficulties of the system will entirely disappear, and its 
perfect simplicity be apparent. 


It is the custom of the best book-keepers to use the fol¬ 
lowing books in recording commercial transactions: The 
Cash Book, the Day Book, sometimes called the Sales Book, 
the Journal, and the Ledger. 

The use of the Journal is gradually being abandoned, 
as it only imposes upon the book-keeper additional labor 
without any compensating advantages. Many houses dis¬ 
pense with it altogether, and the time is at hand when it 
will disappear from every well-regulated counting-room. 
In the following pages, therefore, we shall make no fur¬ 
ther reference to it, confining ourselves only to what is of 
practical value to the student of book-keeping, and avoid¬ 
ing everything that may serve to encumber him with use¬ 
less details. 

THE CASH BOOK. 

The name of this book indicates the use to which it is 
put. It is used exclusively for entries of money received 
and money paid out, and is thus the record of the daily 
cash transactions of the merchant. Each page of the 
Cash Book is ruled with two dollar and cent columns. The 
left-hand page is used for “Cash Debtor,"that is, for cash 
received; and the right hand page is for “Cash Creditor," 
or for cash paid out. All sums of money received are 
written on the left hand page with the date of the receipt, 
the name of the person or source from which the money 
is received, and the amounts are entered on a line with 
the names in th e first column of the page. All sums paid 
out are entered on the right-hand page with the date of 
the payment, and the name of the person or purpose by 
whom or for which the money is paid, and the amounts 
are entered in the first column of the page on the line 
with the names to which they belong. 

In effect, in keeping accounts, “Cash" is treated pre¬ 
cisely as if it were a person. It is debited, or charged, 
with all money paid in, and credited with all money paid 
out. For example, let us suppose that John Smith pays 
the merchant $200. This sum must be placed to the 
credit of John Smith, because he has paid it in. “ Cash " 
has received it, and therefore “Cash"must be charged 
with it. It is entered on the debit side of the “ Cash 
Book " as a charge against “Cash." The entry is made 
in the name of John Smith, and shows that he has paid 
that sum to “ Cash." Thus this entry is at the same time 


. 'w 























































452 


BOOK-KEEPING. 


a debit to “ Cash” and a credit to John Smith, as it shows 
that “Cash” has had that much money from John Smith, 
and that John Smith is creditor of “ Cash ” to that amount. 

Again, we will suppose that Thomas Brown, David Lee 
and Asa Hart have each paid the merchant $200, making 
$000 in all. These amounts are received by “ Cash,” and 
are entered on the debit, or left-hand page, in three sepa¬ 
rate entries, each with the name of the person paying the 
money, and the date of the payment. At the end of the 
month, when the “Cash Book” is posted, these amounts 
are carried to the ledger to the credit of the parties, that 
is, $200 is credited to each. The aggregate $600 is then 
posted to the debit of “ Cash ” in the Ledger; and thus the 
debit of $600 to “Cash” balances the three credits of 
$200 each to Thomas Brown, David Lee and Asa Hart. 

The same principle applies to payments made by the 
merchant. Let us suppose he pays to Martin, Frazier & 
Co. $500; to Holmes Bros. $600; and to Jenkins & Son 
$300. Here we have $1,400 paid out. Each of these 
amounts is entered with the date of payment on the right 
hand or credit side of the “ Cash Book.” In other words, 
“ Cash ” is credited with these sums, because they have 
been taken from “ Cash ” and paid to the parties named. 
In posting the “Cash Book” at the end of the month, 
these entries are carred to the debit of the accounts of the 
proper persons in the Ledger. Martin Frazier & Co. are 
debited or charged with $500; Holmes Bros, with $600; and 
Jenkins & Son with $300. These persons have received 
the above sums, and are therefore properly debited or 
charged with them. The aggregate amount, $1,400, is 
entered on the Ledger to the credit of “Cash,” because 
“ Cash” has paid them, and must receive credit for such 
payments. Thus the single entry of $1,400 to the credit 
of “ Cash,” balances the three charges against the persons 
to whom the sums were paid. 

But suppose the merchant receives from Henry Holt the 
sum of $200; from Richard Jones $300; and from Edward 
White $300—making $800 received. These sums are 
entered on the “ Cash Book” as debits against “Cash”— 
the entries being at the same time credits to the parties 
making the payment. The merchant pays out the follow¬ 
ing sums: To Walter Hyde, $100; to Peter Wright, $125; 
and to Lyle & Co. $100, in all $325 paid out, which is less 
than the amount he received. These payments are en¬ 
tered on the “ Cash Book ” to the credit of “ Cash.” and 
are at the same time separate debits or charges against the 
persons to whom the money is paid. In order to ascertain 
how much money is on hand after makingthese payments, 
the “ Cash Book ” must be balanced. To do this, add the 
amounts in the first column of the debit side, and write 
down the amount, $800, in the second column, on a line 
with the last entry, and also at the bottom of thatcolumn. 
Then add the amounts in the first column on the credit 
page, and write the amount, $325, in the second column of 
that page, on a line with the last entry on that page. 
Then subtract the $325 paid out from the $800 received, 
doing this on a separate slip of paper. This leaves a 
remainder of $475, which is the balance of cash in hand. 
Now write with red ink on the credit page, below the last 
entry on that page, the amount $475, in the second column 
of that page, preceded by the word “Balance.” This 
“ balance,” added to the amount of payments, will give 
$800, the amount received and entered on the debit page. 
This amount must be written at the bottom of the second 
column on the credit page, and on a line with the bottom 
figures on the debit page. The “ Cash Book ” is now said 
to be balanced. 

The “Cash Book” should be balanced every day, in 
order to ascertain the amount of money on hand at the 
close of the day’s transactions. 


The “ Cash Book ” should be posted once a month. 
That is, the entries in it should be transferred to the 
Ledger, and entered there each in its proper account. As 
these transfers are made, the folio (or number of the page) 
of the Ledger to which the entry is posted, should be 
written in the “ Cash Book,” in the column ruled for that 
purpose, which is immediately on the left of the dollars 
and cents column. This insures accuracy in referring 
from the “Cash Book” to the Ledger. The “Cash 
Book ” is now said to be closed — that is, all the en¬ 
tries for the month have been transferred to their proper 
places in the Ledger; and the book-keeper is ready to 
commence the record of the transactions of the next 
month. 

In the example given above, the merchant had a balance 
of $475 of cash in hand at the end of the month. The 
reader will naturally ask, “ What must be done with this 
balance?” It must be borne in mind that the book¬ 
keeper must treat the cash transactions of each month as 
a separate account. When the “ Cash Book ” is closed for 
January, he must begin a neiv cash account for February, 
and so on through the year. He turns to a new debtor 
page and opens a new account on the first of the month. 
In the case under consideration, he carries forward the 
balance of $475, and enters it in red ink in the second 
column of the debit page, preceding it with the date (the 
first of the month) in its proper column, and the word 
“ Balance ” in its proper place. This shows that “ Cash ” 
has begun the new month with $475 in hand. “ Cash” 
is therefore, properly charged with it. 

Now suppose the merchant receives from various persons 
during the month money to the amount of $525, and pays 
out to sundry parties money to the amount of $350. The 
receipts are all entered, each with its proper date and the 
name of the person making tbe payment, on the debit page 
of the “Cash Book,” the amounts being written in the 
first dollars and cents column; the sums paid out are 
entered in the same way on the credit side of the “ Cash 
Book,” the amounts being written in the first dollars and 
cents column of that page. 

In closing the “ Cash Book ” at the end of the second 
month, the book-keeper must add the amount of the 
debits, which, as we have seen, is $525, and write this 
aggregate in the second column on a line with the last 
entry in the first column. This will place it under the 
“ balance” of $475 remaining from the first month, which, 
as we have seen, was written at the top of the second 
dollars and cents column of the debit page. These two 
amounts are then added, and give a total of $1,000, which 
must be written at the bottom of the second column. 
This shows the total amount of the debits or charges 
against “Cash” during the month. The book-keeper 
now turns to the credit page and adds the amounts of the 
money paid out. The total as we have seen is $350. He 
writes this amount in the second column of the credit page 
on a line with the last entry of money paid out. He then 
subtracts the amount of the credits from the amount of 
the debits , and finds a remainder of $650, which is the 
amount left to to the debit of “ Cash,” or the balance of 
cash in hand at the end of the month. He writes with 
with red ink the amount, $650, preceded by the word 
“ Balance” in the second column of the credit page under 
the total of the credits. These two sums are then added 
and give a total of $1,000, and this amount is written at 
the bottom of the second column of the credit page, and 
balances the $1,000 at the bottom of the debit page. The 
amounts are then transferred to their respective accounts 
in the Ledger, and the “Cash Book” is closed for the 
second month. The balance, of $650, is then carried as 
before to the top of a new debit page, and the “ Cash 













































BOOK-KEEPING. 


453 


Book is in readiness for the record of the transactions of 
the third month. 

These explanations will show the reader the uses of and 
the manner of keeping the “Cash Book.” We would 
earnestly recommend him to commence practicing a system 
of book-keeping, beginning with the “Cash Book.” He 
should obtain a blank book, and rule it himself in order to 
become familiar with the form of the pages. Each page 
should be ruled as follows: on the left-hand side rule a col¬ 
umn for dates, and on the right-hand side rule a column 
for the numbers of the Ledger folios to which the entries 
are to be posted, and on the right of this rule two sets of 
columns for dollars and cents. The wide space in the mid¬ 
dle of the page is used for the names of the persons making 
payments or to whom payments are made. Now let the 
reader make the entries in the manner explained in the 
preceding pages, and he will have a “ Cash Book” in proper 
shape, and will thus familiarize himself with this import¬ 
ant branch of book-keeping. 


THE PETTY CASH BOOK. 

It is the custom of most book-keepers to use what is 
called a petty cash book. Any blank book ruled with dol¬ 
lars and cents column will answer. The petty cash book 
is used for expenditures only, and its use saves the book¬ 
keeper a great deal of time and labor which would be re¬ 
quired were all the minor expenses of an establishment 
entered in the cash book and transferred separately to their 
proper accounts in the ledger. The book-keeper enters all 
the small sums paid out day by day in the petty cash book, 
such as “Sundry Expenses,” “Freights,” “Interest,” 
money paid to employes who have no fixed pay-day, “Tele¬ 
grams,” “ Porterage,” etc. At the end of the week, or 
month, as his custom may be, he adds these expenditures 
in the petty cash book, and enters the aggregate amount 
on the credit page of the regular cash book, from which it 
is posted to the ledger, in the ordinary way. Bear in mind 
that the petty cash hook is used for entering minor expendi¬ 
tures only, and never for entering money received . 

THE DAY BOOK. 

The day book is used for recording the transactions of 
each day/except those which are made for cash, and which 
are entered in the cash book. It is frequently called the 
sales book, as all the sales are entered in it. It is also used 
to record all purchases of goods made by the merchant, 
and thus takes the place of a separate book, which was for¬ 
merly used, and which was known as the purchase book. 

The day book is ruled differently from either the cash 
book or ledger. On the left of the page is a single column, 
and on the right are three sets of dollars and cents col¬ 
umns. The date is written, day by day, at the top of the 
page; the column on the left is for the number of the arti¬ 
cles sold; the wide space in the middle is for the name of 
the purchasers and a description of the goods sold to them; 
the first set of dollars and cents columns is for the entry of 
the amounts of the sales; and the third set is for the entry 
of the aggregate amount of the sales to each person. The 
second, or middle set of dollars and cents columns, is 
known as the cash column, and in it are entered the aggre¬ 
gates of all bills for which cash is paid when the purchase 
is made. The use of it greatly simplifies the labor of the 
book-keeper, and avoids confusion in keeping the accounts. 
Where this column is used, all bills that are paid before 
the end of the month are entered in the cash column; all 
bills that are not paid before the end of the month, or at 
the time of the purchase, are entered as has been said, in 
the third column. When the sale is reported to the book¬ 
keeper, he must be informed as to the manner of payment, 
in order that he may know in which column to enter the 
amount. It is the custom where goods are paid for at the 


time of the purchase, to make a “check” in red inkin the 
margin after the amount, and also in the margin before the 
name. This shows that the book-keeper is not to post 
these entries in the same manner that the sales on credit 
are to be posted. 

For example, let us sujipose John Smith, of Camden, 
N. J., buys a bill of goods from the merchant to the 
amount of $100. This sale is entered in the day book 
under its proper date, with the articles and the number of 
them. The price of each article is written in the first set 
of dollars and cents columns. If the sale is for cash, the 
aggregate or total amount of the bill is written in the 
second set of dollars and cents columns, and a “check” in 
red ink is placed opposite the name of John Smith, and 
another one opposite the aggregate amount. This shows 
that the sale is for cash. If the Sale is on credit—sav 

f u 

sixty days’ time—the aggregate is written in the third set 
of dollars and cents columns, and the account is posted in 
the ledger in the usual way at the end of the month. 

POSTING THE DAY BOOK. 

The entries in the day book should be posted to the 
ledger at the end of every week. The various entries of 
sales on credit are carried to the ledger, and each written 
there in its proper account, and the number of the ledger 
folio or page to which the account is carried, is written in 
red ink in the left-hand margin of the page of the day 
book, in order that the book-keeper may refer to it 
promptly. These entries are carried to the debit of the 
accounts in the ledger, as they are charges against the 
persons to whom the sales are made. 

The book-keeper now takes the cash sales entered in the 
day book. Of course, when cash is paid on the spot for 
goods, the transaction is complete, and there is no necessity 
for opening an account with the purchaser in the ledger. 
To do so would be simply to crowd the ledger with useless 
accounts. The book-keeper, therefore, adds the amounts 
in the second or cash column of the day book, and writes 
the total in the third set of dollars and cents columns. 
The third column is then added, and the total written at 
the bottom. This total represents both the cash and the 
credit sales, and of course, shows the total amount of 
business done during the month. The various entries 
having been posted as described to their proper accounts 
in the ledger, the total of the third column is entered in 
the credit side of the merchandise account of the house in 
the ledger. “Merchandise” is here treated, like “cash,” as 
a person. It has supplied the goods sold, and is therefore 
credited with them. This entry is also a debit against the 
purchasers for the goods taken out of the house during 
the month. 

Instead of posting the total of the “cash column” as a 
debit from the day book to the ledger, the book-keeper 
enters it on the debit page of the cash book as follows: 
“Sundry sales, day book folio—,” and makes a check in 
red ink in the margin on the left of the entry. Cash 
having been paid into the concern for these sales, “cash” 
is properly debited for them in the cash book. This total 
is included in the footing of the debit page of the cash 
book, and is posted from it to the ledger to the debit of 
“cash.” Thus the debit to “cash” balances the credit to 
“merchandise” in the ledger. 

THE MERCHANDISE ACCOUNT. 

Merchandise, as we have said, is treated as a person. It 
is debited or charged with all goods received by the house, 
and credited with all goods sold. 

It is the custom to devote, every month, one or more 
pages of the day book, as necessity may require, to a 
“double entry” headed as follows: “Merchandise debtor 
to sundries,”—that is, “Merchandise debtor to the follow- 



































454 


BOOK-KEEPING. 


ing.” The book-keeper enters under this heading all bills 
of goods which the house has purchased during the month, 
and all other items with which it is necessary to debit or 
charge “merchandise” and credit other accounts. Each 
amount must be written separately in the name of its 
proper account, and the various entries .must be placed 
one under the other down the page, with the dates written 
in the margin on the left-hand side of the page. 
The amounts of the various entries are written in the 
first set of dollars and cents columns, and the total is 
written immediately below. In no case must the entry or 
entries be extended into the second or third sets of dollars 
and cents columns. Every transaction is complete, and 
must be confined to the portions of the page indicated. 
The amounts of the various entries are then posted to the 
credit of their proper accounts in the ledger, and the total 
of all of them is posted to the debit of “merchandise” in 
the ledger. 

The reader is earnestly recommended to rule several 
pages of a blank book in the manner described, and to 
ractice keeping a day book according to the instructions 
erein contained. By this it is not meant that he should 
simply copy or confine himself to the forms given in these 
pages. He should begin with the cash or day books, open 
a complete set of books, and keep them as though he were 
actually engaged in business, extending them as far as 
possible, and posting them as directed in these instruc¬ 
tions. This will give him an amount of practice which 
will be found very useful, and will enable him to become 
thoroughly familiar with all the various transactions and 
requirements of book-keeping. 

GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 

I. The person or persons investing in the business 
should be credited, under some title, for all such invest¬ 


ments, and also for his or their share of the gains. On 
the other hand, he or they should be debited for all liabil¬ 
ities assumed by the concern for him or them, for all sums 
withdrawn by him or them from the business, and for such 
losses as he or they are entitled to share. 

II. Cash account should be debited for all cash receipts, 
and credited for all disbursements. 

III. Merchandise, and all species of property bought 
upon speculation, should be debited, under some appro¬ 
priate head, with the cost of the property represented, and 
credited with its proceeds. 

IV. Bill Receivable account should be debited with 
other people’s notes, acceptances and other written obliga¬ 
tions, when they become ours, and credited when they are 
paid, or otherwise disposed of. 

V. Bills Payable account should be credited with our 
notes, acceptances or written promises to pay, when 
they are issued, and debited when they are paid or 
redeemed. 

VI. Personal accounts, such as the names of persons, 
banks, or other institutions competent to sue or be sued, 
should be debited under their proper titles when they 
become indebted to us, or we get out of their debt, and 
credited when we become indebted to them, or they get 
out of our debt. 

VII. All expenses, of whatever name, should be debited 
with the outlay, and all causes, of whatever kind, produc¬ 
ing us value, should be credited, under some name, for the 
amount thus produced. 

The foregoing principles are all embraced in the follow¬ 
ing simple Rule. 

Debit what costs the concern value, and credit 

WHAT PRODUCES THE CONCERN VALUE. 


TWENTY THOUSAND THINGS WORTH KNOWING. 


RELATIVE HARDNESS OF WOODS. 

Taking shell bark hickory as the highest standard of our 
forest trees, and calling that 100, other trees will compare 
with it for hardness as follows : 

Shell Bark Hickory-100 Yellow Oak. 60 

Pignut Hickory. 96 Hard Maple. 56 

White Oak. 84 White Elm. 58 

White Ash. 77 Red Cedar. 56 

Dogwood. 75 Wild Cherry. 55 

Scrub Oak... 73 Yellow Pine. 54 


Chesnut. 52 

Yellow Poplar. 51 

Buternut. 43 

White Birch. 43 

White Pine.. 30 


White Hazel. 72 

Apple Tree. 70 

Red Oak. 69 

White Beech. 65 

Black Walnut. 65 

Black Birch. 62 

Timber intended for posts is rendered almost proof 
against rot by thorough seasoning, charring and immersion 
in hot coal tar. 

The slide of Alpnach, extending from Mount Pilatus 
to Lake Lucerne, a distance of 8 miles, is composed of 
25,000 trees, stripped of their bark, and laid at an inclina¬ 
tion of 10 to 18 degrees. Trees placed in the slide rush 
from the mountain into the lake in 6 minutes. 

The Alps comprise about 180 mountains, from 4,000 to 
15,732 feet high, the latter being the height of Mount Blanc, 


the highest spot in Europe. The summit is a sharp ridge, 
like the roof of a house, consisting of nearly vertical granite 
rocks. The ascent requires 2 days, 6 or 8 guides are re¬ 
quired, and each guide is paid 100 francs ($20.00). It was 
ascended by two natives, Jacques Belmat and Dr. Packard, 
August 8, 1786, at 6 a. m. They staid up 30 minutes, with 
the thermometer at 14 degrees below the freezing point. 
The provisions frize in their pockets; their faces were 
frost-bitten, lips swollen, and their sight much weakened, 
but they soon recovered on their descent. De Saussure 
records in his ascent August 2,1760, that the color of the 
sky was deep blue; the stars were visible in the shade; the 
barometer sunk to 16.08 inches (being 27.08 in Geneva) 
the thermometer was 26£ degrees, in the sun 29 degrees 
(being 87 degrees at Geneva). The thin air works the 
blood into a high fever, you feel as if you hardly touched 
the ground, and you scarcely make yourself heard. A 
French woman, Mademoiselle d’Angeville, ascended in 
September, 1840, being dragged up the last 1,200 feet by 
guides, and crying out: “If I die, carry me to the top.” 
When there, she made them lift her up, that she might 
boast she had been higher than any man in Europe. The 
ascent of these awful solitudes is most perilous, owing to 
the narrow paths, tremendous ravines, icy barriers, preci¬ 
pices, etc. In many places every step has to be cut in the 
ice, the party being tied to each other by ropes, so that 


































































TWENTY THOUSAND THINGS WORTH KNOWING. 


455 


if one slips he may be held up by the rest, and silence is 
enforced, lest the noise of talking should dislodge the 
avalanches of the Aiguille du Midi. The view from the 
mountain is inexpressibly grand. On the Alps the limit 
of the vine is an elevation of 1,600 feet; below 1,000 feet, 
figs, oranges and olives are produced. The limit of the oak 
is 3,800 feet, of the chesnut 2,800 feet, of the pine 6,500 
feet, of heaths and furze to 8,700 and 9,700 feet; and per¬ 
petual snow exists at an elevation of 8,200 feet. 

On the Andes, in lat. 2 degrees, the limit of perpetual 
snow is 14,760 feet; in Mexico, lat. 19 degrees, the limit 
is 13,800 feet; on the peak of Teneriffe, 11,454 feet; on 
Mount Etna, 9,000 feet; on the Caucasus, 9,900 feet; in 
the Pyrenees, 8,400 feet; in Lapland, 3,100 feet; in Ice¬ 
land, 2,890 feet. The walnut ceases to grow at an eleva¬ 
tion of 3,600 feet; the yellow pine at 6,200 feet; the ash at 
4,800 feet, and the fir at 6,700 feet. The loftiest inhab¬ 
ited spot on the globe is the Port House of Ancomarca, on 
the Andes, in Peru, 16,000 feet above the level of the sea. 
The 14th peak of the Himalayas, in Asia, 25,659 feet high, 
is the loftiest mountain in the world. 

Lauterbrunnen is a deep part of an Alpine pass, where 
the sun hardly shines in winter. It abounds with falls, the 
most remarkable of which is the Staubbach, which falls 
over the Balm precipice in a drizzling spray from a height 
of 925 feet;best viewed in the morning sun or by moon¬ 
light. In general, it is like a gauze veil, with rainbows 
dancing up and down it, and when clouds hide the top of 
the mountain, it seems as poured out of the sky. 

In Canada, the falls of Montmorenci are 250 feet high, 
the falls of Niagara (the Horse Shoe Falls) are 158 feet 
high and 2,000 feet wide, the American Falls are 164 feet 
high and 900 feet wide. The Yosemite Valley Falls are 
2,600 feet high, and the Ribbon Falls of the Yosemite are 
3,300 feet high. The waterfall of the Arve, in Bavaria, 
is 2,000 feet. 

The Periods of Gestation are the same in the horse 
and ass or eleven months each, camel 12 months, elephant 
2 years, lion 5 months, buffalo 12 months, in the human 
female 9 months, cow 9 months, sheep 5 months, dqg 9 
weeks, cat 8 weeks, sow 16 weeks, she wolf from 90 to 95 
days. The goose sits 30 days, swans 42, hens 21, ducks 
30, peahens and turkeys 28, canaries 14, pigeons 14, par¬ 
rots 40 days. 

Ages of Animals, Etc. —Elephant 100 years and up¬ 
ward, Rhinoceros 20, Camel 100, Lion 25 to 70, Tigers, 
Leopards, Jaguars and Hyenas (in confinement) about 25 
years, Beaver 50, deer 20, wolf 20, Fox 14 to 16, Llamas 
15, Chamois 25, Monkeys and Baboons 16 to 18 years, 
Plare 8, Squirrel 7, Rabbit 7, Swine 25, Stag under 50, 
Horse 30, Ass 30, Sheep under 10, Cow 20, Ox 30, Swans, 
Parrots and Ravens 200, Eagle 100, Geese 80, Hens and 
Pigeons 10 to 16, Hawks 36 to 40, Cranes 24, Blackbird 
10 to 12, Peacock 20, Pelican 40 to 50, Thrush 8 to 10, 
Wren 2 to 3, Nightingale 15, Blackcap 15, Linnet 14 to 
23, Goldfinch 20 to 24, Redbreast 10 to 12, Skylark 10 to 
30, Titlark 5 to 6, Chaffinch 20 to 24, Starling 10 to 12, 
Carp 70 to 150, Pike 30 to 40, Salmon 16, Codfish 14 to 
17, Eel 10, Crocodile 100, Tortoise 100 to 200, Whale esti¬ 
mated 1,000, Queen Bees live 4 years, Drones 4 months, 
Working Bees 6 months. 

The melody of singing birds ranks as follow's : The night¬ 
ingale first, then the linnet, titlark, sky lark and wood 
lark. The mocking bird has the greatest powers of imita¬ 
tion, the robin and goldfinch are superior in vigorous 
notes. 

The condor of Peru has spread wings 40 feet, feathers 
20 feet, quills 8 inches round. 

In England, a quarter of wheat, comprising 8 bushels, 
yields 14 bushels 2£ pecks, divided into seven distinct kinds 


of flour, as follows: Fine flour, 5 bushels 3 pecks; bran, 3 
bushels; twenty-penny, 3 bushels; seconds, 2 pecks; pol¬ 
lard, 2 bushels; fine middlings, 1 peck; coarse ditto, 1 
peck. 

The ancient Greek phalanx comprised 8,000 men, form¬ 
ing a square battalion, with spears crossing each other, 
and shields united. 

The Roman legion was composed of 6,000 men, com¬ 
prising 10 cohorts of 600 men each, with 300 horsemen. 

The ancient battering ram was of massive timber, 60 to 
100 feet long, fitted with an iron head. It was erected 
under shelter to protect the 60 or 100 men required to 
work it. The largest was equal in force to a 36-lb. shot 
from a cannon. 

Pile Driving on Sandy Soils.—The greatest force will not 
effect a penetration exceeding 15 feet. 

Various Sizes of Type.—It requires 205 lines of Dia¬ 
mond type to make 12 inches, of Pearl 178, of Ruby 166, 
of Nonpareil 143, of Minion 128, of Brevier 112-£, of 
Bourgeois 102£, of Long Primer 89, of Small Pica 83, of 
Pica 71i, of English 64. 

Wire ropes for the transmission of power vary in size 
from f to | inch diam. for from 3 to 300 horse power; to 
promote flexibility, the rope, made of iron, steel, or cop¬ 
per wire, as may be preferred, is provided with a core of 
hemp, and the speed is 1 mile per minute, more or less, as 
desired. The rope should run on a well-balanced, grooved, 
cast iron wheel, of from 4 to 15 feet diam., according as 
the transmitted power ranges from 3 to 300 horse; the 
groove should be well cushioned with soft material, as 
leather or rubber, for the formation of a durable bed for 
the rope. With good care the rope will last from 3 to 5 
years. 

Cannon balls go furthest at an elevation of 30 degrees, 
and less as the balls are less; the range is furthest when 
fired from west to east in the direction of the earth’s 
motion, which for the diurnal rotation on its axis, is at the 
rate of 1,037 miles per hour, and in its orbit, 66,092 
miles. 

The air’s resistance is such that a cannon ball of 3 lbs. 
weight, diameter, 2.78 ins. moving with a velocity of 
1,800 feet per second, is resisted by a force equal to 
156 lbs. 

Bricklayers ascend ladders with loads of 90 lbs., 1 foot 
per second. There are 484 bricks in a cubic yard, and 
4,356 in a rod. 

A power of 250 tons is necessary to start a vessel weigh¬ 
ing 3,000 tons over greased slides on a marine railway, 
when in motion, 150 tons only is required. 

A modern dredging machine, 123 ft. long, beam 26 ft., 
breadth over all, 11 ft., will raise 180 tons of mud and 
clay per hour, 11 feet from water-line. 

In tanning, 4 lbs. of oak bark make 1 lb. of leather. 

Flame is quenched in air containing 3 per cent, of car¬ 
bonic acid; the same percentage is fatal to animal life. 

100 parts of oak make nearly 23 of charcoal; beech 21, 
deal 19, apple 23.7, elm 23, ash 25, birch 24, maple 22.8, 
willow 18, poplar 20, red pine 22.10, white pine 23. The 
charcoal used in gunpowder is made from willow, alder, 
and a few other woods. The charred timber found in the 
ruins of Herculaneum has undergone no change in 1,800 
years. 

Four volumes of nitrogen and one of oxygen compose 
atmospheric air in all localities on the globe. 

Air extracted from pure water, under an air pump, con¬ 
tains 34.8 per cent, of oxygen. Fish breathe this air, 
respiring about 35 times per minute. The oxhydrogen 
lime light may be seen from mountains at the distance of 
200 miles round. 

Lightning is reflected 150 to 200 miles. 








































45G 


TWENTY THOUSAND THINGS WORTH KNOWING. 


1,000 cubic feet of 13 candle gas is equivalent to over 7 
gals, of sperm oil, 52.9 lbs. of tallow candles, and o%er 
44 lbs. of sperm candles. 

The time occupied by gas in traveling from a gas well (m 
Pennsylvania) through 32 miles of pipe was 22 minutes, 
pressure at the well was 55 lbs. per inch, pressure at dis¬ 
charge 49 lbs. 

At birth, the beats of the pulse are from 165 to 104, 
and the inspirations of breath from 70 to 23. From 15 to 
20, the pulsations are from 90 to 57, the inspirations, from 
24 to 16; from 29 to 50, the pulsations are 112 to 56, the 
inspirations 23 to 11. In usual states it is 4 to 1. The 
action of the heart distributes 2 ozs. of blood from 70 to 
80 times in a minute. 

The mean heat of the human body is 98 degs. and of the 
skin 90 degs. Tea and coffee are usually drank at 110 degs. 

The deepest coal mine in England is at Killingworth, 
near Newcastle, and the mean annual temperature at 400 
yards below the surface is 77 degrees, and at 300 yards 70 
degrees, while at the surface it is but 48 degrees, being 1 
degree of increase for every 15 yards. This explains the 
origin of hot springs, for at 3,300 yards the heat would be 
equal to boiling water, taking 20 yards to a degree. The 
heat of the Bath waters is 116 degrees, hence they would 
appear to rise 1,320 yards. 

Peron relates that at the depth of 2,144 feet in the sea 
the thermometer falls to 45 degrees, when it is 86 degrees 
at the surface. 

Swemberg and Fourier calculate the temperature of the 
celestial spaces at 50 degrees centigrade below freezing. 

In Northern Siberia the ground is frozen permanently 
to the depth of 660 feet, and only thaws to the extent of 3 
or 4 feet in summer. Below 660 feet internal heat begins. 

River water contains about 30 grs. of solid matter in 
every cubic foot. Fresh water springs of great size 
abound under the sea. Perhaps the most remarkable 
springs exist in California, where they are noted for pro¬ 
ducing sulphuric acid, ink, and other remarkable products. 

St. Winifred’s Well, in England, evolves 120 tons of 
water per minute, furnishing abundant water power to 
drive 11 mills within little more than a mile. 

The French removed a red granite column 95 feet high, 
weighing 210 tons, from Thebes, and carried it to Paris. 
The display of costly architectural ruins at Thebes is one 
of the most astonishing to be seen anywhere in the world. 
The ruins and costly buildings in old Eastern countries, 
are so vast in their proportions and so many in number that 
it would require volumes to describe them. 

Babel, now called Birs Nimroud, built at Babylon by 
Belus, was used as an observatory and as a temple of the 
Sun. It was composed of 8 square towers, one over the 
other, in all 670 feet high, and the same dimensions on 
each side on the ground. 

The Coliseum at Pome, built by Vespasian for 100,000 
spectators, was in its longest diameter 615-5 feet, and in 
the shortest 510, embraced 5£ acres, and was 120 feet high. 

Eight aqueducts supplied ancient Rome with water, de¬ 
livering 40 millions of cubit feet daily. That of Claudia 
was 47 miles long and 100 feet high, so as to furnish the 
hills. Martia was 41 miles, of which 37 were on 7,000 
acres 70 feet high. These vast erections would never have 
been built had the Romans known that water always rises 
to its own level. 

The Temple of Diana, at Ephesus, was 425 feet long and 
225 feet broad, with 127 columns, 60 feet high, to support 
the roof. It was 220 years in building. 

Solomon’s Temple, built B. C. 1014, was 60 cubits or 
107 feet in length, the breadth 20 cubits or 36 feet, and the 
height 30 cubits or 54 feet. The porch was 36 feet long 
and 18 feet wide. 


The largest one of the Egyptian pyramids is 543 feet 
high, 693 feet on the sides, and its base covers 11 acres. 
The layers of stones are 208 in number. Many stones are 
over 30 feet long, 4 broad and 3 thick. 

The Temple of Ypsambul, in Nubia, is enormously mas¬ 
sive and cut out of the solid rock. Belzoni found in it 4 
immense figures, 65 feet high, 25 feet over the shoulders, 
with a face of 7 feet and the ears over 3 feet. 

Sesostris erected in the temple in Memphis immense 
statues of himself and his wife, 50 feet high, and of his 
children, 28 feet. 

In the Temple of the Sun, at Baalbec, are stones more 
than 60 feet long, 24 feet thick and 16 broad, each em¬ 
bracing 23,000 cubic feet, cut, squared, sculptured, and 
transported from neighboring quarries. Six enormous col¬ 
umns are each 72 feet high, composed of 3 stones 7 feet in 
diameter. Sesostris is credited with having transported 
from the mountains of Arabia a rock 32 feet wide and 240 
feet long. 

The engineering appliances used by the ancients in the 
movement of these immense masses are but imperfectly 
understood at the present day. 

During modern times, a block of granite weighing 1,217 
tons, now used as the pedestal of the equestrian statute of 
Peter the Great, at St. Petersburg, was transported 4 miles 
by land over a railway, and 13 miles in a vast caisson by 
water. The railway consisted of two lines of timber fur¬ 
nished with hard metal grooves; between these grooves were 
placed spheres of hard brass about 6 inches in diameter. 
On these spheres the frame with its massive load was easily 
moved by 60 men, working at capstans with treble purchase 
blocks. 

In 1716 Swedenborg contrived to transport (on rolling 
machines of his own invention) over valleys and mount¬ 
ains, 2 galleys, 5 large boats and 1 sloop, from Stromstadt 
to Iderfjol (which divides Sweden from Norway on the 
South), a distance of 14 miles, by which means Charles 
XII. was able to carry on his plans, and under cover of the 
galleys and boats to transport on pontoons his heavy artil¬ 
lery to the very walls of Frederickshall. 

Belzoni considered the tract between the first and second 
cataract of the Nile as the hottest on the globe, owing to 
there being no rain. The natives do not credit the phe¬ 
nomenon of water falling from above. Hence it is that all 
monuments are so nicely preserved. Buckingham found a 
building left unfinished about 4,000 years ago, and the 
chalk marks on the stones were still perfect. 

Pompey’s Pillar is 92 feet high, and 27i round at the 
base. 

Water is the absolute master, former and secondary agent 
of the power of motion in everything terrestrial. It is the 
irresistible power which elaborates everything, and the 
waters contain more organized beings than the land. 

Rivers hold in suspension 100th of their volume (more 
or less) of mud, so that if 36 cubic miles of water (the esti¬ 
mated quantity) flow daily into the sea, 0.36 cubic miles of 
soil are daily displaced. The Rhine carries to the seaevery 
day 145,980 cubic feet of mud. The Po carries out the 
land 228 feet per annum, consequently Adria which 2,500 
years ago was on the sea, is now over 20 miles from it. 

The enormous amount of alluvium deposited by the Mis¬ 
sissippi is almost incalculable, and constantly renders 
necessary extensive engineering operations in order to re¬ 
move the impediments to navigation. 

As an exponent of the laws of friction, it may be stated 
that a square stone weighing 1,080 lbs. which required a 
force of 758 lbs. to drag it along the floor of a quarry, 
roughly chiseled, required only a force of 22 lbs. to move 
it when mounted on a platform and rollers over a plank 
floor. 













































TWENTY THOUSAND THINGS WORTH KNOWING. 


The flight of wild ducks is estimated at 90 miles per 
hour, that of the swift at 200 miles, carrier pigeons 38 
miles, swallows 60 miles, migratory birds have crossed the 
Mediterranean at a speed of 120 miles per hour. 

The Nile has a fall of 6 ins. in 1,000 miles. The rise of 
the river commences in June, continuing until the middle 
of August, attaining an elevation of from 24 to 26 feet, 
and flowing the valley of Egypt 12 miles wide. In 1829 it 
rose to 26 cubits, by which 30,000 persons were drowned. 
It is a terrible climate to live in, owing to the festering 
heat and detestable exhalations from the mud, etc., left 
on the retiring of the Nile, which adds about 4 inches to 
the soil in a century, and encroaches on the sea 16 feet 
every year. Bricks have been found at the depth of 60 feet, 
showing the vast antiquity of the country. In productive¬ 
ness of soil it is excelled by no other in the world. 

How to Splice a Belt in Order to Make it Run Like an 
Endless Belt.—Use the toughest yellow glue prepared in 
the ordinary way, while hot, stirring in thoroughly about 
20 per cent of its weight of tannic acid, or extract of tan 
bark. Apply to the splice and quickly clamp together. 
The splice should be made of scarfed edges extending 3 to 
6 inches back, according to thickness of belt. The surface 
to be perfectly clean and free from oil. 

How Many Pounds of Coal it Requires to Maintain 
Steam of One-Horse Power per Hour.—Anthracite 1£ to 
5 pounds, according to the economy of boiler and engine. 
Bituminous and anthracite coal are very nearly equal for 
equal qualities. They both vary from 7 to 10 pounds of 
water evaporated per pound of coal from a temperature of 
212 degrees. 

A Formula for Collodio-bromide Emulsion that is 
Rapid.—Ether s. g. 0.720, 4 fluid ounces; alcohol s. g. 
0.820, 2£ fluid ounces; pyroxyline, 40 grains; castile 
soap dissolved in alcohol, 30 grains; bromide of ammonium 
and cadmium, 56 grains. 

How to Deaden the Noise of Steam While Blowing off 
Through a Wrought Iron Stand Pipe.—The sound may be 
much modified by enlarging the end of the pipe like a 
trumpet or cone; which should be long, 20 or 30 times the 
diameter of the pipe, opening to 4 or 5 times its initial 
size. 

Why Fusible Plugs are Put in the Crown Sheet of Loco¬ 
motive Boilers.—To save the crown sheet from burning in 
case of low water, when the plug melts and lets the steam 
and water into the fire chamber to dampen and put out the 
fire as well as to make an alarm. They may also be 
employed on other forms of boilers, and are much used in 
connection with whistles for low-water alarms only. 
Boilers should not be blown out for cleaning with 
fire under them or while the walls (if set in brick) 
are hot enough to do damage to the iron shell. Loco¬ 
motive boilers may be blown out very soon after the 
fire is entirely removed. All brick-set boilers should be 
left several hours after the fire is drawn before blowing off 
for cleaning. 

How to Lace a Quarter Turn Belt so as to Have an 
Equal Strain on Both Edges of the Belt.—Begin on the 
outside of the belt at the middle, pass one end of the lacing 
through one end of the belt and bring it out through the 
corresponding hole of the other end of the belt, laying it 
diagonally off to the left. Now pass the other end of the 
lacfng through the hole last used, and carry it over the 
first strand of the lacing on the inside of the belt, passing 
it through the first hole used, and lay it diagonally off to the 
right. Now proceed to pass the lacing through the holes 
of the belt in a zigzag course, leaving all the strands inside 
the belt parallel with the belt, and all the strands outside 



the belt oblique. Pass the lace twice through the holes 
nearest the edge of the belt, then return the lace in the 
reverse order toward the center of the belt, so as to cross 
all the oblique strands, and make all the inside strands 
double. Finally pass the end of the lacing through the 
first hole used, then outward through an awl hole, then 
hammering it down to cause it to hold. The left side is 
to be laced in a similar way. 

A Useful Hint to Draughtsmen.—To strain drawing 
paper on a board, cut the paper to the size required, lay it 
on the board face downwards and thoroughly wet the 
surface with a damp sponge or brush, then turn it over 
and wet the face in the same way ; roll it up tightly and 
let it stay so for five or six minutes, unroll it, and turn up 
the edges about an inch all around. Take liquid glue 
(Jackson's is the best) and apply it carefully to the edges, 
then turn them down, and with a paper knife press them 
tothe*board all around. Put the board in an inclined 
position where it is not too dry or warm, or the paper will 
dry too fast and tear. If it is allowed to dry slowly the 
surface will be perfectly even and smooth, and a pleasure 
to draw upon. 

Joints for Hot Water Pipes.—Sal-ammoniac, 2 oz.; 
sublimed sulphur, 1 oz.; cast-iron filings, 1 lb. Mix in a 
mortar, and keep the powder dry. When it is to be used, 
mix it with twenty times its weight of clean iron filings, 
and grind the whole in a mortar. Wet with water until 
it becomes of convenient consistence. After a time it 
becomes as hard and strong as any part of the metal. 

When the Process of Galvanizing Iron was First 
Known.—A. The process of coating iron with zinc, or 
zinc and tin, is a French invention, and was patented in 
England in 1837. 

A Timber Test.—The soundness of timber may be 
ascertained by placing the ear close to one end of the log, 
while another person delivers a succession of smart blows 
with a hammer or mallet upon the opposite end, when a 
continuance of the vibrations will indicate to an expe¬ 
rienced ear even the degree of soundness. If only a dull 
thud meets the ear, the listener may be certain that un¬ 
soundness exists. 

Useful Hints and Recipes.—Following is a comparative 
statement of the toughness of various woods.—Ash, 100; 
beech, 85; cedar of Lebanon, 84; larch, 83; sycamore and 
common walnut, each, 68; occidental plane, 66; oak, horn¬ 
beam and Spanish mahogany, each, 62; teak and acacia, 
each, 58; elm and young chestnut, 52. 

An ingenius device for stretching emery cloth for use 
in the workshop consists of a couple of strips of wood 
about 14 in. long, hinged longitudinally, and of round, 
half-round, triangular, or any other shape in cross sec¬ 
tion. On the inside faces of the wood strips are pointed 
studs, fitting into holes on the opposite side. The strip of 
emery cloth is laid on to one set of the studs, and the 
file, as it is called, closed, which fixes the strip on one side. 
It is then similarly fixed on the other side, and thus con¬ 
stitutes what is called an emery file and which is a handy 
and convenient arrangement for workshop use. 

Method of making Artificial Whetstones.—Gelatine of 
good quality is dissolved in its own weight of water, the 
operation being conducted in a dark room. To the solution 
one and a half per cent, of bichromate of potash is added, 
which has previously been dissolved in a little water. A 
quantity of very fine emery, equal to nine timesthe weight 
of the gelatine, is itimately mixed with the gelatine solu¬ 
tion. Pulverized flint may be substituted for emery. The 
mass is molded into any desired shape, and is then consoli¬ 
dated by heavy pressure. It is dried by exposure to strong 
sunlight for several hours. 



29 


































458 


TWENTY THOUSAND THINGS WORTH KNOWING. 


How to Toughen Paper.—A plan for rendering paper as 
tough as wood or leather has been recently introduced; it 
consists in mixing chloride of zinc with the pulp in the 
course of manufacture. It has been found that the greater 
the degree of concentration of the zinc solution, the greater 
will be the toughness of the paper. It can be used for 
making boxes and for roofing. 

How to Mend a Broken File.—There is no tool so easily 
broken as the file that the machinist has to work with, and 
is about the first thing that snaps when a kit of tools gets 
upset upon the cross-beam of a machine or a tool board 
from the bed of an engine lathe. It cannot even be passed 
from one workman to another without being broken, if 
the file is a new one or still good for anything, if an ap¬ 
prentice has got anything to do with it, and they are never 
worth mending, however great may be their first cost, un¬ 
less the plaster of Paris and lime treatment can make a 
perfect weld without injuring the steel or disturbing the 
form of the teeth. Steel that is left as hard as a file is 
very brittle, and soft solder can hold as much on a steady 
pull if it has a new surface to work from. Take a file, as 
soon as it is broken, and wet the break with zinc dissolved 
in muriatic acid, and then tin over with the soldering iron. 
This must be done immediately as soon as the file is brok¬ 
en, as the break begins to oxydize when exposed to the air. 
and in an hour or two will gather sufficient to make it im¬ 
possible for the parts to adhere. Heat the file as warm as 
it will bear without disturbing its temper as soon as well 
tinned, and press the two pieces firmly together, squeezing 
out nearly all the solder, and hold in place until the file 
cools. This can be done with very little to trim off, 
and every portion of the break fitting accurately in place. 
Bring both pieces in line with each other, and, for a file, it 
is as strong in one place as in another, and is all that could 
be asked for under the very best of welding treatment. 

What will Fasten Pencil Markings, to Prevent Blurring. 
—Immerse paper containing the markings to be pre¬ 
served in a bath of clear water, then flow or immerse in 
milk a moment; hang up to dry. Having often had re¬ 
course to this method, in preserving pencil and crayon 
drawings, I will warrant it a sure cure. 

How to Transfer Newspaper Prints to Glass.—First coat 
the glass with dammar varnish, or else with Canada bal¬ 
sam, mixed with an equal volume of oil of turpentine, 
and let it dry until it is very sticky, which takes half a 
day or more. The printed paper to be transferred should 
be well soaked in soft water, and carefully laid upon the 
prepared glass, after removing surplus water with blotting 
paper, and pressed upon it, so that no air bubbles or drops 
of water are seen underneath. This should dry a whole 
day before it is touched; then with wetted fingers begin 
to rub off the paper at the back. If this be skillfully 
done, almost the whole of the paper can be removed, 
leaving simply the ink upon the varnish. When the 
paper has been removed, another coat of varnish will 
serve to make the whole more transparent. This recipe 
is sold at from $3 to 15 by itinerants. 

i A * ™ iquid Cement for Cementing Leather, that Will Not 
be Affected by the Action of Water.—A good cement for 
splicing leather is gutta perch a dissolved in carbon disul¬ 
phide, until it is of the thickness of treacle; the parts to 
be cemented must first be well thinned down, then pour 
a small quantity of the cement on both ends, spreading it 
well so as to fill the pores of the leather; warm the parts 
over a fire for about half a minute, apply them quickly 
together, and hammer well. The bottle ‘containing the 

pl^e 1 ^ S1 ° Uld ^ tightly corked ’ and ke Pt in a cool 

The Quickest and Best Way to Drill Holes for Water 
i ipes in Rough Plate Glass.—Use a hardened (file temper) 


I drill, with spirits of turpentine and camphor to make the 
drill bite. A broken file in a breast brace will do good 
work if a power drill is not obtainable. 

A Recipe for Making Printers’ Inks.—For black ink: 
Take of balsam of copaiba (pure), 9 ounces; lamp black, 
3 ounces; indigo and Prussian blue, of each half an ounce; 
Indian red, f ounce; yellow soap (dry), 3 ounces; grind 
the mixture to an impalpable smoothness by means of a 
stone and muller. Canada balsam may be substituted for 
balsam of copaiba where the smell of the latter is objec¬ 
tionable, but the ink then dries very quickly. The red 
inks are similarly made by using such pigments as car¬ 
mine, lakes, vermilion, chrome yellow, red lead, orange 
red, Indian red and Venetian red. 

A Cement to Stick White Metal Tops on Glass Bottles. 
—One of the best cap cements consists of resin, 5 ounces; 
beeswax, 1 ounce; red ocher or Venetian red in powder, 1 
ounce. Dry the earth thoroughly on a stove at a temper¬ 
ature above 212° Fall. Melt the wax and resin together, 
and stir in the powder by degrees. Stir until cold, lest 
the earthy matter settle to the bottom. 

The Correct Meaning of the Tonnage of a Vessel.—The 
law defines very carefully how the tonnage of different 
vessels shall be calculated. An approximate rule for find¬ 
ing the gross tonnage is to multiply the length of keel 
between perpendiculars by the breadth of vessel and 
depth of hold, all in feet, and dividing the product by 
100. It is generally assumed that 40 cubic feet shall con¬ 
stitute a ton, and the tonnage of a vessel is considered to 
be the multiple of this ton, which most closely corresponds 
with the internal capacity of the vessel. 

A Recipe for Re-inking Purple Type Ribbons.—Use: 
Aniline violet, ^ ounce; pure alcohol, 15 ounces; concen¬ 
trated glycerine, 15 ounces. Dissolve the aniline in the 
alcohol, and add the glycerine. 

The Process of Giving a Tempered-Blue Color to the 
Steel Plate and Malleable Iron Castings of a Roller Skate. 

—In order to obtain an even blue, the work must have an 
even finish, and be made perfectly clean. Arrange a cast- 
iron pot in a fire so as to heat it to the temperature of 
melted lead, or just below a red heat. Make a flat bottom 
basket of wire or wire cloth to sit in the iron box, on 
which place the work to be blued, as many pieces as you 
may find you can manage, always putting in pieces of 
about the same thickness and size, so that they will heat 
evenly. Make a bail to the basket, so that it can be easily 
handled. When the desired color is obtained, dip quickly 
in hot water to stop the progress of the bluing, for an 
instant only, so that enough heat may be retained to dry 
the articles. A cover to the iron box may sometimes be 
used to advantage to hasten the heating. Another way, 
much used, is to varnish the work with ultramarine var¬ 
nish, which may be obtained from the varnish makers. 

Cement to Mend Iron Pots and Pans.—Take two parts 
of sulphur and one part, by weight, of fine black lead; 
put the sulphur in an old iron pan, holding it over the 
fire until it begins to melt, then add the lead; stir well 
until all is mixed and melted; then pour out on an iron 
plate or smooth stone. When cool, break into small 
pieces. A sufficient quantity of this compound being 
placed upon the crack of the iron pot to be mended, can 
be soldered by a hot iron in the same way a tinsmith sold¬ 
ers his sheets. If there is a small hole in the pot, drive a 
copper rivet in it, and then solder over it with this cement. 

The Best Method of Rendering Basement Walls Damp- 
Proof.—Construct on the outside an area wall so that the 
earth does not rest directly against the main wall of the 
house, but only against the outside wall or casing of the 
area. To form such an area, build a wall half or one 
brick thick parallel to and some 2 or 3 inches from the 







































TWENTY THOUSAND THINGS WORTH KNOWING. 


459 


main wall, and form at the bottom a channel or gutter 
connected with the drains, so that any moisture or water 
finding its way in through the outer casing may be con¬ 
ducted away and will not therefore penetrate into the 
building. Ihoroughly ventilate the areas by means of air 
bricks or other suitable connections with the outer air, 
and connect with one another by making through connec¬ 
tions underneath the floor joists. Be very careful that 
the main wall is laid on a good and efficient damp course. 
The top of the space between the area and main walls may 
be covered in all around the building with bricks—orna¬ 
mented or otherwise, as preferred—on a line just above 
the ground. Another plan of effecting the same object is 
to dispense with the area wall and in building the brick 
work to cover the whole of the work on the outside with a 
thick layer of bituminous asphalt. The plaster on the 
inside is in this case often rendered in nearly neat Portland 
cement. 

How to Caseharden Large Pieces of Steel.—A box of 
cast or wrought iron should be provided large enough to 
hold one or two of the pieces, with sufficient room all 
around to pack well with the casehardening ^materials, 
which may be leather scrap, hoof shavings, or horn 
shavings,, slightly burned and pulverized, which may be 
mixed with, an equal quantity of pulverized charcoal. 
Pack the pieces to be casehardened in the iron box so as 
not to touch each other or the box. Put an iron cover on 
the box and lute with clay. Heat gradually in a furnace 
to a full red, keep at an even temperature for from 2 to 4 
hours, raise the heat to a cherry red during the last hour, 
then remove the cover and take out the pieces and plunge 
endwise vertically in water at shop temperature; 2 per 
cent, of hydrochloric acid in the water improves its temper¬ 
ing qualities and gives the metal an even gray color. 

A Good and Cheap Preparation to Put on Friction 
Matches.—The igniting composition varies with different 
makers. The following recipes may be taken as fairly 
representative, the first being the best: 1. Phosphorus 
by weight, | part; potassium chlorate, 4 parts ; glue, 2 
parts ; whiting, 1 part; finely powdered glass, 4 parts; 
water, 11 parts. 2. Phosphorus by weight, 2 parts; 
potassium chlorate, 5 parts; glue, 3 parts; red lead, 1$ 
parts; water, 12 parts. 3. A German mixture for 
matches. Potassium chlorate, 7.8 parts; lead hyposul¬ 
phite, 2*6 parts ; gum arabic, 1 part. 

To Find How Much Tin Vessels Will Hold.—For the 
contents of cylinders : Square the diameter, and multi¬ 
ply the product by 0.7854. Again, multiply by the 
height (all in inches). Divide the product by 231 for 
gallons. For the frustum of a cone : Add together the 
squares of the diameters of large and small ends ; to this 
add the product of the diameter of the two ends. Multi¬ 
ply this sum by 0.7854. Multiply this product by the 
height (all in inches). Then divide by 231 for the num¬ 
ber of gallons. 

A Useful Recipe.—For stopping the joints between 
slates or shingles, etc., and chimneys, doors, windows, etc., 
a mixture of stiff white-lead paint, with sand enough to 
prevent it from running, is very good, especially if pro¬ 
tected by a covering of strips of lead or copper, tin, etc., 
nailed to the mortar joints of the chimneys, after being 
bent so as to enter said joints, which should be scraped 
out for an inch in depth, and afterward refilled. Mortar 
protected in the same way, or even unprotected, is often 
used for the purpose, but it is not equal to the paint and 
sand. Mortar a few days old (to allow refractory parti¬ 
cles of lime to slack), mixed with blacksmith's cinders 
and molasses, is much used for this purpose, and becomes 
very hard and effective. 


Test for Hard or Soft Water.—Dissolve a small quan¬ 
tity of good soap in alcohol. Let a few drops fall into a 
glass of water. If it turns milky, it is hard ; if not, it is 
soft. 

Test for Earthy Matters or Alkali in Water.—Take 
litmus paper dipped in vinegar, and if, on immersion, the 
paper returns to its true shade, the water does not con¬ 
tain earthy matter or alkali. If a few drops of syrup be 
added to a water containing an earthy matter, it will turn 
green. 

Test for Carbonic Acid in Water.—Take equal parts of 
water and clear lime water. If combined or free car¬ 
bonic acid is present, a precipitate is seen, to which, if a 
few drops of muriatic acid be added, an effervescence 
commences. 

Test for Magnesia in Water.—Boil the water to a twen¬ 
tieth part of its weight, and then drop a few grains of 
neutral carbonate of ammonia into a glass of it, and a 
few drops of phosphate of soda. If magnesia be present, 
it will fall to the bottom. 

Test for Iron in Water.—1. Boil a little nutgall and 
add to the water. If it turns gray or slate, black iron is 
present. 2. Dissolve a little prussiate of potash, and, if 
iron is present, it will turn blue. 

Test for Lime in Water.—Into a glass of water put two 
drops of oxalic acid and blow upon it. If it gets milky, 
lime is present. 

Test for Acid in Water.—Take a piece of litmus paper. 
If it turns red, there must be acid. If it precipitates on 
adding lime water, it is carbonic acid. If a blue sugar 
paper is turned red, it is a mineral acid. 

Value of Manufactured Steel.—A pound of very fine 
steel wire to make watch springs of, is worth about $4; 
this will make 17,000 springs, worth 87,000. 

Horses in Norway have a very sensible way of taking 
their food, which perhaps might be beneficially followed 
here. They have a bucket of water put down beside their 
allowance of hay. It is interesting to see with what 
relish they take a sip of the one and a mouthful of the 
other alternately, sometimes only moistening their mouths, 
as a rational being would do while eating a dinner of such 
dry food. A broken-winded horse is scarcely ever seen in 
Norway, and the question is if the mode of feeding has 
not something to do with the preservation of the animal's 
respiratory organs. 

The Process of Fastening Rubber Rolls on Clothes 
Wringer.—1. Clean shaft thoroughly between the shoulders 
or washers, where the rubber goes on. 2. Give the shaft a 
coat of copal varnish, between the shoulders, and let it dry. 
3. Give shaft coat of varnish and wind shaft tightly as pos¬ 
sible with five-ply jute twine at once, while varnish is 
green, and let it dry for about six hours. 4. Give shaft 
over the twine a coat of rubber cement, and let it dry for 
about six hours. 5. Give shaft over the twine a second 
coat of rubber cement, and let it dry for about six hours. 
6. Remove washer on the short end of shaft, also the cog¬ 
wheel if the shaft has cogs on both ends. 7. See that the 
rubber rolls are always longer than the space between the 
washers where the rubber goes on, as they shrink or take 
up a little in putting on the shaft. 8. Clean out the hole 
or inside of roll with benzine, using a small brush or 
swab. 9. Put the thimble or pointer on the end of shaft 
that the washer has been removed from, and give shaft 
over the twine and thimble another coat of cement, and 
stand same upright in a vise. 10. Give the inside or hole 
of roll a coat of cement with a small rod or stick. 11. 
Pull or force the roll on the shaft as quickly as possible 
with a jerk, then rivet the washer on with a cold chisel. 
































460 


TWENTY THOUSAND THINGS WORTH KNOWING. 


^ ]/ 12. Let roll stand and get dry for two or three days before 
using same. Cement for use should be so thick that it 
will run freely; if it gets too thick, thin it with benzine 
or naphtha. 

How to Make Effervescing Solution of Citrate of Mag¬ 
nesia.—Dissolve citric acid 400 grains in water 2,000 
grains, add carbonate of magnesia 200 grains; stir until 
dissolved. Filter into a 12-ounce bottle containing syrup 
of citric acid 1,200 grains. Add boiled and filtered water 
to fill bottle, drop in bicarbonate of potash in crystals 30 
grains and immediately cork. Shake until bicarbonate of 
potash is dissolved. The syrup of citric acid is made from 
citric acid 8 parts, water 8 parts, spirit of lemon 4 parts, 
syrup 980 parts. 

A Receipt for Making the Black Cement that is Used 
for Filling Letters after They are Cut out in Brass.—Mix 
asphaltum, brown japan and lampblack into a putty-like 
mass, fill in the spaces, and finally clean the edges with 
turpentine. 

Useful Workshop Hints.—Clean and oil leather belts 
without taking them off their pulleys. If taken off they 
will shrink. Then a piece must be put into them and 
removed again after the belt has run a few days. The 
decay of stone, either in buildings or monuments, may be 
arrested by heating and treating with paraffin mixed with 
a little creosote. A common “ paint burner" may be used 
to heat the stone. Set an engine upon three or four mov¬ 
able points, as upon three cannon balls. Connect with 
steam, and exhaust by means of rubber hose. If the 
engine will run up to speed without moving itself back 
and forth, then that engine will run a long time with little 
repair. If it shakes itself around the room, then buy 
another engine. Safely moving a tall mill chimney has 
been accomplished several times. Chimneys which have 
been caused to lean slightly through settling of the founda¬ 
tion may be straightened up again by sawing out the mor¬ 
tar between courses of brick at the base. A chimney 
100 ft. high and 12 ft. square at the base will be varied over 
8 in. at the top by the removal of 1 in. at the base. When 
you begin to fix up the mill for cold weather, don't forget 
to put a steam trap in each and every steam pipe which 
can be opened into the atmosphere for heating purposes. 
For leading steam joints, mix the red lead or litharge with 
common commercial glycerine, instead of linseed oil. Put 
a little carbolic acid in your glue or paste pot. It will 
keep the contents sweet for a long time. Look well to the 
bearings of your shafting engine and machines. Some¬ 
times 25, 30, 40 and even 50 per cent, of your power is 
consumed through lack of good oil. When you buy a 
water wheel, be sure to buy one small enough to run at 
full gate while the stream is low during the summer 
months. If you want more power than the small wheel 
will give, then put in two or more wheels of various sizes. 
When it becomes necessary to trim a piece of rubber, it 
will be found that the knife will cut much more readily if 
dipped in water. When forging a chisel or other cutting 
tool, never upset the end of the tool. If necessary cut it 
off, but don't try to force it back into a good cutting edge. 
In tubular boilers the handholes should be often opened, 
and all collections removed from over the fire. When 
boilers are fed in front, and are blown off through the 
same pipe, the collection of mud or sediment in the rear 
end should be often removed. Nearly all smoke may be 
consumed without special apparatus, by attending with a 
little common sense to a few simple rules. Suppose we 
have a battery of boilers, and “soft coal" is the fuel. Go 
N \ to the first boiler, shut the damper nearly up, and fire up 
J w one-half of the furnace, close the door, open damper, and 
fjrk go to the next boiler and repeat the firing. By this 
jTy method nearly, if not quite, all the smoke will be con¬ 


sumed. A coiled spring inserted between engine and 
machinery is highly beneficial where extreme regularity of 
power is required. It is well known that a steam engine, 
in order to govern itself, must run too fast and too slow in 
order to close or open its valves; hence an irregularity of 
power is unavoidable. 

A “Paste" Metal Polish for Cleaning and Polishing 
Brass.—Oxalic acid 1 part, iron peroxide 15 parts, pow¬ 
dered rottenstone 20 parts, palm oil 60 parts, petrolatum 
4 parts. See that solids are thoroughly pulverized and 
sifted, then add and thoroughly incorporate oil and petro¬ 
latum. 

Cough Candy or Troches.—Tincture of squills 2 ounces, 
camphorated tincture of opium and tincture of tolu of 
each i ounce, wine of ipecac -J ounce, oil of gautheria 4 
drops, sassafras 3 drops, and of anise seed oil 2 drops. The 
above mixture is to be put into 5 pounds of candy which 
is just ready to take from the fire; continue the boiling a 
little longer, so as to form into sticks. 

How to Oxidize Silver.—For this purpose a pint of sul¬ 
phide of potassium, made by intimately mixing and heat¬ 
ing together 2 parts of thoroughly dried potash and 1 part 
of sulphur powder, is used. Dissolve 2 to 3 drachms of 
this compound in If pints of water, and bring the liquid 
to a temperature of from 155 degress to 175 degrees Fah., 
when it is ready for use. Silver objects, previously freed 
from dust and grease with soda lye and thorough rinsing 
in water, plunged into this bath are instantly covered with 
an iridescent film of silver sulphide, which in a few seconds 
more becomes blue black. The objects are then removed, 
rinsed off in plenty of fresh water, scratch brushed, and if 
necessary polished. 

Useful Household Recipes.—To purify water in glass 
vessels and aquariums, it is recommended to add to every 
100 grammes of water four drops of a solution of one 
gramme of salicylic acid in 300 grammes of water. The 
Norsk Fiskeritidende, published at Bergen, Norway, says 
that -thereby the water may be kept fresh for three months 
without being renewed. A cement recommended as some¬ 
thing which can hardly be picked to pieces is made as fol¬ 
lows:—Mix equal parts of lime and brown sugar with water, 
and be sure the lime is thoroughly air-slacked. This mor¬ 
tar is equal to Portland cement, and is of extraordinary 
strength. For a few weeks' preservation of organic objects 
in their original form, dimensions and color. Professor 
Grawitz recommends a mixture composed of two and a half 
ounces of chloride of sodium, twoand three-quarters drachms 
of saltpetre, and one pint of water, to which is to be added 
three per cent, of boric acid. To varnish chromos, take 
equal quantities of linseed oil and oil of turpentine; thicken 
by exposure to the sun and air until it becomes resinous and 
half evaporated; then add a portion of melted beeswax. 
Varnishing pictures should always be performed in fair 
weather, and out of any current of cold or damp air. A 
fireproof whitewash can be readily made by adding one 
part silicate of soda (or potash) to every five parts of white¬ 
wash. The addition of a solution of alum to whitewash is 
recommended as a means to prevent the rubbing off of the 
wash. A coating of a good glue size made by dissolving 
half a pound of glue in a gallon of water is employed when 
the wall is to be papered. The most nourishing steam 
bath that can be applied to a person who is unable to sweat 
and can take but little food in the stomach:—Produce the 
sweating by burning alcohol under a chair in which the 
person sits, with blanket covering to hold the heat. Use 
caution and but little alcohol. Fire it in a shallow iron 
pan or old saucer. 

Own Your Own Homes.—Every man, whether he is a 
workingman in the common acceptation of the word or not, 
































TWENTY THOUSAND THINGS WORTH KNOWING. 


461 


feels a deep interest in the management of the affairs of 
the city, county and State in which he lives whenever he 
owns a home. He is more patriotic, and in many ways is a 
better citizen than the man who simply rents, and who hasbut 
little if any assurance of how long it will be before he can 
be ordered to move; to which may be added in many cases 
the saving of more money. Of course it requires some 
economy to lay up a sufficient amount of money to pur¬ 
chase and pay for a home; but this very fact, if properly 
carried out after the home is acquired, maybe the instrument 
of furnishing the means to commence and prosecute a busi¬ 
ness upon your own responsibility. True, in some cases it 
will require more economy, perhaps, than we are now prac¬ 
ticing. But the question with every man, and especially if 
he is the head of a family, is, Can he afford it? That is, 
can he afford to live up his wages as fast as he earns them, 
without laying up anything for the future? If he is the 
head of a family, he is obliged to pay rent, and it does 
not require very many years of rent paying to make 
up an amount sufficient to purchase and pay for a comfort¬ 
able home. You have to pay the rent. This you say you 
cannot avoid and be honest. Well, you cannot be honest 
with your family unless you make a reasonable attempt to 
provide them a home of their own in case anything should 
happen to you. And the obligation to do this should be as 
strong as the one to pay rent or provide the other neces¬ 
saries for the comfort of your family. When you own a 
home you feel a direct interest in public affairs that other¬ 
wise you might consider were of little interest. 

A Formula for Nervous Headache.—Alcohol dilut., 4 
ounces; Olei cinnamon, 4 minims; Potas. bromid., 5 
drachms; Extr. hyoscyam., fl., drachms; Fiat lotio. 
One to two teaspoonfuls, if required. 

How Beeswax is Refined and Made Nice and Yellow.— 
Pure white wax is obtained from the ordinary beeswax by 
exposure to the influence of the sun and weather. The 
wax is sliced into thin flakes and laid on sacking or coarse 
cloth, stretched on frames, resting on posts to raise them 
from the ground. The wax is turned over frequently and 
occasionally sprinkled with soft water if there be not dew 
and rain sufficient to moisten it. The wax should be 
bleached in about four weeks. If, on breaking the flakes, 
the wax still appears yellow inside, it is necessary to melt 
it again and flake and expose it a second time, or even 
oftener, before it becomes thoroughly bleached, the time 
required being mainly dependent upon the weather. 
There is a preliminary process by which, it is claimed, 
much time is saved in the subsequent bleaching; this con¬ 
sists in passing melted wax and steam through long pipes, 
so as to expose the wax as much as possible to the action 
of the steam; thence into a pan heated by a steam bath, 
where it is stirred thoroughly with water and then allowed 
to settle. The whole operation is repeated a second and 
third time, and the wax is then in condition to be more 
readily bleached. 

How to Remove a Wart From the Hand.—Take of 
salicylic acid, 30 grains; ext. cannabis indie., 10 grains; 
collodion, £ ounce. Mix and apply. 

Recipe for Making Camphor Ice in Small Quantities for 
Home Use.—Melt together over a water bath white wax 
and spermaceti, each 1 ounce; camphor, 2 ounces, in 
sweet almond oil, 1 pound; then triturate until the mix¬ 
ture has become homogeneous, and allow one pound of 
rosewater to flow in slowly during the operation. 

Recipe for Making Instantaneous Ink and Stain 
Extractor.—Take of chloride of lime 1 pound, thoroughly 
pulverized, and four quarts soft water. I he foiegoing 
must be thoroughly shaken when first put together. It is 
required to stand twenty-four hours to dissolve the chlo¬ 


ride of lime; then strain through a cotton cloth, after 
which add a teaspoonful of acetic acid to every ounce of 
the chloride of lime water. 

Removing Paint Spots From Wood.—To take spots of 
paint off wood, lay a thick coating of lime and soda 
mixed together over it, letting it stay twenty-four hours; 
then wash off with warm water, and the spot will have 
disappeared. 

Polishing Plate Glass.—To polish plate glass and re¬ 
move slight scratches, rub the surface gently, first with a 
clean pad of fine cotton wool, and afterwards with a simi¬ 
lar pad covered over with cotton velvet which has been 
charged with fine rouge. The surface will acquire a pol¬ 
ish of great brilliancy, quite free from any scratches. 

Recipe for a Good Condition Powder.—Ground ginger 
1 pound, antimony sulphide 1 pound, powdered sulphur 1 
pound, saltpetre. Mix altogether and administer in a 
mash, in such quantities as may be required. 

Recipe to Make Violet Ink.—Ordinary aniline violet 
soluble in water, with a little alcohol and glycerine, makes 
an excellent ink. 

Recipe to Make Good Shaving Soap.—Either 66 
pounds tallow and 34 pounds cocoanut oil, or 33 pounds 
of tallow and the same quantity of palm oil and 34 
pounds cocoanut oil, treated by the cold process, with 120 
pounds caustic soda lye of 27 deg. Baume, will make 214 
pounds of shaving soap. 

How to Make a Starch Enamel for Stiffening Collars, 
Cuffs, etc.—Use a little gum arabic thoroughly dissolved 
in the starch. 

A Good Cough Syrup.—Put 1 quart hoarhound to 1 
quart water, and boil it down to a pint; add two or three 
sticks of licorice and a tablespoonful of essence of lemon. 

The Cause of the Disease Called “ Hives,” also Its Cure. 
—The trouble is caused by a perversion of the digestive 
functions, accompanied by a disturbance of the circula¬ 
tion. It is not attended with danger, and is of importance 
only from the annoyance which it causes. Relief may be 
obtained in most instances by the use of cream tartar daily 
to such extent as to move the bowels slightly. Make a 
strong solution, sweeten it pleasantly, and take a tea¬ 
spoonful, say after each meal, until the effect above men¬ 
tioned is produced, and continue the treatment until the 
hives cease to be troublesome. 

A Bedbug Poison.—Set in the center of the room a dish 
containing 4 ounces of brimstone. Light it, and close the 
room as tight as possible, stopping the keyhole of the door 
with paper to keep the fumes of the brimstone in the 
room. Let it remain for three or four hours, then open 
the windows and air thoroughly. The brimstone will be 
found to have also bleached the paint, if it was a yellowish 
white. Mixtures such as equal parts of turpentine and 
kerosene oil are used; filling up the cracks with hard 
soap is an excellent remedy. Benzine and gasoline will 
kill bedbugs as fast as they can reach them. A weak solu¬ 
tion of zinc chloride is also said to be an effectual ban- 
isher of these pests. 

A Preparation by Which You can Take a Natural Flower 
and Dip It in, That Will Preserve It.—Dip the flowers in 
melted paraffine, withdrawing them quickly. The liquid 
should only be just hot enough to maintain its fluidity and 
the flowers should be dipped one at a time, held by the 
stalks, and moved about for an instant to get rid of air 
bubbles. Fresh cut specimens free from moisture make 
excellent specimens in this way. 

What Causes Shaking Asp Leaves to be always in a 
Quiver?—The wind or vibration of the air only causes the 
quiver of the aspen leaf. 



































462 


TWENTY THOUSAND THINGS AVORTH KNOAVING 


What “Sozodont” is Composed of.—Potassium carbon¬ 
ate, ounce ; honey, 4 ounces; alcohol, 2 ounces; water, 
10 ounces; oil of Avintergreen and oil of rose, to flavor, 
sufficient. 

What is Used to Measure Cold beloiv 35 Degrees Fahren¬ 
heit ?—Metallic thermometers are used to measure loAvest 
temperatures, alcohol being quite irregular. 

Is the Top Surface of Ice on a Pond, the Amount of 
Water let in and out being the Same Day by Day, on a Level 
Avith the Water Surface or above it ?—Ice is slightly 
elastic, and Avhen fast to the shore the central portion 
rises and falls Avith slight variations in Avater level, the 
proportion above and below water level being as is the 
Aveight of ice to the Aveight of Avater it displaces. 

Of the Two Waters, Hard and Soft, Which Freezes the 
Quicker; and in ice Which Saves the Best in Like Pack¬ 
ing?—Soft Avater freezes the quickest and keeps the best. 

Does Water in Freezing Purify Itself ?—It clears itself 
from chemicals ; does not clear itself from mechanical 
mixtures as mud and clay. 

A Receipt to Remove Freckles from the Face without 
Injury to the Skin.—A commonly used preparation for 
this purpose is : Sulpho-carbolate of zinc, 2 parts ; dis¬ 
tilled glycerine, 25 parts; rose water, 25 parts; scented 
alcohol, 5 parts. To be applied twice daily for from half 
an hour to an hour, and then washed off with cold water. 

What will Remove Warts Painlessly?—Touch the wart 
with a little nitrate of silver, or with nitric acid, or with 
aromatic vinegar. The silver salt will produce a black, 
and the nitric acid a yelloAV stain, either of which will wear 
off in a short while. The vinegar scarcely discolors the skin. 

A Good Receipt to Prevent Hair Coming Out.—Scald 
black tea, 2 ounces, with 1 gallon of boiling water, strain 
and add 3 ounces glycerine, tincture cantharides % ounce, 
bay rum 1 quart. Mix well and perfume. This is a good 
preparation for frequent use in its effect both on the scalp 
and hair, but neither will be kept in good condition with¬ 
out care and attention to general health. 

Deaths from Diphtheria per 100,000 Inhabitants in the 
Chief Cities of the World.—Amsterdam, 265; Berlin, 245; 
Madrid, 225; Dresden, 184; Warsaw, 167; Philadelphia, 
163; Chicago, 146; Turin, 127; St. Petersburg, 121; 
Bucharest, 118; Berne, 115; Munich, 111; Stockholm, 
107; Malines, 105; Antwerp, 104; New York, 91; Paris, 
85; Hamburg, 76; Naples, 74; Lisbon, 74; Stuttgart, 61; 
Rome, 56; Edinburgh, 50; Buda-Pesth, 50; The Hague, 
45; Vienna, 44; London, 44; Christiania, 43; Copenhagen, 
42; Suburbs of Brussels, 36; City of Brussels, 35. 

A Receipt for Marshmallows, as Made by Confectioners. 
—Dissolve one-half pound of gum arabic in one pint of 
Avater, strain, and add one-half pound of fine sugar, and 
place over the fire, stirring constantly until the syrup is 
dissolved, and all of the consistency of honey. Add grad¬ 
ually the whites of four eggs well beaten. Stir the mixture 
until it becomes somewhat thin and does not adhere to the 
finger. Flavor to taste, and pour into a tin slightly dusted 
with powdered starch, and Avhen cool divide into small 
squares. 

A Receipt for Making Compressed Yeast.—This yeast is 
obtained by straining the common yeast in breweries and 
distilleries until a moist mass is obtained, Avhich is then 
placed in hair bags, and the rest of the water pressed out 
until the mass is nearly dry. It is then sewed up in strong 
linen bags for transportation. 

How to Tell the Age of Eggs.—We recommend the follow¬ 
ing process (Avhich has been known for some time, but has 
been forgotten) for finding out the age of eggs, and distin¬ 
guishing those that are fresh from those that are not. This 


method is based upon the decrease in the density of eggs 
as they grow old. Dissolve two ounces of kitchen salt in 
a pint of Avater. When a fresh-laid egg is placed in this 
solution it Avill descend to the bottom of the vessel, Avhile 
one that has been laid on the day previous will not quite 
reach the bottom. If the egg be three days old it will 
swim in the liquid, and if it is more than three days old it 
will float on the surface, and project above the latter more 
and more in proportion as it is older. 

A Recipe for Making Court Plaster.—Isinglass 125 
grains, alcohol If fluid ounces, glycerine 12 minims, Avater 
and tincture of benzoin each sufficient quanity. Dissolve 
the isinglass in enough water to make the solution weigh 
four fluid ounces. Spread half of the latter Avith a brush 
upon successive layers of taffeta, waiting after each appli¬ 
cation until the layer is dry. Mix the second half of the 
isinglass solution with the alcohol and glycerine, and apply 
in the same manner. Then reverse the taffeta, coat it on 
the back with tincture of benzoin, and allow it to become 
perfectly dry. There are many other formulas, but this 
is official. The above quantities are sufficient to make a 
piece of court plaster fifteen inches square. 

One of theVery Best Scouring Pastes Consists of—Oxalic 
acid, 1 part; Iron peroxide, 15 parts; Powdered rotten- 
stone, 20 parts; Palm oil, 60 parts; Petrolatum, 4 parts. 
Pulverize the oxalic acid and add rouge and rottenstone, 
mixing thoroughly, and sift to remove all grit; then add 
gradually the palm oil and petrolatum, incorporating 
thoroughly. Add oil of myrbane, or oil of lavender to 
suit. By substituting your red ashes from stove coal, 
an inferior representative of the foregoing paste will be 
produced. 

How to Manufacture Worcestershire Sauce.—A. Mix 
together 1£ gallons white Avine vinegar, 1 gallon Avalnut 
catsup, 1 gallon mushroom catsup, gallon Madeira Avine, 

gallon Canton soy, 2j pounds moist sugar, 19 ounces 
salt, 3 ounces powdered capsicum, 1£ ounces each of pi¬ 
mento and coriander, 1} ounces chutney, £ ounce each of 
cloves, mace and cinnamon, and drachms assafoetida 
dissolved in pint brandy 20 above proof. Boil 2 pounds 
hog’s liA T er for twelve hours in 1 gallon of Avater, adding 
Avater as required to keep up the quantity, then mix the 
boiled liver thoroughly with the Avater, strain it through a 
coarse sieve. Add this to the sauce. 

A Good Receipt for Making Honey, Without Using Honey 
as One of the Ingredients,—5 lbs. white sugar, 2 lbs. water, 
gradually bring to a boil, and skim well. When cool add 
1 lb. bees’ honey, and 4 drops peppermint, To make of 
better quality add less water and more real honey. 

What the Chemical Composition of Honey is.—Princi¬ 
pally of saccharine matter and Avater, about as folloAvs: 
Levulose 33£ to 40 per cent., dextrose 31f to 39 per cent., 
Avater 20 to 30 per cent., besides ash and other minor con¬ 
stituents. 

How to Clean Carpets on the Floor to Make Them Look 
Bright.—To a pailful of water add three pints of oxgall, 
Avash the carpet with this until a lather is produced, which 
is Avashed off with clean water. 

How to Take Out Varnish Spots from Cloth.—Use chlo¬ 
roform or benzine, and as a last resource spirits of turpen¬ 
tine, followed after drying by benzine. 

Flour Paste for all Purposes.—Mix 1 pound rye flour in 
lukewarm water, to which has been added one teaspoonful 
of pulverized alum; stir until free of lumps. Boil in the 
regular way, or slowly pour on boiling Avater, stirring all 
the time until the paste becomes stiff. When cold add a 
full quarter pound of common strained honey, mix well 
(regular bee honey, no patent mixture). 


o 





































TWENTY THOUSAND THINGS WORTH KNOWING. 


463 


How to Make Liquid Glue.—Take a wide mouthed bot¬ 
tle, and dissolve in it 8 ounces best glue in pint water, 
by setting it in a vessel of water, and heating until dis¬ 
solved. Then add slowly 2| ounces strong nitric acid 36 
deg. Baume, stirring all the while. Effervescence takes 
place, with generation of fumes. When all the acid has 
been added, the liquid is allowed to cool. Keep it well 
corked, and it will be ready for use at any time. 

How the World is Weighed and Its Density and Mass 
Computed.—The density, mass, or weight of the earth 
was found by the observed force of attraction of a known 
mass of lead or iron for another mass; or of a mountain 
by the deflection of a torsion thread or plumb line. In 
this manner the mean density of the earth has been found 
to be from 4.71 to 6.56 times the weight of water, 5.66 
being accredited as the most reliable. The weight of a 
cubic foot of water being known, and the contents of the 
earth being computed in cubic feet, we have but to multi¬ 
ply the number of cubic feet by 5.66 times the weight of 1 
cubic foot of water to obtain the weight of the earth in 
pounds, or units of gravity at its surface, which is the 
unit usually used. Another method of determining the 
mean density of the earth is founded on the change of the 
intensity of gravity in descending deep mines. 

A Theory as to the Origin of Petroleum.—Professor 
Mendelejef has recently advanced the theory that 
petroleum is of purely mineral origin and that the forma¬ 
tion of it is going on every day. He has, moreover, suc¬ 
ceeded in producing artificial petroleum by a reaction 
that he describes, and he states that it is impossible to 
detect any difference between the natural product and the 
manufactured article. His theory is as follows : Infilra- 
tion of water, reaching a certain depth, come into contact 
with incandescent masses of carburets of metals, chiefly of 
iron, and are at once decomposed into oxygen and hydro¬ 
gen. The oxygen unites with the iron, while the hydro¬ 
gen seizes on the carbon and rises to an upper level, where 
the vapors are condensed in part into mineral oil, and the 
rest remains in a state of natural gas. The petroleum 
strata are generally met with in the vicinity of mountains, 
and it may be granted that geological upheavals have dis¬ 
located the ground in such a way as to permit of the admis- 
toin of water to great depths. If the center of the earth 
contains great masses of metallic carburets, we may, in 
case this theory is verified, count upon an almost inex¬ 
haustible source of fuel for the day when our coal deposits 
shall fail us. 

How Vaseline is Purified.—The residuum from which 
vaseline is made is placed in settling tanks heated by steam, 
in order to keep their contents in a liquid state. After the 
complete separation of the fine coke it is withdrawn from 
these tanks and passed through the bone black cylinders, 
during which process the color is nearly all removed, as 
well as its empyreumatic odor. 

The Latest and Best Process Employed by Cutters 
and Others in Etching Names and Designs on Steel.— 
Take copper sulphate, sulphate of alum and sodium chlo¬ 
ride, of each 2 drachms, and strong acetic acid ounces, 
mixed together. Smear the metal with yellow soap and 
write with a quill pen without a split. 

The History of the Discovery of Circulation of the Blood 
recapitulated, divides itself naturally into a seriesof epoch- 
making periods: 1. The structure and functions of the 
valves of the heart, Erasistratus, B. C. 304. 2. The arter¬ 

ies carry blood during life, not air, Galen, A. D. 165. 
3. The pulmonary circulation, Servetus, 1553. 4. The 

systemic circulation, Cassalpinus, 1593. 5. The pul¬ 
monic and systemic circulations, Harvey, 1628. 6. The 

capillaries. Malpighi, 1661. 


How to Make Hand Fire Grenades.—Make your hand 
grenades. Fill ordinary quart wine bottles with a satur¬ 
ated solution of common salt, and place them where they 
will do the most good in case of need. They will be found 
nearly as serviceable as the expensive hand grenades you 
buy. Should a fire break out, throw them with force 
sufficient to break them into the center of the fire. The salt 
will form a coating on whatever object the water touches, 
and make it nearly incombustible, and it will prove effect¬ 
ual in many cases, where a fire is just starting, when the 
delay in procuring water might be fatal. 

How the Kind of White Metal is Made That is Used in 
the Manufacture of Cheap Table Ware.—How same can be 
hardened and still retain its color ? The following are 
formulas for white metal. Melt together : (a) Tin 82, lead 
18, antimony 5, zinc 1, copper 4 parts, (b) Brass 32, lead 
2, tin 2, zinc 1 part. For a hard metal, not so white, melt 
together bismuth 6 parts, zinc 3 parts, lead 13 parts. Or 
use type metal—lead 3 to 7 parts, antimony 1 part. 

What Metal Expands Most, for the Same Change in 
Temperature?—For one degree Centigrade the following 
are coefficients of linear expansion: aluminum, 0.0000222; 
silver, 0.0000191 to 0.0000212; nickel, 0.0000128; copper, 
0.0000167 to 0.0000178; zinc, 0.0000220 to 0.0000292; 
brass, 0.0000178 to 0.0000193; platinum, 0.0000088. 

Heavy Timbers.—There are sixteen species of trees in 
America, whose perfectly dry wood will sink in water. 
The heaviest of these is the black ironwood (confalia feriea) 
of Southern Florida, which is more than 30 percent, heav¬ 
ier than water. Of the others, the best known are lig¬ 
num vitas (gualacum sanctum) and mangrove (cbizphora 
mangle). Another is a small oak (quercus gsisea) found 
in the mountains of Texas, Southern New Mexico and 
Arizona, and westward to the Colorado desert, at an ele¬ 
vation of 5,000 to 10,000 feet. All the species in which the 
wood is heavier than water belong to semi-tropical Florida 
or the arid interior Pacific region. 

Highest Point Peached by Man was by balloon 27,000 
feet. Travelers have rarely exceeded 20,000 feet, at which 
point the air from its rarity is very debilitating. 

Hasa Rate of Speed Equal to Ninety Miles an Hour, ever 
Been Attained by Railroad Locomotive ?—It is extremely 
doubtful if any locomotive ever made so high a speed. A 
mile in 48 seconds is the shortest time we have heard of. 
A rate of 70 to 75 miles per hour has been made on a 
spurt, on good straight track. The Grant Locomotive 
Works could make such an engine. Sixty miles an hour 
for a train is considered a very high rate of speed, and is 
seldom attained in practice for more than a short run. 

The Fastest Boat in the World.—Messrs. Thornycroft 
& Co., of Chiswick, in making preliminary trials of a tor¬ 
pedo boat built by them for the Spanish navy, have ob¬ 
tained a speed which is worthy of special record. The 
boat is twin-screw, and the principal dimensions are: 
Length 147 ft. 6 in., beam 14 ft. 6 in., by 4 ft. 9 in. 
draught. On a trial at Lower Hope, on April 27, the 
remarkable mean speed of 26.11 knots was attained, being 
equal to a speed of 30.06 miles an hour, which is the high¬ 
est speed yet attained by any vessel afloat. 

Staining and Polishing Mahogany.—Your best plan will 
be to scrape off all the old polish, and well glass 
paper; then oil with linseed oil both old and new parts. 
To stain the new pieces, get half an ounce of bichromate 
of potash, and pour a pint of boiling water over it; when 
cold bottle it. This, used with care, will stain the new or 
light parts as dark as you please, if done as follows:—wipe 
off the oil clean, and apply the solution with a piece of rag, 
held firmly in the hand, and just moistened with the stain. 
Great care is required to prevent the stain running over 










































464 


TWENTY THOUSAND THINGS WORTH KNOWING. 


the old part, for any place touched with it will show the 
mark through the polish when finished. You can vary 
the color by giving two or more coats if required. Then 
repolish your job altogether in the usual way. Should 
you wish to brighten up the old mahogany, use polish dyed 
with Bismarck brown as follows:—Get three pennyworth 
of Bismarck brown, and put it into a bottle with enough 
naphtha or methylated spirits to dissolve it. Pour a few 
drops of this into your polish, and you will find that it 
gives a nice rich red color to the work, but don’t dye the 
polish too much, just tint it. 

Value of Eggs for Food and Other Purposes.—Every 
element that is necessary to the support of man is con¬ 
tained within the limits of an egg shell, in the best pro¬ 
portions and in the most palatable form. Plain boiled, 
they are wholesome. It is easy to dress them in more than 
500 different ways, each method not only economical, but 
salutary in the highest degree. No honest appetite ever 
yet rejected an egg in some guise. It is nutriment in the 
most portable form, and in the most concentrated shape. 
Whole nations of mankind rarely touch any other animal 
food. Kings eat them plain as readily as do the humble 
tradesmen. After the victory of Muhldorf, when the 
Kaiser Ludwig sat at a meal with his burggrafs and great 
captains, he determined on a piece of luxury—“one egg 
to every man, and two to the excellently valiant Schwep- 
perman.” Far more than fish—for it is watery diet—eggs 
are the scholar’s fare. They contain phosphorus, which 
is brain food, and sulphur, which performs a variety of 
functions in the economy. And they are the best of 
nutriment for children, for, in a compact form, they con¬ 
tain everything that is necessary for the growth of the 
youthful frame. Eggs are, however, not only food—they 
are medicine also. The white is the most efficacious of 
remedies for burns, and the oil extractable from the yolk 
is regarded by the Russians as an almost miraculous salve 
for cuts, bruises and scratches. A raw egg, if swallowed 
in time, will effectually detach a fish bone fastened in the 
throat, and the white of two eggs will render the deadly 
corrosive sublimate as harmless as a dose of calomel. 
They strengthen the consumptive, invigorate the feeble, 
and render the most susceptible all but proof against jaun¬ 
dice in its more malignant phase. They can also be drunk 
in the shape of that “ egg flip ” which sustains the orator¬ 
ical efforts of modern statesmen. The merits of eggs 
do not even end here. In France alone the wine clarifiers 
use more than 80,000,000 a year, and the Alsatians con¬ 
sume fully 38,000,000 in calico printing and for dressing 
the leather used in making the finest of French kid gloves. 
Finally, not to mention various other employments for 
eggs in the arts, they may, of course, almost without 
trouble on the farmer’s part, be converted in fowls, which, 
in any shape, are profitable to the seller and welcome to 
the buyer. Even egg shells are valuable, for allopath and 
homeopath alike agree in regarding them as the purest of 
carbonate of lime. 

History of Big Ships.—In the history of mankind sev¬ 
eral vessels of extraordinary magnitude have been con¬ 
structed, all distinctively styled great, and all unfor¬ 
tunately disastrous, with the honorable exception of 
Noah’s Ark. Setting aside this antediluvian craft, con¬ 
cerning the authenticity of whose dimensions authorities 
differ, and which, if Biblical measures are correct, was 
inferior in size to the vessel of most importance to modern 
shipowners, the great galley, constructed by the great 
engineer Archimedes for the great King Hiero II., of 
Syracuse, is the first illustration. This ship without a 
name (for history does not record one) transcended all 
wonders of ancient maritime construction. It abounded 
m statues and painting, marble and mosaic work. It 


contained a gymnasium, baths, a garden, and arbored 
walks. Its artillery discharged stones of 3 cwt., and 
arrows 18 ft. in length. An Athenian advertising poet, 
who wrote a six-line puff of its glories, received the royal 
reward of six thousand bushels of corn. Literary merit 
was at a higher premium in the year 240 b.c., than it is 
to-day. The great ship of antiquity was found to be too 
large for the accommodation of the Syracusan port, and 
famine reigning in Egypt, Hiero, the charitably disposed, 
embarked a cargo of ten thousand huge jars of salted 
fish, two million pounds of salted meat, twenty thousand 
bundles of different clothes, filled the hold with corn, 
and consigned her to the seven mouths of the Nile, and 
since she weighed anchor nothing more has been heard of 
her fate. The next great ship worthy of mention is the 
mythical Saracen encountered in the Mediterranean Sea 
by the crusading fleet of Richard Cceur de Lion, Duke of 
Guienne and King of England, which, after much 
slaughter and damage incident to its infidel habit of 
vomiting Greek fire upon its adversaries, was captured and 
sunk. Next in rotation appears the Great Harry, built by 
Henry VIII., of England, and which careened in harbor 
during the reign of his successor, under similar circum¬ 
stances to those attending the Royal George in 1782—a 
dispensation that mysteriously appears to overhang a 
majority of the ocean-braving constructions which, in 
defiance of every religious sailor’s superstition that the 
lumber he treads is naturally female, are christened by a 
masculine or neutral title, in the year 1769, Mark Isam- 
bard Brunei, the Edison of his age, as his son was the 
Ericsson of that following, permitted himself to be born 
at Hacqueville; near Rouen, France, went to school, to 
sea, and into politics; compromised himself in the latter 
profession, and went to America in 1794, where he sur¬ 
veyed the canal now connecting Lake Champlain with the 
Hudson River at Albany, N. Y. There he turned archi¬ 
tect, then returned to Europe, settled, married, and was 
knighted in England. He occupied eighteen years of his 
life in building an unproductive tunnel beneath the river 
Thames at London; invented a method of shuffling cards 
without using the hands, and several other devices for dis- 
pensing'with labor, which, upon completion, were aban¬ 
doned from economical motives. On his decease, his son 
and heir, I. K. Brunei, whose practical experience in the 
Thames Tunnel job, where his biographers assert he had 
occasion more than once to save his life by swimming, 
qualified him to tread in his father’s shoes, took up his 
trade. Brunei, Jr., having demonstrated by costly ex¬ 
periments, to the successful proof, but thorough exaspera¬ 
tion, of his moneyed backers, that his father’s theory for 
employing carbonic acid gas as a motive power was prac¬ 
ticable enough, but too expensive for anything but the 
dissipation of a millionaire’s income, settled down to the 
profession of engineering science, in which he did as well 
as his advantages of education enabled him. Like all 
men in advance of their time, when he considered himself 
the victim of arbitrary capitalists ignoring the bent of his 
genius, he did his best work in accordance with their stip¬ 
ulations. He designed the Great Western, the first 
steamship (paddle-wheel) ever built to cross the Atlantic; 
and the Clreat Britain, the original ocean screw steamer. 
Flushed with these successes, Brunei procured pecuniary 
support from speculative fools, who, dazzled by the 
glittering statistical array that can be adduced in support 
of any chimerical venture, the inventor’s repute, and 
their unbaked experience, imagined that the alluring 
Orient was ready to yield, like over-ripe fruit, to their 
shadowy grasp; and tainted as he evidently was with hered¬ 
itary mania, Brunei resolved to seize the i'llusionary im¬ 
mortality that he fondly imagined to be within his reach. 









































TWENTY THOUSAND THINGS WORTH KNOWING. 


465 


There was not much the matter with the brain of Brunei, 
Jr., but that little was enough; a competent railroad 
surveyor, a good bridge builder, he needed to be held 
within bounds when handling other people’s funds; for the 
man’s ambition would have lead him to undertake to bridge 
the Atlantic. He met with the speculators required in this 
very instance of the constructors of the Great Eastern. 
This monstrous ship has been described so often, that it 
would be a cruelty to our readers to inflict the story upon 
them again. 

Natural Gas the Fuel of the Future.—The house of the 
near future will have no fireplace, steam pipes, chimneys, 
or flues. Wood, coal oil, and other forms of fuel are 
about to disappear altogether in places having factories. 
Gas has become so cheap that already it is supplanting 
fuels. A single jet fairly heats a small room in cold 
weather. It is a well known fact that gas throws off no 
smoke, soot, or dirt. In a brazier filled with chunks of 
colored glass, and several jets placed beneath, the glass 
soon became heated sufficiently to thoroughly warm a room 
10x30 feet in size. This design does away with the neces¬ 
sity for chimneys, since there is no smoke; the ventilation 
may be had at the window. The heat may be raised or 
lowered by simply regulating the flow of gas. The col¬ 
ored glass gives all the appearance of fire; there are black 
pieces to represent coal, red chunks for flames, yellowish 
white glass for white heat, blue glass for blue flames, and 
hues for all the remaining colors of spectrum. Invention 
already is displacing the present fuels for furnaces and 
cooking ranges and glass, doing away with delay and such 
disagreeable objects as ashes, kindling wood, etc. It has 
only been within the past few years that natural gas has 
been utilized to any extent, in either Pennsylvania, New 
York or Ohio. Yet its existence has been known since 
the early part of the century. As far back as 1821, gas 
was struck in Fredonia, Chautauqua county, N. Y., and 
was used to illuminate the village inn when Lafayette 
passed through the place some three years later. Not a 
single oil well of the many that have been sunk in Penn¬ 
sylvania has been entirely devoid of gas, but even this fre¬ 
quent contact with what now seems destined to be the fuel 
of the future bore no fruit of any importance until within 
the past few years. It had been used in comparatively 
small quantities previous to the fall of 1884, but it was not 
until that time that the fuel gave any indication of the 
important role it was afterward to fill. At first ignored, 
then experimented with, natural gas has been finally so 
widely adopted that to-day, in the'single city of Pittsburgh, 
it displaces daily 10,000 tons of coal, and has resulted in 
building cities in Ohio and the removal thereto of the glass 
making industries of the United States. The change 
from the solid to the gaseous fuel has been made so rapidly, 
and has effected such marked results in both the processes 
of manufacture and the product, that it is no exaggera¬ 
tion to say that the eyes of the entire industrial world are 
turned with envious admiration upon the cities and neigh¬ 
borhoods blessed with so unique and valuable a fuel. The 
regions in which natural gas is found are for the most part 
coincident with the formations producing petroleum. 
This, however, is not always the case; and it is worthy of 
notice that some districts which were but indifferent oil- 
producers are now famous in gas records. The gas driller, 
therefore, usually confines himself to the regions known 
to have produced oil, but the selection of the particular 
location for a well within these limits appears to be emi¬ 
nently fanciful. The more scientific generally select a 
spot either on the anticlinal or synclinal axis of the form¬ 
ation, giving preference to the former position. Almost 
all rock formations have some inclination to the horizon, 
and the constant change of this inclination produces a 


series of waves, the crests of which are known as anti¬ 
clines, and the troughs as synclines. Many drillers sup¬ 
pose that the gas seeks the anticlines and the oil the syn¬ 
clines, but others, equally long-headed, discard entirely 
all theory of this kind, and drill wherever it may be most 
convenient or where other operators have already demon¬ 
strated the existence of gas. It will surprise many of our 
readers to know that the divining rod, that superstitious 
relic of the middle ages, is still frequently called upon to 
relieve the operator of the trouble of a rational decision. 
The site having been selected, the ordinary oil-drilling 
outfit is employed to sink a hole of about six inches in 
diameter until the gas is reached. In the neighborhood 
of Pittsburgh, this is usually found at a depth of 1,300 to 
1,500 feet, in what is known as the Third Oil Sand, a 
sandstone of the Devonian period. Where the gas comes 
from originally is an open question. When the driller 
strikes gas, he is not left in any doubt of the event, for 
if the well be one of any strength, the gas manifests itself 
by sending the drill and its attachments into the air, often 
to a height of a hundred feet or more. The most prolific 
wells are appropriately called “roarers.” During the 
progress of the drilling, the well is lined with iron piping. 
Occasionally this is also blown out, but as a rule the gas 
satisfies itself with ejecting the drill. When the first rush 
of gas has thrown everything movable out of its way, the 
workmen can approach, and chain the giant to his work. 
The plant at the well is much simpler than one would sup¬ 
pose. An elbow joint connects the projecting end of the 
well piping with a pipe leading to a strong sheet-iron tank. 
This collects the salt water brought up with the gas. Ordi¬ 
narily, about half a barrel accumulates in twenty four 
hours. A safety valve, a pressure indicator, and a blow- 
off complete the outfit. When the pressure exceeds a pre¬ 
scribed limit, the valve opens, and the gas escapes into the 
blow-off. This is usually 30 feet high or more, and the 
gas issuing from the top is either ignited or permitted to 
escape into the atmosphere. The pipe line leading from 
the tank to the city is of course placed underground. 
Beyond a little wooden house, the blow-off, and a derrick, 
the gas farms differ little in appearance from those pro¬ 
ducing less valuable crops. The pressure of the gas at the 
wells varies considerably. It is generally between 100 and 
325 pounds. As much as 750 pounds per square inch has 
been measured, and in many cases the actual pressure is 
even greater than this, but, as a rule, it is not permitted 
to much exceed 20 atmospheres in any receiver or pipe. 
The best investment for parties of small means that we 
know of is in town lots in North Baltimore, Ohio. It is 
on the main line of the B. & O. Railroad and the center of 
the oil and natural gas discoveries in Ohio. Property is 
bound to double in value. For further information, 
address, W. A. Rhodes, North Baltimore, Ohio. 

Hints on House Building.—Gas pipes should be run 
with a continuous fall towards the meter, and no low 
places. The gas meter should be set in a cool place, to 
keep it from registering against you; but if a “water 
meter,” it should be protected from freezing. Cupboards, 
wardrobes, bookcases, etc., generally afford receptacles for 
dust on their tops. This may be avoided by carrying them 
clear up to the ceiling. When this is not done, their tops 
should be sheeted over flush with the highest line of their 
cornices, so that there may be no sunken lodging-place for 
dust. Furring spaces between the furring and the outer 
walls should be stopped off at each floor line with brick 
and mortar “fire stops;” and thesamewith hollow interior 
partition walls. Soil pipes should never have X branches; 
always curves, or Y branches. Water pipes should be run 
in a continuous grade, and have a stop and waste cock at 
the lowest point, so as to be entirely emptied when desired. 
















































(2 



TWENTY THOUSAND THINGS WORTH KNOWING. 


Furnaces should have as few joints as possible, and the 
iron fire-pot is better lined with fire-brick. There should 
be no damper in the smoke pipe; but the ash-door should 
shut air-tight when desired. There should be provision 
for the evaporation of water in the hot-air pipe. “Air 
boxes” should never be of wood. All air boxes should be 
accessible from one end to the other, to clean them of dust, 
cobwebs, insects, etc. Horizontal hot-air flues should not 
be over 15 feet long. Parapets should be provided with 
impervious coping-stones to keep water from descending 
through the walls. Sewer pipes should not be so large as 
to be difficult to flush. The oval sections (point down) are 
the best. Soil-pipes should have a connection with the 
upper air, of the full diameter of the pipe to be ventilated. 
Stationary wash-tubs of wood are apt to get soaked up 
with organic matter and filth. Stationary washstands in 
bedrooms should have small traps; underneath each should 
be a leaden tray to protect ceilings in case of leakage, 
breakage or accidental overflow. This tray should have 
an overflow, and this overflow should be trapped, if con¬ 
nected with the foul-pipe system (which it should not be 
if possible to arrange it otherwise). Flues should have a 
smooth purging or lining, or they will be apt to draw with 
difficulty. Gas pipes of insufficient diameter cause the 
flames to burn with unsteady, dim light. Made ground is 
seldom fit for immediate building; and never for other 
than isolated structures. Ashes, street-sweepings, gar¬ 
bage, rotten vegetation, and house refuse are unfit filling 
for low ground on which it is intended to build. Cobble 
pavements are admirably adapted to soaking-up and after¬ 
wards emitting unwholesome matters. Asphalt has none 
of this fault. Wood is pernicious in this respect. “Gul¬ 
lies” in cellar floors should be properly trapped; and this 
does not mean that they shall have bell-traps nor siphon- 
traps with shallow Avater-seal. Cellar windows should be 
movable to let in air, and should have painted wire-screens 
to keep out cats, rats, etc. New Avails are always damp. 
Window sills should project well out beyond the walls, 
and should be grooved underneath so as to throiv the 
water clear of the Avails. Cracks in floors, between the 
boards, help the accumulation of dirt and dust, and may 
harbor vermin. Narrow boards of course have narrower 
interstitial cracks than Avideboards do. “Secret nailing” 
is best Avhere it can be afforded. Hot-air flues should 
never be carried close to unprotected Avoodwork. Electric 
bells, Avhen properly put up and cared for, are a great 
convenience in a house; but when they don't work, they 
are about as aggravating as the law allows. Cheap push¬ 
buttons cause a great deal of annoyance. Sih T er-plated 
faucets and trimmings blacken with illuminating and 
seAver gases. Nickel-plating is perhaps a less pleasing 
white, but is cheaper and does not discolor readily. Win- 
doAvs are in most respects a great blessing; but there may 
be too much of a good, thing. It is unreasonable to expect 
that one grate or stove or furnace can heat a whole county. 
Don't attempt it. If you have too many windows on the 
“cold side” of a house, give them double sashes (not 
double panes), and “weather-strip” them. Unpainted 
trimmings should be of hardAvood. Yellow pine finishes 
up Avell. Butternut is brighter than walnut. Cherry 
makes a room cheerful. Walnut is dull and dismal. 

The Forests of the World.—The rapid exhaustion of the 
forests of-thejworld, and more particularly of the oncegreat re¬ 
serves of timber in the United States and Canada, renders it 
inevitable that, in a very few years indeed, iron must super¬ 
sede wood for a variety of uses. The drain upon the world's 
resources in timber is prodigious. Every year 92,000,000 
railway sleepers are used in America alone, while to supply 
fireA\ r opd for the Avhole of the States, fourteen times the 
quantity of wood consumed by the railways is annually 



required. At the computation of the most recent sta¬ 
tistics there were 441,000,000 of acres of woodland in the 
United States; but since over 50,000,000 of acres are cut 
doAvn yearly, this great area of timber will be non-existent 
in less than twenty years, unless replanting upon a very 
extensive scale be at once undertaken. Already efforts 
are being made in this direction, and not long since some 
4,000,000 of saplings were planted in a single day in Kan¬ 
sas and the neighboring States. But since the daily con¬ 
sumption is even greater than this, it is obvious that the 
Avork of replanting must be undertaken systematically if it 
is to keep pace, even approximately, with the destruction. 
In France and Germanv, where the forests are national 
property, forestry has been eleA r ated to the status of an 
exact science; but the timber lands of those countries are 
small indeed compared Avith those in the United States. 

A Church Built from a Single Tree.—A redirood tree 
furnished all the timber for the Baptist church in Santa 
Rosa, one of the largest church edifices in the country. 
The interior of the building is finished in Avood, there 
being no plastered Avails. Sixty thousand shingles were 
made from the tree after enough Avas taken for the church. 
Another redAvood tree, cut near Murphy's Mill, about ten 
years ago, furnished shingles that required the constant 
labor of two industrious men for two years before the tree 
was used up. 

Trees That Sink.—Of the more than four hundred 
species of trees found in the United States there are said 
to be sixteen species whose perfectly dry Avood will sink in 
water. The heaviest of these is the black iromvood of 
southern Florida, Avhich is more than thirty per cent, 
heavier than water. Of the others, the best known are the 
lignum vitas and mangrove; another is a small oak found 
in the mountains of Avestern Texas, southern New Mexico, 
and Arizona, and AA^estAvard to Colorado, at an elevation of 
5,000 to 10,000 feet. 

Artificial Wood.—You can produce an artificial fire and 
waterproof wood in the following manner. More or less 
finely divided wood shavings, straw, tan, etc., singly or 
mixed, are moistened A\ r ith a weak solution of zinc chloride 
of about 1-026 sp. gr., and allowed to dry. They are then 
treated with a basic solution of magnesium chloride of 1 *725 
to 1-793 sp. gr., and pressed into moulds. The materials 
remain ten to tAvelve hours under pressure, during which 
time they harden A\diile becoming heated. After being 
dried for several days in a warm, airy place, they are 
placed for ten or twelve hours into a strong solution of 
zinc chloride of about 1-205 sp. gr., and finally dried 
again. The product is stated to be Avorkable like hard¬ 
Avood, and to be capable of taking a fine polish after being 
tooled. It is fireproof and inpermeable to water, and weak 
acid or alkaline solutions, and not affected by the humidity 
of the atmosphere, being well suited to decorative pur¬ 
poses, as it will not Avarp and fly like Avood, but retain its 
form. 

How to Stain M ood.—The following are recipes for 
staining wood, which are used in large establishments with 
great success: Light Walnut—Dissolve 3 oz. permanga¬ 
nate of potash in six pints of water, and paint the wood 
twice with the solution. After the solution has been left 
on the wood for from five to ten minutes, the wood is 
rinsed, dried, oiled, and finally polished. Light Mahogany— 
1 oz. finely cut alkanet root, 2 ozs. poAvdered aloe, and 2 
ozs. poAvdered dragon's blood are digested with 26 ozs. of 
strong spirits of wine in a corked bottle, and left in a mod¬ 
erately warm place for four days. The solution is then fil¬ 
tered off, and the clear filtrate is ready for use. The AA r ood 
which is to be < stained is first passed through nitric acid, 
then dried, painted o\-er with the alcoholic extract, dried, 




















































TWENTY THOUSAND THINGS WORTH KNOWING. 


46 7 


oiled and polished. Dark Walnut.—3 ozs. permanganate 
of potash are dissolved in six pints of water, and the wood 
is painted twice with this solution. After five minutes 
the wood is washed, and grained with acetate of iron (the 
ordinary iron liquor of the dyer) at 20° Tw. Dry, oil and 
polish as usual. Gray—1 oz. nitrate of silver is dissolved 
in 45 ozs. water, and the wood painted twice with the so¬ 
lution; afterwards the wood is submitted to the action of 
hydrochloric acid, and finally washed with ammonia. It 
is then dried in a dark place, oiled and polished. This is 
said to give remarkably good results on beech, pitch pine 
and poplar. Black—7 ozs. logwood are boiled with three 
pints of water, filtered, and the filtrate mixed with a solu¬ 
tion containing 1 oz. of sulphate of copper (blue copperas). 
The mixture is left to clear, and the clear liquor decanted 
while still hot. The wood is placed in this liquor for 
twenty-four hours; it is then exposed to the air for twenty- 
four hours, and afterwards passed through a hot bath of 
nitrate of iron of 6° Tw. If the black, after this treat¬ 
ment, should not be sufficiently developed, the wood has 
to be passed again through the first logwood bath. 

The Highest Chimney in the World.—The highest chim¬ 
ney in the world is said to be that recently completed at 
the lead mines in Mechernich. It is 134 meters (439 ft. 6 
in.) high, was commenced in 1884, and was carried up 23 
meters before the frost set in; building was again resumed 
on the 14th of last April, and it was completed last Sep¬ 
tember. The foundation, which is of dressed stone, is 
square, measuring 11 meters (33 ft.) on each side, and is 
3*50 meters (11 ft. 6 in.) deep; the base is also square, and 
is carried up 10 meters (33 ft.) above the ground. The 
chimney-stack is of circular section, 7’50 meters (24 ft. 6 
in.) diameter at the bottom, and tapering to 3*50 meters 
diameter (11 ft. Gin.) at the top, and is 120*50 meters 
(395 ft.) high. 

How to Measure Round Tanks.—Square the diameter 
of the tank, and multiply by *7854, which gives the area; 
then multiply area by depth of tank, and the cubic con¬ 
tents will be found. Allow gallons for each cubic foot. 

The Largest Buildings in the World.—Where is the 
largest building in the world situated? The answer to 
this question must depend upon what the term “ building ” 
is held to represent. The Great Wall of China, 1,280 
miles in length, wide enough to allow six horsemen to 
ride abreast along it, and with an average height of 20 ft., 
may fairly be called a building; so, too, may be called the 
Great Pyramid of Egypt. The question, however, was 
not meant to include such works as these. Some have 
supposed that the Vatican at Rome, with its eight grand 
staircases, 200 smaller staircases, 20 courts, and 11,000 
apartments, is the largest building in the world; but surely 
this is a collection of palaces rather than a single building. 
The same objection applies to the famous monastery of 
the Escurial in the province of Madrid, with its seven 
towers, fifteen gateways, and 12,000 windows and doors, 
and to many other vast piles. For the largest single build¬ 
ing extant, we must look to St. Peter’s at Rome, within 
which our great cathedral, St. Paul’s, could easily stand. 
St. Peter’s occupies a space of 240,000 sq. ft., its front is 
400 ft. broad, rising to a height of 180 ft.; the length of 
the interior is 600 ft., its breadth 442 ft. It is capable of 
holding 54,000 people, while its piazza, in its widest limits, 
holds 624,000. It is only by degrees that one is able to 
realize its vast size. St. Peter’s holds 54,000 persons; 
Milan Cathedral, 37,000; St. Paul’s, Rome, 32,000; St. 
Paul’s, London, 25,600; St. Petronio, Bologna, 24,400; 
Florence Cathedral, 24,300; Antwerp Cathedral, 24,000; 
St. Sophia, Constantinople, 23,000; Notre Dame, Paris, 
21,000; Pisa Cathedral, 13,000; St. Stephen’s, Vienna, 


12,400; Auditorium, Chicago, 12,000; St. Mark’s, Venice, 
7,000. 

The Biggest Bell in the World.—There is a bell in the 
Temple of Clars, at Kinto, Japan, which is larger than 
the great bell of Moscow, or any other. It is covered with 
Chinese and Sanskrit characters which Japanese scholars 
have not yet succeeded in translating. There is no record 
of its casting. Its height is 24 ft., and at the rim it has a 
thickness of 16 in. It has no clapper, but is struck on the 
outside by a kind of wooden battering-ram. We are 
unable to obtain any more exact particulars as to the 
dimensions of this bell in order to determine whether or 
no it really does excel the “Monarch ” of Moscow, which 
weighs about 193 tons, is 19 ft. 3 in. in height, 60 ft. 9 in. 
in circumference, and 2 ft. thick. There is another huge 
bell at Moscow, and those at Amazapoora, in Burmah, and 
at Pekin are far bigger than any we have in this country. 
Our biggest bell is “ Great Paul,” which was cast at 
Loughborough in 1881, and which weighs 17^ tons. Tak¬ 
ing purity, volume, and correctness of note into account, 
it is probably the finest bell in Europe. 

The Oldest Cities in the World.—They are the follow¬ 
ing:—Argos, Athens and Thebes, in Greece; Crotona and 
Rome, in Italy; Cadiz and Saguntum, in Spain; Constan¬ 
tinople, in Turkey, and Marseilles, in France, which was 
founded by a colony of Greeks 580 B. C. The age of 
these cities varies from twenty-four to twenty-seven cen¬ 
turies. 

How to Manufacture Oil of Apple, or Essence of Apple. 
—The essence of apple is composed of aldehyde 2 parts; 
chloroform, acetic ether and nitrous ether and oxalic acid 
eachl part; glycerin 4 parts; amyl valerianice therlO parts. 

A Formula for the Manufacture of Artificial Cider.— 
Imitation cider consists of 25 gallons soft water, 25 pounds 
New Orleans sugar; 1 pint yeast; two pounds tartaric acid. 
Put all the ingredients into a clean cask, and stir them up 
well after standing twenty-four hours with the bung out. 
Then bung the cask up tight, add 3 gallons spirits, and let 
it stand forty-eight hours, after which time it will be ready 
for use. Champagne cider can be prepared by taking 10 
gallons of cider, old and clear. Put this in a strong, iron- 
bound cask pitched inside (like beer casks); add 2-J pints 
clarified white plain syrup; then dissolve in it 5 ounces tar¬ 
taric acid; keep the bung ready in hand, then add 7i 
ounces of potassium bicarbonate; bung it as quickly and as 
well as possible. 

Recipe for Making Instantaneous Ink and Stain Extrac¬ 
tor.—Take of chloride of lime 1 pound, thoroughly pul¬ 
verized, and 4 quarts soft water. The foregoing must be 
thoroughly shaken when first put together. It is required 
to stand twenty-four hours to dissolve the chloride of lime; 
then strain through a cotton cloth, after which add a tea¬ 
spoonful of acetic acid to every ounce of the chloride of 
lime water. 

Wood, which is a more unyielding material, acts with 
tremendous force when wetted, and advantage has been 
taken of this fact in splitting blocks of granite. This proc¬ 
ess is largely adopted in Dartmoor. After a mass of 
granite has been rent from the mountain by blasting, it is 
measured in every direction to see how best to divide it 
into smaller blocks. These are traced out by straight 
lines on the surface, and a series of holes are drilled at 
short intervals along this line. Wedges of dry wood are 
then tightly driven into the holes and wetted, and the 
combined action of the swelling w r ood splits the block in 
the direction required, and without any destructive vio¬ 
lence. The same process is then carried out upon the 
other faces, and the roughly-shapen block finished with 
the hammer and chisel. 







































468 


TWENTY THOUSAND THINGS WORTH KNOWING. 


The Weight and Value of a Cubic Foot of Solid Gold or 
Silver.—A cubic foot of gold weighs about 19,300 ounces, 
and gold is worth $20.67 per ounce. Silver is worth $1.29 
per ounce, and a cubic foot weighs 10,500 ounces. Con¬ 
sequently the cubic foot of gold would be worth $398,931, 
and the silver $13,545. 

To Remove Spots on Brass.—Sulphuric acid will remove 
spots from brass that will not yield to oxalic acid. It 
may be applied with a brush, but great care must be taken 
that no drop of the acid shall come in contact with 
the clothes or skin, as it is ruinous to garments and cuti¬ 
cle. Bath brick or rottenstone may be used for polishing. 

A Formula to Make a Good Shoe Dressing.—Gum shel¬ 
lac, £ pound; alcohol, 3 quarts ; dissolve, and add cam¬ 
phor, 1£ ounces ; lampblack, 2 ounces. The foregoing 
will be found to give an excellent gloss, and is especially 
adapted to any leather, the surface of which is roughened 
by wear. 

Receipts for Dyeing Cotton Fabric Red, Blue and Ecru. 
—Red : Muriate of tin, two-thirds cupful, add water to 
cover goods ; raise to boiling heat; put in goods one hour; 
stir often; take out, empty kettle, put in clean water with 
Nicaragua wood one pound ; steep one-half hour at hand 
heat, then put in goods and increase heat one hour, not 
boiling. Air goods, and dip one hour as before. Wash 
without soap. Blue : For three pounds goods, blue vitriol 
4 ounces ; boil few minutes, then dip goods three hours ; 
then pass them through strong lime water. Ecru : Con¬ 
tinue the foregoing operation for blue by passing the 
goods through a solution of prussiate of potash. 

Motion of Waves.— The progressive motion of a wave 
on the water exactly corresponds in speed with that of a 
pendulum whose length is equal to the breadth of the 
wave; the same law, gravity, governs both. 

Light of the Sun.— A photometric experiment of 
Huygens, resumed by Wollaston, a short time before his 
death, teaches us that 20,000 stars the same size as Sirius, 
the most brilliant in the firmament, would need to be 
agglomerated to shed upon our globe a light equal to that 
of the sun. 

Land Cultivation in Japan.—The entire arable land of 
the Japanese empire is officially put at only 11,215,000 
acres ; but it is so fertile and thoroughly cultivated that 
it feeds a population of 37,000,000, about that of France. 
Rice is one of the principal crops, and of this some 200,- 
000,000 bushels are raised annually. 

Old London Bridge.—As early as the year 978 there 
was a wooden bridge where London bridge now stands. 
This was replaced by another in 1014, and another in 
1209. The present London bridge was erected in 1831, 
and may be considered the oldest existing bridge over the 
river. 

The Shortest Method of Removing Silver from Plated 
Ware Before Replating.—Dip the article in nitric acid ; 
this will remove the silver. 

A Formula for White Metal.—Copper, 69.8 parts; 
nickel, 19.8 parts; zinc, 5.5 parts; cadmium, 4.7 parts. 
It takes a fine polish. 

Curiosities of Metal Working.—At a recent meeting of 
scientific men, a speaker produced an anklet worn by East 
Indian women. This is a flat curb chain about one inch 
broad, with the links very close, and weighing about ten 
or twelve ounces. It is composed of a species of brass com¬ 
posed of copper and lead, without any trace of silver, zinc, 
or tin. Such anklets are sold for a "few pence, and they 
are cast all at once, complete as an endless chain. The 


j links show no sign of having been united in any way. How 
it was possible to produce such a casting as this passed 
his comprehension, and he hoped that some one who had 
seen them made would explain the nature of the process. 
From the East much that was curious in metallurgical 
art came. Cast-iron was, he believed, first made purposely 
in China. It was, however, frequently produced uninten¬ 
tionally, when wrought-iron was made direct from the ore 
in little furnaces about as big as a chimney-pot. It was 
found among the cinders and ash of the coarcoal-fire in 
grains or globules, which were not only like shot, but were 
actually used as shot by the natives. He showed what he 
believed was the only specimen in England of this cast- 
iron, in a bottle. He next referred to the celebrated 
Damascene blades of Indian swords, and explained that 
these blades were an intimate mixture of wrought-iron 
and hard steel, which must have required great skill, time 
and patience for its production. Onepatern, in particular, 
known as “Mary’s Ladder,” showed wonderful finish and 
accuracy. Concerning the tempering of these blades 
little was known ; but it was stated that it was affected by 
a long-continued hammering, or rather tapping, of the 
blade while cold. 

How Many Tons of Coal a Large Steamship Consumes in 
a Day.—“Ocean steamers are large consumers of coal. 
The Orient line, with their fleet of ships running to 
Australia every two weeks, may be mentioned. The 
steamship Austral went from London to Sydney in thirty- 
five days, and consumed on the voyage 3,641 tons of coal; 
Her coal bunkers hold 2,750 tons. The steamship Oregon 
consumes over 330 tons per day on her passage from Liver¬ 
pool to New York ; her bunkers will hold nearly 4,000 
tons. The Stirling Castle last year brought home in one 
cargo 2,200 tons of tea, and consumed 2,800 tons of coal in 
doing so. Immense stocks of coal are kept at various 
coaling stations. St. Vincent, Madeira, Port Said, Singa¬ 
pore and others; the reserve at the latter place is about 
20,000 tons. It is remarkable with what rapidity these 
steamers are coaled; for instance, the Orient steamship 
last year took in over 1,100 tons at Port Said in five 
hours.” 

What a Man Eats.—A French statistician has just ascer¬ 
tained that a human being of either sex who is a moderate 
eater and who lives to be 70 years old consumes during his 
life a quantity of food which would fill twenty ordinary 
railway baggage cars. A “ good eater,” however, may 
require as many as thirty. 

An Australian Railway Viaduct.—The Werribee Via¬ 
duct, in the colony of Victoria, is the longest work of the 
kind in Australia. The structure consists of lattice- 
girder work. It is 1,290 feet in length, and runs to a 
height of 125 feet above the level of the Werribee river. 
The viaduct has fifteen spans each of 60 feet, and thirteen 
spans of 30 feet. The total cost of the bridge was £600,- 
000 . 

The Sharpening of Tools.—Instead of oil, which 
thickens and smears the stone, a mixture of glycerine and 
spirit is recommended. The proportions of the composi¬ 
tion vary according to the class of tool to be sharpened. 
One with a relatively large surface is best sharpened with 
a clear fluid, three parts of glycerine being mixed with one 
part of spirit. A graver having a small cutting surface 
only requires a small pressure on the stone, and in such 
cases the glycerine should be mixed with only two or three 
drops of spirit. 

Recipes for Plumbers.—Chloride of zinc, so much used 
in soldering iron, has, besides its corrosive qualities, the 
drawback of being unwholesome when used for soldering 










































TWENTY THOUSAND THINGS WORTH KNOWING. 


469 


the iron tins employed to can fruit, vegetables and other 
foods. A soldering mixture has been found which is free 
from these defects. It is made by mixing one pound of 
lactic acid with one pound of glycerine and eight pounds 
of water. A wooden tank may be rendered capable of 
withstanding the effects of nitric or sulphuric acids by the 
following methods:—Cover the inside with paraffin; go 
over the inside with a sadiron heated to the temperature 
used in ironing clothes. Melt the paraffin under the iron 
so as to drive it into the wood as much as possible, then with 
a cooler iron melt on a coat thick enough to completely 
cover the wood. For brassing small articles: To one quart 
water add half an ounce each of sulphate copper and 
protochloride of tin. Stir the articles in the solution until 
the desired color is obtained. Use the sulphate of copper 
alone for a copper color. A good cement for celluloid is 
made from one part shellac dissolved in one part of spirit 
of camphor and three to four parts of ninety per cent, 
alcohol. The cement should be applied warm, and the 
broken parts securely held together until the solvent has 
entirely evaporated. Tin and tin alloys, after careful 
cleansing from oxide and grease, are handsomely and 
permanently bronzed if brushed over with a solution of one 
part of sulphate of copper (bluestone) and one part of 
sulphate of iron (copperas) in twenty parts of water. 
When this has dried, the surface should be brushed 
with a solution of one part of acetate of copper (verdigris) 
in acetic acid. After several applications and dryings of 
the last named, the surface is polished with a soft brush 
and bloodstone powder. The raised portions are then 
rubbed off with soft leather moistened with wax in tur¬ 
pentine, followed by a rubbing with dry leather. 

Protecting Water-Pipes Against Frost.—A device has 
been brought forward for protecting water-pipes against 
freezing, the arrangement being based upon the fact that 
water in motion will remain liquid at a lower temperature 
than water at rest. One end of a copper rod, placed out¬ 
side the building, is secured to a bracket, and the other 
end is attached to one arm of a weighted elbow lever; to 
the other arm of the lever is secured a rod which passes 
into the building and operates a valve in the water-pipe. 
By means of turn buckles the length of the copper rod 
can be adjusted so that before the temperature reaches 
the point at which there would be danger of the water in 
the pipes freezing the valve will be opened to allow a flow 
of water; beyond this point the valve opening will in¬ 
crease and the flow become more rapid as the cold becomes 
more intense, and as the temperature rises the valve is 
closed. This plan sets up a current in the pipes, which 
replaces the water as it grows cold by the warmer water 
from the main. 

Destructive Work of Barnacles.—Unless some paint 
can be found which is proof against barnacles, it may be 
necessary to sheath steel vessels with an alloy of copper. 
An attempt has been made to cover the hulls with anti¬ 
corrosive paint and cover this with an outside coat which 
should resist the attack of barnacles. Somehow the bar¬ 
nacles eat their way through the paint and attach them¬ 
selves to the hull. The vast item of expense attached to 
the dry-docking of steel ships makes this matter a not 
unimportant one. The barnacles interfere greatly with 
the speed of a vessel, and in a cruiser speed is of prime 
importance. They attach themselves in an incredibly 
short time to a steel hull, and it is not long before their 
effect can be noted by a comparison of the reading of the 
log. 

How to Frost Glass.—Two ounces of spirits of salts, 
two ounces of oil of vitriol, one ounce of sulphate of cop¬ 
per, one ounce of gum arabic, mixed togetherand dabbed 


on with a brush; or this:—Dab your squares regularly 
over with putty; when dry go over them again—the imi¬ 
tation will be executed. Or this:—Mix Epsom salts with 
porter and apply it with a brush. Or this one:—Grind 
and mix white lead in three-fourths of boiled oil, and one- 
fourth of spirits of turpentine, and, to give the mixture 
a very drying quality, add sufficient quantities of burnt 
white vitriol and sugar of lead. The color must be made 
exceedingly thin, and put on the panes of glass with a 
large painting-brush in as even a manner as possible. 
When a number of the panes are thus painted take a dry 
duster, quite new, dab the ends of the bristles on the 
glass in quick succession till you give it a uniform 
appearance; repeat this operation till the work appears 
very soft, and it will then appear like ground glass. When 
the windows require fresh painting, get the old coat off 
first by using strong pearlasli water. 

How to Preserve Posts.—Wood can be made to last lon¬ 
ger than iron in the ground, if prepared according to the 
following receipe:—Take boiled linseed oil and stir in pul¬ 
verized coal to the consistency of paint. Put a coat of 
this over the timber, and there is not a man that will live 
to see it rot. 

What Diamond Dyes and Paints Are Made of.—Solu¬ 
tions of the aniline colors. 

What the Ingredients Are of Soapine and Pearline.— 
They consist of partly effloresced sal soda mixed with half 
its weight of soda ash. Some makers add a little yellow 
soap, coarsely powdered, to disguise the appearance, and 
others a little carbonate of ammonium or borax. 

How Many Thousand Feet of Natural Gas are Equal in 
Heat-Creating Power to One Ton Anthracite Coal.—About 
40,000 cubic feet. 

SUSTAINING POWER OF ICE. 

The sustaining power of ice at various degrees of thick¬ 
ness is given in the following paragraphs: 

At a thickness of two inches, will support a man. 

At a thickness of four inches, will support man on 
horseback. 

At a thickness of six inches, will support teams with 
moderate loads. 

At a thickness of eight inches, will support heavy loads. 

At a thickness of ten inches, will support 1,000 pounds 
to the square foot. 

THE EXPANSIVE POWER OF WATER. 

It is a well known, but not less remarkable fact, that if 
the tip of an exceedingly small tube be dipped into water, 
the water will rise spontaneously in the tube throughout its 
whole length. This may be shown in a variety of ways; for 
instance, when a piece of sponge, or sugar, or cotton is 
just allowed to touch water, these substances being all 
composed of numberless little tubes, draw up the water, and 
the whole of the piece becomes wet. It is said to such tip 
or imbibe the moisture. We see the same wonderful action 
going on in nature in the rising of the sap through the 
small tubes or pores of the wood, whereby the leaves and 
upper portions of the plant derive nourishment from the 
ground. 

This strange action is called “ capillary/’ from the 
resemblance the minute tubes bear to a hair, the Latin of 
which is capillus. It is, moreover, singular that the 
absorption of the water takes place with great force. If a 
dry sponge be enclosed tightly in a vessel, it will expand 
when wetted, with sufficient force to burst it, unless very 
strong. 



































470 


TWENTY THOUSAND THINGS WORTH KNOWING. 


London Water Supply.—The quantity of water con¬ 
sumed in London amounts to about 145,000,000 gallons a 
day. If this quantity could be collected together, it 
would form a lake 700 yards long, 200 wide, and with a 
uniform depth of 20 feet. 

A Protection for Embankments.—Engineers often have 
considerable trouble with the loose soil of newly-made 
embankments, so apt to slip or be washed away before 
they are covered with vegetation. According to a French 
railway engineer, the best plan is to sow the banks with 
the double poppy. Several months elapse before grasses 
and clovers develop their feeble roots, but the double 
poppy germinates in a few days, and in a fortnight has 
grown sufficiently to afford some protection to the slope, 
while at the end of three or four months the roots, which 
are ten or twelve inches in length, are found to have 
interlaced so as to retain the earth far more firmly than 
those of any grass or grain. Although the double poppy 
is an annual, it sows itself after the first year. 

A Cheap Concrete.—A kind of concrete made without 
cement is composed of 8 parts of sand, gravel and pebbles, 
1 part of burnt and powdered common earth, 1 part of 
pulverized clinkers and cinders, and 1£ parts of unslacked 
hydraulic lime. These materials are thoroughly incor¬ 
porated while dry into a homogeneous mixture, which is 
then wetted up and well beaten. The result of this is a 
hard and solid mass, which sets almost immediately, 
becoming exceedingly strong after a few days. It may be 
made still stronger by the addition of a small proportion— 
say 1 part—of cement. 

Marking Tools.—To mark tools, first cover the article 
to be marked with a thin coating of tallow or beeswax, 
and with a sharp instrument write the name in the 
tallow. Clear with a feather, fill the letters with nitric 
acid, let it remain from one to ten minutes, then dip in 
water and run ofE, and the marks will be etched into the 
steel or iron. 

How to Prevent Chisel Handles Splitting.—All carpent 
ters know how soon the butt-end of chisel handles split 
when daily exposed to the blow of a mallet or hammer. 
A remedy suggested by a Brooklyn man consists simply of 
sawing or cutting off the round end of the handle so as to 
make it flat, and attaching by a few nails on the top of it 
two discs of sole leather, so that the end becomes similar 
to the heel of the boot. The two thicknesses of leather 
will prevent all further splitting, and if, in the course of 
time, they expand and overlap the wood of the handle, 
they are simply trimmed off all around. 

The Largest Wheel of Its Kind Ever Made in the 
World.—The greatest wheel of its kind in the world, a 
very wonder in mechanism, was built for the Calumet and 
Hecla Mining Company of Lake Superior, Mich., for the 
purpose of lifting and discharging the “tailings,” a waste 
from the copper mines, into the lake. Its diameter is 54 
feet; weight in active operation, 200 tons. Its extreme 
dimensions are 54 feet in diameter. Some idea ..of its 
enormous capacity can be formed from the fact that it 
receives and elevates sufficient sand every twenty-four 
hours to cover an acre of ground a foot deep. It is armed 
on its outer edge with 432 teeth, 4.71 inches pitch and 18 
inches face. The gear segments, eighteen in number, are 
made of gun iron, and the teeth are machine-cut, epicy- 
cloidal in form. It took two of the most perfect machines 
in the world 100 days and nights to cut the teeth alone, 
and the finish is as smooth as glass. The wheel is driven 
by a pinion of gun iron containing 33 teeth of equal pitch 
and face and runs at a speed of 600 feet per minute at the 
inner edge, where it is equipped with 448 steel buckets 
that lift the “tailings” as the machine revolves and dis¬ 


charges them into launders that carry them into the lake. 
The shaft of the wheel is of gun iron, and its journals 
are 22 inches in diameter by 3 feet 4 inches long. The 
shaft is made in three sections and is 30 inches in diameter 
in the center. At a first glance the great wheel looks like 
an exaggerated bicycle wheel, and it is constructed much 
on the same principle, with straining rods that run to 
centers cast on the outer sections of the shaft. The steel 
buckets on either side of the gear are each 4 feet 5-^ inches 
long and 21 inches deep, and the combined lifting capacity 
of the 448, running at a speed of 600 feet per minute, will 
be 3,000,000 gallons of water and 2,000 tons of sand every 
twenty-four hours. The mammoth wheel is supported on 
two massive adjustable pedestals of cast iron weighing 
twelve tons each, and its cost at the copper mines before 
making a single revolution, $100,000. 

Strength of Brick Walls.—The question of strength of 
brick walls is often discussed, and differences of opinion 
expressed. The following is one of the rules given:—For 
first-class buildings, with good workmanship, the general 
average should not exceed a greater number of feet in 
height than three times its thickness of wall in inches, 
and the length not to exceed double the height, without 
lateral supports of walls, buttresses, etc., as follows for 
safety: 


Thickness. 

Safe Height. 

Length. 

8^ inch walls. 

25 feet. 

50 feet. 

13 “ . 

40 “ 

80 “ 

17 “ . 

55 “ 

110 “ 

22 “ . 

66 “ 

130 “ 

26 “ . 

78 “ 

150 « 


Where the lengths must exceed these proportions, as in 
depots, warehouses, etc., the thickness should be increased, 
or lateral braces instituted as frequently as practicable. 

Qualities of Building Stone.—The principal qualities of 
a good building stone are—(1) Strength, (2) hardness, (3) 
durability, (4) appearance, (5) facility for working. 
There are also other minor points; but stone possessing one 
or more of the above qualities, according to the purpose 
for which it is required, may be regarded as good for that 
purpose. 

Strength of Stone.—Stone should only be subjected 
to a compressive strain. It is occasionaly subject to a 
cross strain, as in lintels over doors and windows; these 
are, however, contrary to the true principles of construc¬ 
tion, and should not be allowed except a strong relieving 
arch is turned over them. The strength of stone in com¬ 
pression is about 120 tons per square foot for the 
weakest stones, and about 750 tons per square foot for the 
strongest. No stones are, however, subjected to anything 
like this amount of compressive force; in the largest build¬ 
ings it does not amount to more than twelve or fourteen 
tons per square foot. 

Hardness of Stone.—This is of more importance than 
its strength, especially in pavements or steps, where it is 
subject to great wear; also in plinths and quoins of build¬ 
ings where it is desired to preserve a good face and sharp 
arris. The order of strength and hardness of stone is — 
(l)Basalt, (2) granite, (3) limestone, (4) sandstone. Gran¬ 
ite, seinite, and gneiss take the first place for strength, hard¬ 
ness and durability, but they will not stand a high tempera¬ 
ture. “Stones which are of a fine, uniform grain, compact 
texture and deep color are the strongest; and when the 
grain, color, and texture are the same, those are the 

























































TWENTY THOUSAND THINGS WORTH KNOWING. 


471 




strongest which are theheaviest; but otherwise the strength 
does not increase with the specific gravity.” Great hard¬ 
ness is objectionable when the stone has to be worked with 
a chisel, owing to the labor required to work it. Hard 
stones, also, generally wear smooth, and become polished, 
which makes them unsuitable for some purposes. Brittle¬ 
nesses a defect which frequently accompanies hardness, 
particularly in coarse-grained stones; it prevents them 
from being worked to a true surface, and from receiving a 
smooth edge at the angles. Workmen call those hard 
stones which can only be sawn into slabs by the grit saw, 
and those soft which can be separated by a common saw. 

Expansion of Stone by Heat.—Rocks are expanded by 
heat and contracted by cooling. Variation in temper¬ 
ature thus causes some building stones to alternately ex¬ 
pand and contract, and this prevents the joints of masonry 
from remaining close and tight. In the United States with 
an annual thermometric range of more than 90 deg. Fah., 
this difficulty led to some experiments on the amount of 
expansion and contraction in different kinds of build¬ 
ing stones. It was found that in fine-grained granite the 
rate of expansion was .000004825 for every degree Fah. 
of increment of heat; in white crystalline marble it was 
.000005668; and in red sandstone .000009532, or about 
twice as much as in granite. In Western America, where 
the climate is remarkably dry and clear, the thermometer 
often gives a range of more than 80 deg. in twenty-four 
hours. This great difference of temperature produces a 
strain so great that it causes rocks to crack or peel off in 
skins or irregular pieces, or in some cases, it disintegrates 
them into sand. Dr. Livingstone found in Africa (12 deg. 
S. lat., 34 deg. E. long.) that surfaces of rock which during 
the day were heated up to 137 deg. Fah. cooled so rapidly 
by radiation at night that unable to stand the strain of 
contraction, they split and threw off sharp angular frag¬ 
ments from a few ounces to 100 lbs. or 200 lbs. in weight. 
According to data obtained from Adie “Trans. Roy. Soc. 
Edin.,” xiii., p. 366, and Totten the expansion of ordinary 
rocks ranges from about 2.47 to 9.63 millionths for 1 deg. 
Fah. 

BLUNDERS AND ABSURDITIES IN ART. 

In looking over some collections of old pictures, it is 
surprising what extraordinary anachornisms, blunders, 
and absurdities are often discoverable. 

In the gallery of the convent of Jesuits at Lisbon, there 
is a picture representing Adam in paradise, dressed in 
blue breeches with silver buckles, and Eve with a striped 
petticoat. In the distance appears a procession of Capu¬ 
chin monks bearing the cross. 

In a country church in Holland there is a painting rep¬ 
resenting the sacrifice of Isaac, in which the painter has 
depicted Abraham with a blunderbus in his hand, ready 
to shoot his son. A similar edifice in Spain has a picture 
of the same incident, in which the patriarch is armed 
with a pistol. 

At Windsor there is a painting by Antonio Verrio, in 
which the artist has introduced the portraits of himself. 
Sir Godfrey Kneller, and May, the surveyor of the works 
of that period, all in long periwigs, as spectators of Christ 
healing the sick. 

A painter of Toledo, having to represent the three wise 
men of the East coming to worship on the nativity of 
Christ, depicted three Arabian or Indian kings, two of 
them white and one black, and all of them in the posture of 
kneeling. The position of the legs of each figure not 
being very distinct, he inadvertently painted three black 
feet for the negro king, and three also between the two 
white kings; and he did not discover his error until the 
picture was hung up in the cathedral. 



In another picture of the Adoration of the Magi, which 
was in the Houghton Hall collection, the painter, Brughel, 
had introduced a multitude of little figures, finished off 
with true Dutch exactitude, but one was accoutred in 
boots and spurs, and another was handing in, as a present, 
a little model of a Dutch ship. 

The same collection contained a painting of the stoning 
of Stephen, the martyr, by Le Sceur, in which the saint 
was attired in the habit of a Roman Catholic priest at high 
mass. 

A picture by Rubens, in the Luxembourg, represents the 
Virgin Mary in council, with two cardinals and the god 
Mercury assisting in her deliberations. 

A STOPPAGE OF THE FALLS OF NIAGARA. 

The following.remarkable account of the stoppage of 
Niagara Falls, appeared in the Niagara Mail at the time 
of the occurrence: “That mysterious personage, the 
oldest inhabitant, has no recollection of so singular an 
occurrence as took place at the Falls on the 30th of March, 
1847. The ‘six hundred and twenty thousand tons of 
water each minute’ nearly ceased to flow, and dwindled 
away into the appearance of a mere milldam. The rapids 
above the falls disappeared, leaving scarcely enough on 
the American side to turn a grindstone. Ladies and gen¬ 
tlemen rode in carriages one-third of the way across the 
river towards the Canada shore, over solid rock as smooth 
as a kitchen floor. The Iris says: ‘Table Rock, with 
some two hundred yards more, was left dry; islands and 
places where the foot of man never dared to tread have 
been visited, flags placed upon some, and mementoes 
brought away. This unexpected event is attempted to be 
accounted for by an accumulation of ice at the lower 
extremity of Fort Erie, which formed a sort of dam 
between Fort Erie and Buffalo/” 

WONDERS OF MINUTE WORKMANSHIP. 

In the twentieth year of Queen Elizabeth, a blacksmith 
named Mark Scaliot, made a lock consisting of eleven 
pieces of iron, steel and brass, all which, together with a 
key to it, weighed but one grain of gold. He also made a 
chain of gold, consisting of forty-three links, and, having 
fastened this to the before-mentioned lock and key, he 
put the chain about the neck of a flea, which drew them 
all with ease. All these together, lock and key, chain and 
flea, weighed only one grain and a half. 

Oswaldus Norhingerus, who was more famous even than 
Scaliot for his minute contrivances, is said to have made 
1,600 dishes of turned ivory, all perfect and complete in 
every part, yet so small, thin and slender, that all of 
them were included at once in a cup turned out of a 
pepper-corn of the common size. Johannes Shad, of Mitel- 
brach, carried this wonderful work with him to Rome, 
and showed it to Pope Paul V., who saw and counted 
them all by the help of a pair of spectacles. They were so 
little as to be almost invisible to the eye. 

Johannes Ferrarius, a Jesuit, had in his posession can¬ 
nons of wood, with their carriages, wheels, and all other 
military furniture, all of which were also contained in a 
pepper-corn of the ordinary size. 

An artist, named Claudius Gallus, made for Hippolytus 
d’Este, Cardinal of Ferrara, representations of sundry 
birds setting on the tops of trees, which, by hydraulic art 
and secret conveyauce of water through the trunks and 
branches of the trees, were made to sing and clap their 
wings; but, at the sudden appearance of an owl out of a 
bush of the same artifice, they immediately became all 
mute and silent. 





























TWENTY THOUSAND THINGS WORTH KNOWING. 



CURIOUS DISSECTION OF THE OLD AND NEW 

TESTAMENTS. 


SHOWING THE NUMBER OF BOOKS, CHAPTERS, VERSES, 
WORDS, LETTERS, ETC. 

In the Old Testament. In the New Testament. Total. 

Books. 39 .. Books. 27 .. 66 

Chapters ... 929 .. Chapters ... 260 .. 1,189 

Verses. 23,214 .. Verses. 7,959 .. 31,173 

Words..... 592,439 .. Words. 281,258 .. 773,697 

Letters. 2,728,100 .. Letters. 838,380 .. 3,566,480 

Apocrypha—chapters, 183; verses, 6,081; words, 152,185. 

The middle chapter and the least in the Bible is Psalm 
cxvii. 

The middle verse is the 8th of Psalm cxviii. 

The middle line is in 16th verse, 4th chapter, 2 Chron¬ 
icles. 

The word and occurs in the Old Testament 35,543 times; 
in the New Testament, 10,684 times. 

The word Jehovah occurs 6,855 times. 

OLD TESTAMENT. 


CURIOUS CALCULATIONS. 

CONSUMPTION OF AIR IN ACTIVITY AND REPOSE. 

Dr. Radclyffe Hall makes the following interesting 
statement with regard to the amount of air we consume in 
repose, and at different degrees of activity: When still, 
we use 500 cubic inches of air in a minute; if we walk at 
the rate of one mile an hour, we use 800; two miles, 1,000; 
three miles an hour, 1,600; four miles an hour, 2,300. If 
we run at six miles an hour, we use 3,000 cubic inches; 
trotting a horse, 1,750; cantering, 1,500. 

THE VALUE OF LABOR. 

Cast iron of the value of £1 sterling is worth, converted 
into ordinary machinery, <£4; in larger ornamented work, 
£45; in buckles and similar kinds of fancy work, £600; 
in neck chains, £1,300. Bar iron of the value of £1 sterling 
is worth, in the form of knives, £36; needles, £70; penknife 
blades, £950; polished bottons and buckles, £890; balance 
springs of watches, £5,000. 


The middle book is Proverbs. 

The middle chapter is Job xxix. 

The middle verse would be in the 2d of Chronicles, 20th 
chapter, between the 17th and 18th verses. 

The least verse is the 1st of Chronicles, 1st chapter, and 
1st verse. 

NEW TESTAMENT. 

The middle book is 2 Thessalonians. 

The middle chapter is between the 13th and 14th of 
Romans. 

The middle verse is the 17th of Acts xvii. 

The shortest verse is the 35th of John xi. 


The 21st verse of the 7th chapter of Ezra contains all 
the letters of the alphabet. 

The 19th chapter of 2 Kings, and the 37th of Isaiah, are 
alike. 

It is stated that the above calculation took three years to 
complete. 


INTEREST OF MONEY. 

Dr. Price, in the second edition of his “ Observations on 
Reversionary Payments,” says: “It is well known to 
what prodigious sums money improved for some time at 
compound interest will increase. A penny so improved 
from our Saviour's birth, as to double itself every fourteen 
years—or, what is nearly the same, put out at five per 
cent, compound interest at our Saviour's birth—would by 
this time have increased to more money than could be 
contained in 150 millions of globes, each equal to the 
earth in magnitude, and all solid gold. A shilling, put 
out at six per cent, compound interest would, in the same 
time, have increased to a greater sum in gold than the 
whole solar system could hold, supposing it a sphere equal 
in diameter to the diameter of Saturn's orbit. And the 
earth is to such a sphere as half a square foot, or a quarto 
page, to the whole surface of the earth.” 

WONDERS OF SCIENCE. 


REMARKABLE INSCRIPTION. 

The following singular inscription is to be seen carved 
on a tomb situated at the entrance of the church of San 
Salvador, in the city of Oviedo. The explanation is that 
the tomb was erected by a king named Silo, and the 
inscription is so written that it can be read 270 ways by 
beginning with the large S in the center. The words are 
Latin, “Silo princepsfecit.” 

TICEFSPECNCEPSFECIT 
ICEFSPECNI NCEPSFEC I 
CEFSPECNI RINCEPSFEC 
EFSPECNIRPRI NCEPSFE 
FSPECNIRPOPRINCEPSF 
SPECNIRPOLOPRINCEP S 
PCCNIRPOL ILOPRINCEP 
EENIRPOL ISI LOP RINCE 
PEONI RPO L ILOPR INCEP 
SPECN I RPOLOPRI N £ E P S 
FSPECNIRP OPR INCEPSF 
EFSPECNI RPRI NCEPSFE 
CEFSPECNIR INC EP SFEC 
I CEFSPECNI NCE P S FEC I 
TICEFSPECNCEP S F ECIT 

Besides this singular inscription, the letters H. S. E. S. 
S. T. T. L. are also carved on the tomb, but of these no 
explanation is given. Silo, Prince of Oviedo, or King of 
the Asturias, succeeded Aurelius in 774, and died in 785. 
He was, therefore, a contemporary of Charlemagne. No 
doubt the above inscription was the composition of some 
ingenious and learned Spanish monk. 


A grain of gold has been found by Muncke to admit of 
being divided into ninety-five thousand millions of visible 
parts ; that is, by the aid of a microscope magnifying one 
thousand times. A sovereign is thus capable of division 
into ten millions of millions of visible particles, being ten 
thousand times as many such parttcles as there are men, 
women and children in all the world. 

Spontaneous Combustion. —Liebig, in his “ Familiar 
Letters on Chemistry,” has proved the unsoundness of 
spontaneous combustion. Yet Dr. Lindley gives nineteen 
instances of something akin, or the rapid ignition of the 
human body by contact with flame as a consequence of the 
saturation of its tissues by alcohol. 

Vibrations of the Air. —If a person stand beneath a 
railway girder-bridge with an open umbrella over his head, 
when a train is passing, the vibration of the air will be 
distinctly felt in the hand which grasps the umbrella, 
because the outspread surface collects and concentrates the 
waves into the focus of the handle. 

The Earth’s Center.— All bodies weigh less the fur¬ 
ther removed they are from the center of the earth. A 
block of stone weighing 700 pounds upon the sea-shore, 
will weigh only 699 pounds if carried up a mountain three 
miles high. A pendulum oscillates more quickly at the 
poles than at the equator, because the earth is flatter by 
twenty-six miles at the poles—that is, the “bob "of the 
pendulum is that much nearer the earth’s center, and 
therefore heavier, and so swings more quickly. 







































1 rm?"- ^---->7fc-r* 


FIFTEEN THOUSAND SYNONYMS. 

47<T 





FIFTEEN THOUSAND SYNONYMS. 




^Hg^H^^gggililglglplg^gl^gSggggggggga^g^ 


Abandon—relinquish, give up, desert, forsake, 
forego, yield, cede, surrender, resign, abdicate, 
leave, retire, withdraw from. 

Abandoned—reprobate, profligate, forsaken. 

Abase—degrade, humble, disgrace, lower, de¬ 
press. 

Abate—reduce, subside, diminish, lessen, de¬ 
crease . 

Abbreviate—curtail, compress,abridge,condense, 
eptomize, shorten, lessen, reduce. 

Abettor—accomplice, aid, accessory. 

Abhor—abominate, hate, detest, loathe. 

Ability—capacity, power, talent, skill, means. 

Able—capable, competent. 

Abode—dwelling, habitation, residence. 

Abominate—detest, hate, loathe, abhor. 

Abridge—contract, curtail, diminish, lessen, 
shorten. 

Abrogate—abolish, cancel, annul, repeal, revoke. 

Abrupt—hasty, harsh, steep, rough, sudden, rug¬ 
ged, unceremonious. 

Absent—abstracted, heedless, inattentive. 

Absorb—engulf, engross, imbibe, swallow. 

Abstain—forbear, refrain, withhold. 

Abstruse—difficult, hidden, obscure. 

Absurd—foolish preposterous, silly, ridiculous, 
unreasonable. 

Abundant—ample, copious, plentiful. 

Abusive—disgraceful, insolent, offensive, scurril¬ 
ous. 

Abyss—chasm, gulf. 

Accede—agree, acquiesce, assent, comply, con¬ 
sent, yield. 

Accept—admit, receive, take. 

Acceptable—agreeable, grateful, welcome. 

Accession—addition, augmentation, increase. 

Accommodate—adapt, suit, adjust, serve, fit. 

Accompany—attend, escort; wait on, go with. 

Accomplice—abettor, ally, accessory, associate, 
assistant. 

Accomplish—execute, effect, finish, achieve, ful¬ 
fill, realize, complete. 

Accordingly—agreeably, consequently, there¬ 
fore, suitably. 

Account—description, explanation, recital, narra¬ 
tion. 

Accumulate—amass, collect, gather, heap. 

Accurate—correct, exact, nice, precise. 

Accuse—arraign, asperse, detract, defame, im¬ 
peach, calumniate, villify, censure. 

Achieve—accomplish, realize, effect, complete, 
execute, fulfill. 

Acknowledge—avow, confess, own, grant. 

Acknowledgment—admission, avowal, confes¬ 
sion, concession, recognition. 

Acquaint—communicate, disclose, inform, make 
known. 

Acquiesce—accede, assent, agree, comply, con- 

gen t yield. 

Acquire—attain, obtain, gain, procure, win. 

Acquirement—attainment, gain. 

Acquit—clear, discharge, free, forgive, pardon. 

Active —agile, busy, vigorous, brisk, quick, indus¬ 
trious, nimble, prompt. 

Actual—real, positive, certain, genuine. 

Actuate—move, impel, incite, rouse, instigate, 
animate, induce. 

Acute—penetrating, pointed, keen, piercing, sub¬ 
tle, shrewd, sharp. 

Adage—apothegm, aphorism, maxim, saying, 
proverb, axiom. 

Adapt—accommodate, adjust, fit, suit. 

Add—join, annex, increase. 

Addition—accession, augmentation, increase. 

Address—ability, courtship, direction, utterance, 
skill, speech. 

Address—accost, salute, harangue, speech, ora¬ 
tion, direction, superscription, dexterity. 

Adept—skillful, apt, quick, expert. 

Adhere—attach, cleave, hold, stick. 

Adherent— disciple, partisan, follower, upholder. 

Adhesion—attachment, sticking, adherence, 

union. 



Adjacent—adjoining, contiguous, near, close. 

Adjourn—postpone, defer, delay, put off. 

Adjust—accommodate, adapt, fit, settle, suit. 

Administer—give, manage, dispense, supply, 
serve, execute. 

Admiration—amazement, esteem, regard, won¬ 
der, surprise. 

Admission—entrance, admittance, access,conces- 
sion, initiation. 

Admit—allow, concede, grant, permit, tolerate. 

Admonition—advice, caution, counsel, reproof, 
warning. 

Adore—revere, reverence, venerate, worship. 

Adorn—deck, embellish, beautify, decorate, orna¬ 
ment. 

Adroit—agile, clever, dexterous, skillful. 

Adulterate—corrupt, defile, debase, pollute. 

Advancement—improvement, furtherance, pro¬ 
gression. 

Advantage—benefit, good, profit, use. 

Adventure — occurrence, incident, casualty, 
chance, contingency. 

Adversary—opponent, enemy, antagonist. 

Adverse—hostile, contrary, repugnant, unfor¬ 
tunate, opposed. 

Advert—allude, notice, regard, turn. 

Advertise—publish, proclaim, announce. 

Advice—instruction, admonition, counsel. 

Advise—admonish, consult, deliberate, consider. 

Advocate—argue, defend, plead, support. 

Affability—civility, courteousness, urbanity 

Affable—courteous, civil, pleasing, urbane. 

Affair—business, concern, matter, transaction. 

Affect—aim, assume, arrogate, move, pretend. 

Affecting—feeling, pathetic, touching. 

Affection—tenderness, love, kindness, fondness, 
attachment. 

Affiliate—adopt, associate, initiate, receive. 

Affinity—conformity, alliance, relationship, kin¬ 
dred, attraction. 

Affirm—assert, aver, assure, protest, declare. 

Affliction -sadness, sorrow, bereavement, calam¬ 
ity, distress, pain, grief, trouble, tribulation. 

Affluence—opulence, wealth, riches, abundance, 
concourse, influx, plenty. 

Afford—impart, grant, give, produce, spare, 
yield. 

Affray—disturbance, broil, feud, fray, quarrel, 

Affright—alarm, appall, frighten, terrify, shock, 
dismay, intimidate, dishearten. 

Affront—insult, offend, provoke, outrage. 

Afraid—fearful, timid, timorous, terrified. 

Aged -old, elderly, senile, advanced in years. 

Agent—deputy, factor, representative. 

Aggravate—tantalize, provoke, exasperate, irri¬ 
tate. 

Aggregate— accumulate, mass, collect, pile. 

Agile—nimble, brisk, alert, lively, quick, active, 
sprightly. 

Agitate— disturb, shake, move, discuss. 

Agitation—trepidation, tremor, disturbance. 

Agony—distress, pain, anguish, torture, suffer¬ 
ing. 

Agree— consent, assent, accede, concur, comply, 
acquiesce. 

Agreeable—suitable, acceptable, pleasing, grate- 

Agreement—bargain, covenant, accordance, con¬ 
tract, concurrence, harmony. 

Aid— assist, help, succor, relieve. 

Aim—aspire, endeavor, level, strive, point. 

Air—mien, look, manner, appearance, aspect. 

Alarm— apprehension, terror, surprise, summons, 
fright, fear, dread, consternation. 

Alienate—withdraw, estrange, transfer. 

Allay— soothe, mitigate, appease, assuage. 

Allege—assert, advance, adduce, affirm. 

Alleviate—mitigate, relieve, soothe, ease, lessen, 
aiminish, abate, lighten. 

Alliance union, league, confederacy, coalition, 
combination. . .... 

Allot—assign, apportion, appoint, distribute. 

Allowance—wages, salary, pay, stipend, grant, 
concession. 


All to—very much, entirely, completely, alto¬ 
gether. 

Allude—refer, intimate, hint, suggest. 

Allure—decoy, attract, seduce, tempt, entice. 

Alter—change, vary, modify, rearrange. 

Altercation—difference, dispute, quarrel. 

Always—continually, incessantly, constantly, 
ever, perpetually. 

Amass—heap, pile, accumulate, collect, gather. 

Amazement—surprise, astonishment, admira¬ 
tion, wonder. 

Ambiguous— equivocal, doubtful, uncertain, ob¬ 
scure. 

Amenable—answerable, responsible, accountable. 

Amend—rectify, reform, mend, better, correct, 
improve. 

Amends — restitution, restoration, recompense, 
reparation. 

Amiable—kind, agreeable, obliging, charming, 
delightful, lovely. 

Ample- abundant, large, copious, spacious, ex¬ 
tended, plenteous. 

A m u s e m e n t—pastime, recreation, diversion, 
sport, entertainment. 

Ancestors- progenitors, forefathers. 

Anecdote—tale, story. 

Angry—passionate, resentful, hot, hasty, irascible, 
wrathful, furious, 

Anguish—distress, pain, agony, suffering. 

Animate—urge, enliven, exhilarate, encourage, 
impel, cheer, incite, inspire. 

Animation—life, spirits,gayety, buoyancy,vivae- 
ity, liveliness. 

Animosity—enmity, hatred, hostility, malignity. 

Annals—memoirs, anecdotes, chronicles, narra¬ 
tions. 

Annex -attach, add, affix, subjoin. 

Announce—proclaim, publish, advertise, declare. 

Annul—cancel, destroy, revoke, repeal, abolish, 
annihilate. 

Answer—reply, rejoinder, response. 

Answerable — accountable, responsible, amen¬ 
able. 

Antagonist—foe, adversary, opponent, enemy. 

Antecedent—foregoing, former, previous, anter¬ 
ior, prior, preceding. 

Anterior—antecedent, previous, prior, former, 
foregoing. 

Antipathy—aversion, dislike, detestation, abhor¬ 
rence, hatred. 

Antique—ancient, old, antiquated. 

Anxiety—uneasiness, caution, care, perplexity, 
solicitude, disquietude. 

Apathy—insensibiiity, indifference, unconcern, 
unfeelingness. 

Aperture—cavity, hollow. 

A p h o r i s m—adage, maxim, apothegm, axiom, 
proverb, saying. 

Apology—plea, excuse, defense. 

Appall—daunt, dismay, reduce, depress, discour¬ 
age. 

Apparent— evident, visible, plain, clear, distinct. 

Appeal—refer, invoke, call upon. 

Appearance—aspect, air, manner, look, mien, 
scniblnncc 

Appease—assuage, allay, soothe, pacify, calm, 
tranquilize. 

Applaud—extol, praise, commend, approve. 

Applause— acclamation, approval, shouting. 

Appoint— provide, allot, constitute, fix, ordain, 
prescribe, depute, order. 

Appraise -estimate, value. 

Appreciate— value, esteem, prize, estimate. 

Apprehension—suspicion, alarm, seizure, terror, 
fear, fright, dread. 

Apprise—make known, acquaint, disclose, inform. 

Approach—admittance, access, passage, avenue. 

Approbation—approval, concui’rence, confirma¬ 
tion, consent, sanction. 

Appropriate—set apart, assume, usurp. 

Appropriate-adapted, exclusive, peculiar, suit¬ 
able. 

Approve—allow, applaud, commend, like, esteem. 

Apt—fit, meet, quick, ready, prompt, liable. 





30 








































































474 


FIFTEEN THOUSAND SYNONYMS. 


Arbitrator—arbiter, referee, judge, umpire. 
Archives—annals, records, registers, chronicles. 
Ardent—eager, fervent, fiery, hot, passionate, 
vehement. 

Arduous—difficult, trying, laborious, hard. 
Argument—debate, dispute, proof, reason. 

Arise —ascend, mount, rise, stand up. 

Arraign—accuse, charge, impeach. 

Arrange—class, adjust, dispose, place. 
Arrogance—assumption, haughtiness, pride pre¬ 
sumption, self-conceit. 

Artful—artificial, cunning, crafty, dexterous, 
deceitful. 

Articulate—speak, utter, pronounce. 

Artifice—stratagem, deceit, cheat, finesse, imposi¬ 
tion, deception. 

Assembly—assemblage, collection, group. 
Associate—companion, friend, mate. 

Atrocious—heinous, flagrant, flagitious. 
Attitude—position, posture, gesture. 

Attract—allure, charm, captivate, entice, win, 
draw. 

Audacity—hardihood, impudence, effrontery, 
boldness. 

Auspicious—favorable, fortunate, lucky, propi¬ 
tious, prosperous. 

Austere—rigid, rigorous, stern, severe. 
Authentic—genuine, authorized, true. 
Authority—dominion, force, power, sway, influ¬ 
ence, ascendancy. 

Avarice—greed, covetousness, cupidity. 

Averse—loath, reluctant, repugnant, unwilling, 
unfavorable, unfortunate. 

Aversion—abhorrence, antipathy, detestation, 
dislike, repugnance. 

Avidity—eagerness, greediness. 

Avocation—occupation, profession, trade, em¬ 
ployment, calling, office, business. 

Avoid—shun, elude, eschew. 

Avow—acknowledge, own, confess, recognize. 
Awake—arouse, excite, provoke. 

Awe - dread, fear, reverence. 

B 

Babbling—chattering, idle talk, prattling, loquac¬ 
ity. 

Backward—unwilling, averse, loath, reluctant. 
Baffle— disconcert, elude, confound, defeat, con¬ 
fuse. 

Balance—equalize, adjust, settle, regulate, poise. 
Banter—deride, jest, ridicule, taunt, rally. 

Bare—naked, unadorned, stripped, destitute. 
Bargain—buy, purchase, contract. 

Base—low, vile, mean, evil. 

Bashful—modest, diffident, shy, timid. 

Basis—pedestal, base, foundation. 

Bastard—illegitimate, spurious. 

Battle—engagement, combat, fight. 

Bear—suffer, undergo, carry, sustain, bring forth, 
, support, endure, yield. 

Beat—6trike, overthrow, defeat, hit. 

Beau—gallant, dandy, sweetheart, fop. 

Beatiful—fine, handsome, pretty. 

Beautify—decorate, ornament, embellish, adorn, 
deck. 

Becoming—comely, decent, fit, graceful, suit¬ 
able. 

Beg—beseech, request, ask, crave, supplicate. 
Begin—enter upon, originate, commence. 
Beguile—mislead, amuse, impose upon, deceive. 
Behavicr—carriage, deportment, address, con¬ 
duct. 

Behold —observe, see, view. 

Beholder—observer, spectator, looker on. 

Belief—assent, conviction, confidence, certainty, 
faith, trust. 

Below—beneath, under. 

Bend—bow, distort incline, lean, subdue. 
Beneath—below, under. 

Beneficent—helpful, benevolent, generous, boun¬ 
tiful, liberal, munificent. 

Bent—crooked, awry, prepossession, curved, in¬ 
clination. 

Bequeath—devise, give by will. 

Beseech—urge, beg, implore, solicit, supplicate, 
request, crave, entreat. 

Bestow—grant, confer, present, give. 

Better—improve, ameliorate, reform, mend. 
Bias—warp, prepossession, bent, prejudice. 
Blame -inculpate, reprove, upbraid, condemn, 
censure, reproach, reprehend. 

Blameless—guiltless, innocent, spotless, faultless 
unblemished, irreproachable. 

Blast—split, wither up, desolate, destroy. 
Blemish—flaw, defect, stain, fault, spot, speck. 
Blend—mix, mingle, confound. 

Bliss—happiness, felicity, beatitude, blessedness. 
Blunt—dull, uncouth, brusque, insentient, abrupt. 
Blunder—error, mistake. 

Boaster—vaunter, blusterer, braggard, braggart. 
Boasting—parade, ostentation, vaunting. 
Boisterous—violent, vehement, furious, impet¬ 
uous. 

Bold—courageous, daring, insolent, impudent, 
intrepid, fearless, audacious. 

Bondage—servitude, confinement, slavery, im¬ 
prisonment. 

Booty—plunder, sport, prey. 

Border—edge, side, verge, brink, brim, margin, 
rim. 

Bore—penetrate, perforate, pierce. 

Bound—define, circumscribe, confine, restrict, 
limit, terminate. 


Bounty—liberality, beneficence, generosity, be¬ 
nevolence, munificence. 

Brace—support, pair, couple. 

Brave—bold, intrepid, fearless, undaunted, he¬ 
roic, daring, courageous. 

Breach—chasm, break, gap, opening. 

Break -destroy, shatter, batter, demolish, tame, 
dissolve, crush, rend. 

Breaker—covered rock, surge, wave, sandbank, 
billow. 

Brief—short, epitomized, concise, summary, suc¬ 
cinct, compendious. 

Bright—lucid, glistening, resplendent, brilliant, 
glitter ng, clear, shining, sparkling, vivid. 

Brilliancy—brightness, luster, radiance, splendor. 

Brittle—crisp, frail, fragile. 

Broad—far-reaching, wide, ample, extensive, 
large. 

Broil—fright, affray, altercation, feud, quarrel. 

Bruise—break, crush, squeeze, pound, compress. 

Build—erect, establish, found, construct. 

Bulk—magnitude, dimensions, greatness, extent, 
size, largeness. 

Burden—load, cargo, weight, freight. 

Burning—ardent, hot, scorching, fiery. 

Burst—split, crack, rend, break. 

Business—avocation, occupation, employment, 
trade, work, calling, profession. 

Bustle—confusion, hurry, tumult, disorder. 

But—notwithstanding, nevertheless, except, how¬ 
ever, still, yet, save. 

Butchery—havoc, carnage, massacre, slaughter. 

Buy—procure, purchase, bargain, obtain. 

C 

Cabal—coalition, intrigue, plot, combination, 
league, conspiracy. 

Cajole—fawn, wheedle, coax. 

Calamity—mishap, misfortune, disaster, mis¬ 
chance. 

Calculate—count, reckon, estimate, compute, 
number. 

Call—subpoena, summon, name, cry, bid, invite, 
exclaim. 

Calling—trade, employment, avocation, occupa¬ 
tion, profession, business. 

Calm—soothe, assuage, allay, appease, compose, 
tranquilize, quiet, peace, pacify. 

Cancel—erase, revoke, destroy, annul, abolish, re¬ 
peal. 

Candid—frank, honest, ingenuous, open, artless. 

Capable—able, skillful, fitted, qualified, compe¬ 
tent: 

Capacity—capability, talent, faculty, genius,abil¬ 
ity. 

Caprice—fancy, humor, whim, freak, notion. 

Capricious—notional whimsical, variable, fantas¬ 
tical, fickle, changeable. 

Captivate—charm, fascinate, take prisoner, en¬ 
slave, enchant, attract, enrapture. 

Captivity—servitude, imprisonment, bondage, 
confinement. 

Capture—prize, seizure. 

Care—disquietude, management, worry, anxiety, 
concern, attention, regard, solicitude. 

Careful—provident, circumspect, guarded, pru¬ 
dent, cautious, solicitious, attentive. 

Careless—inattentive, unconcerned, negligent, 
thoughtless, remiss, heedless. 

Caress—fondle, soothe, endear, stroke, embrace. 

Carnage—massacre, slaughter, butchery. 

Carriage—deportment, walk, bearing, demeanor, 
manner, behavior, mien. 

Carry—bear, convey, transport. 

Case—predicament, condition, state, plight, situa¬ 
tion. 

Cast—throw, fling, direct, turn, hurl. 

Casual—accidental, contingent, incidental. 

Catch—capture, grip, snatch, lay hold of, seize, 
grasp. 

Cause—origin, inducement,reason,motive.source. 

Caution—solicitude, notice, advice, circumspec¬ 
tion, care, admonition, warning. 

Cautious—careful, wary, prudent, watchful, cir¬ 
cumspect. 

Cease—Leave off, stop, desist, discontinue. 

Celebrated—illustrious, renowned, famous, hon¬ 
ored. 

Celebrate—praise, commend, extol, perpetuate. 

Celerity—velocity, swiftness, fleetness, quickness, 
rapidity. 

Censure—rebuke, reproach, stricture, blame, rep¬ 
rimand, upbraid, condemnation. 

Ceremony—rite, form, observance. 

Certain—actual, real, manifest, sure, constant. - 

Chagrin—vexation, mortification, fretfulness. 

Challenge—object, demand, except, claim, defy, 
accuse, call, dare. 

Chance—Casual, accident, fortune, fate, fortui¬ 
tous, hazard. 

Change—alteration, vicissitude, variety, conver¬ 
sion, mutation. 

Changeable—uncertain, unsteady, inconstant, 
mutable, fickle, variable. 

Character—manner, quality, mark, description, 
reputation, cast, letter. 

Charity—kindness, beneficence, benevolence,gen¬ 
erosity, good-will, liberality. 

Charm—fascinate, captivate, bewitch, enrapture, 
attract, delight. 

Chasten—chastise, afflict, correct, punish. 

Chasteness—purity, simplicity, continence, chas¬ 
tity. 


Chastise—afflict, correct, punish. 

Chattels—effects, movable goods. 

Cheat—fraud, imposition, deception, deceit, strat¬ 
agem. 

Cheer—encourage, incite, exhilarate, gladden, 
comfort. 

Cheerfulness—sprightliness, liveliness, jollity, 
comfort, gayety, mirth, gladness. 

Cherish—help, nurture, foster, shelter, indulge, 
warm. 

Chide—scold, reprimand, rebuke, reprove. 

Chiefly—mainly, especially, principally, particu¬ 
larly. 

Childish—simple, puerile, young, trifling. 

Childhood—infancy, minority. 

Children-issue, offspring, progeny. 

Choke—suffocate, smother, stifle. 

Choice—selection, option, election. 

Choose—pick, select, elect, prefer. 

Circulate—spread, pass, bruit, diffuse, propagate. 

Circumscribe—limit, inclose, confine, bound. 

Circumstance—situation, event, condition, state, 
incident. 

Circumspect—vigilant, watchful, prudent, wary, 
particular, cautious. 

Circumstantial—minute, accidental, particular, 
incidental 

Civil—obliging, well-bred, polite, polished, ur¬ 
bane, affable, courteous, complaisant. 

Civilization—refinement, culture. 

Claim—demand, ask, right, pretension. 

Clamor -outcry, cry, uproar, noise. 

Clandestine—hidden, secret, private. 

Class—division, rank, order, degree. 

Cleansing—purging, purifying, cleaning. 

Clear—obvious, apparent, free, pure, vivid. 

Clearly—visibly, manifestly, lucidly, distinctly, 
obviously, plainly. 

Clemency—mercy, kindness, lenity, mildness. 

Clever—adroit, expert, skillful, ready. 

Climb—mount, ascend, rise, scale. 

Cling—hang, clasp, cleave, stick, hold. 

Close—confined, shut, near, firm, concise, com¬ 
pact. 

Clothes—apparel, habiliments, raiment, covering, 
attire, garment. 

Clouded-overcast, sullen, obscured, variegated, 
gloomy, dark. 

Clumsy—uncouth, unhandy, bungling, awkward. 

Coadjutor—colleague, ally, adjutant, assistant. 

Coalition—conspiracy, union, combination. 

Coarse—gross, vulgar, rude, rough, inelegant, un¬ 
refined. 

Coax—fawn, wheedle, tease, flatter, cajole. 

Coerce—force, compel, restrain. 

Cognomen—name, appellation, denomination. 

Coherent—consistent, tenacious, adhesive. 

Coincide—agree, harmonize, concur. 

Cold—unaffecting, shy, frigid, chill, reserved. 

Colleague—ally, partner, associate, coadjutor. 

Collected—composed, calm, unruffled,placid, cool, 
gathered. 

Collection—gathering, group, assemblage, con¬ 
tribution. 

Colloquy—conference, talk, dialogue. 

Color—hue, tint, stain. 

Combination—confederacy, conspiracy, coalition, 
union, league, alliance. 

Comely—handsome, becoming, graceful, agreea¬ 
ble. 

Comfort—solace, enliven, encourage, console. 

Comfortless—wretched, desolate, forlorn. 

Comic—funny, laughable, ridiculous, ludicrous. 

Command—direction, order, precept, behest, in¬ 
junction. 

Commanding—dictatorial, imperious, authorita¬ 
tive, imperative. 

Commence—begin, undertake, originate. 

Commend—approve, laud, praise, applaud, extol, 
recommend. 

Commensurate—sufficient, adequate, equal, pro¬ 
portionate. 

Comment—utterance, ellucidation, remark, ob¬ 
servation, annotation, note, explanation, expo¬ 
sition. 

Commiseration—compassion, feeling for, condo¬ 
lence, pity, sympathy. 

Commission—authorize, empower, enable. 

Commodious—fit, large, suitable, convenient, 

Commodity—goods, wares, merchandise. 

Common—general, low, mean, frequent, usual, 
vulgar, ordinary. 

Commotion —perturbation, confusion, tumult, 
disturbance. 

Communicate—tell, impart, reveal, disclose,re¬ 
port, make known. 

Communication—commerce, intercourse, con¬ 
ference. 

Communion—union, fellowship, converse, inter¬ 
course. 

Commute—barter, exchange. 

Compact—close, solid, firm. 

Companion —partner, ally, confederate, accom¬ 
plice, friend, comrade, associate, chum. 

Company—assembly, congregation, crew, band, 
corporation, association. 

Compass—consummate, attain, encircle, enclose, 
environ, invest. 

Compassion—commiseration, sympathy, tender¬ 
ness. 

Compensation—amends, requital, remuneration, 
reward, pay, satisfaction, 



































FIFTEEN - THOUSAND SYNONYMS. 


475 


Competent—skillful, suitable, effective,fitted effi¬ 
cient, qualified, capable, able. 

Competition—emulation, rivalry. 

Complaining—bemoaning, bewailing, lamenting, 
repining, regretting, 

Complaisant—affable, civil, courteous, agreeable, 
obliging. 

Complete—accomplish, consummate, conclude, 
execute, effect, finish, fulfill. 

Complex—complicate, intricate. 

Compliment—flatter, extol, praise. 

Comply—accede, agree, assent, consent, yield, ac¬ 
quiesce. 

Composed—calm, quiet, put together. 
Comprehend — appreciate, embrace, comprise, 
understand. 

Compress—bind, condense, squeeze, 

Compulsion — coercion, restraint, force . 
Compunction—contrition, repentance, penitence, 
regret. 

Compute—calculate, reckon, count, estimate. 
Concede—admit, allow, yield, grant, deliver. 
Conceal—cover, disguise, hide, secrete. 

Conceit—fancy, vanity, pride, notion, imagination, 

freak. 

Conception—idea, notion, perception, fancy. 
Concern—affair, matter, business, care. 

Concert—adjust, consult, contrive. 

Conciliate—reconcile, propitiate. 

Conclude—finish, close, terminate. 

Conclusive—convincing, decisive. 

Concord—agreement, amity, peace, union, har¬ 
mony. 

Concur—agree, coincide, approve, acquiesce. 
Condemn—reproach, doom, sentence, blame. 
Condense—shorten, contract, abbreviate. 
Condescension—submission, humility, deference. 
Condition—stipulation, situation, state, rank. 
Condolence—sympathy, commiseration, compas¬ 
sion. 

Conduct—behavior, deportment, management. 
Confederate—associate, ally, accomplice. 
Confer—grant, bestow, give. 

Confess—admit, disclose, acknowledge, own 
Confide—trust, depend, rely, repose. 

Confident—assured, bold, positive. 

Confine—imprisoned, circumscribed, limited, con- 
tracted. 

Confirm—strengthen, corroborate, establish. 
Conform—comply, yield, submit. 

Congruity — consistency, agreement. 

Connected—joined, united, related. 

Conquer—overcome, subdue, vanquish. 
Consent—agree, assent, comply, yield, accede. 
Consider—ponder, deliberate, reflect. 
Consistent—agreeing, accordant. 

Conspicuous — noted, prominent, illustrious, dis¬ 
tinguished. 

Contract —build, erect, frame, form, make. 
Consume—absorb, waste, destroy. 

Contagious —infectious, epidemic. 

Contaminate—corrupt, defile, taint, poison, pol¬ 
lute. 

Contemplate—muse, meditate, consider. 
Contend—contest, vie, strive, argue, debate. 
Contentment—happiness, satisfaction, gratifica¬ 
tion. 

Continuation—duration, continuance. 

Contract—shorten, curtail, reduce, abbreviate, 
condense, abridge. 

Contrary—opposite, adverse, inimical. 
Contrivance—invention, plan, scheme, device 
means. 

Controversy—debate, disputation, argument. 
Convenient—suitable, adapted, handy. 

Convey—transport, bear, carry. 

Convivial—sociable, agreeable, festal, social. 
Copy—duplicate, specimen, model. 

Correct—mend, rectify, better, reform. 

Costly—valuable, precious, expensive. 
Countenance -uphold, sanction, support, favor, 
encourage. 

Couple—connect, join, unite. 

Courage—heroism, firmness, valor, bravery, fear- 
lGssness. 

Covering—hiding, concealing, sheltering, screen¬ 
ing. 

Coward—poltroon, dastard, sneak. 

Crave—beg, supplicate, solicit, request, beseech, 
implore, entreat. 

Crime—sin, evil, vice, wickedness, guilt. 

Cross—splenetic, ill-tempered, petulant, fretful, 
peevish. 

Cure—remedy, restore, heal. 

Curse—imprecation, anathema, malediction. 
Curtail—abridge, shorten, abbreviate, contract. 
Custom—manner, usage, habit, practice. 

D 

Dainty—choice, delicate. 

Dampness—humidity, wet, moisture. 

Dark—dismal, gloomy, obscure. 

Dead—lifeless, inanimate, deceased, still. 
Dealing—commerce, trade, traffic. 

Debase—degrade, lower, humble, abase. 

Decay—consumption, decline. 

Decent—comely, seemly, fit, becoming. 
Decisive—conclusive, convincing, ending. 
Decline -reject, refuse, decay. 

Decoy—seduce, tempt, allure, entice, inveigle. 
Dedicate—consecrate, set apart, devote. 

Deed—feat, action, exploit, achievement. 
Defect—blemish, want, imperfection, flaw. 


Defender—protector, advocate, vindicator, plead¬ 
er. 

Deference—veneration, regard, respect. 

Deficient—imperfect, lacking, wanting. 

Defraud—cheat, swindle, deceive, rob, track. 

Degree—class, rank, station, position. 

Delay—postpone, protract, prolong, defer, hinder. 

Delighted—grateful, pleased, charmed, joyful, ! 
glad. 

Delinquent—pffender, criminal, culprit. 

Delude—beguile, mislead, cheat, deceive. 

Demand—claim, ask, require. 

Demonstrate—manifest, prove, show, evince. 

Denote—mark, imply, signify. 

Dependence—trust, reliance, confidence. 

Deportment—behavior, demeanor, conduct, car¬ 
riage. 

Deprive—depose, strip, divest, hinder, prevent. 

Deputy—delegate, agent, representative. 

Deride—laugh at, mock, banter, ridicule. 

Description—relation, detail, explanation, ac¬ 
count, recital, illustration, narration. 

Design—project, intend, sketch, plan, scheme, 
purpose. 

Desist—discontinue, stop, leave off, cease. 

Despicable — mean, outrageous, contemptible, 
hateful, vile, worthless. 

Despotic—arbitrary, self-willed, absolute. 

Destitute—bare, forlorn, forsaken, poor, scanty, 
seedy. 

Desultory—loose, hasty, slight, roving. 

Detail—account, recital, tale, description, narra¬ 
tion. 

Detect—discover, find, convict. 

Determined—concluded, ended, firm, resolute, 
immovable, decided, fixed. 

Detestable—hateful, loathsome, abominable, exe¬ 
crable. 

Detriment—hurt, damage, injury, prejudice, loss, 
inconvenience, disadvantage. 

Deviate—digress, err, wander, stray, swerve. 

Devote—give, dedicate, set apart, apply, conse¬ 
crate. 

Devout—holy, religious, pious, prayerful. 

Dialect—language, tongue, speech. 

Die—expire, wither, perish, depart, languish. 

Different—various, unlike, diverse. 

Diffident—modest, retiring, hesitating, bashful, 
distrustful, fearful. 

Diligent—perservering, laborious, attentive, in¬ 
dustrious, active, assiduous. 

Direct—show, sway, regulate, manage, guide, con¬ 
duct. 

Direction—command, order, address, subscrip¬ 
tion. 

Disagree—quarrel, dissent, differ, dispute, vary. 

Disappoint—fail, defeat. 

Disavow—disown, deny, disclaim, repudiate. 

Discard—cast off, discharge, dismiss. 

Disclose—discover, reveal, divulge, promulgate. 

Discord—dissention, contention, inharmony. 

Discretion—judgment, prudence. 

Disdain—scorn, pride, contempt, haughtiness, ar¬ 
rogance. 

Disgrace—debase, degrade, abase, dishonor. 

Disgust -loathing, nausea, dislike, aversion. 

Dishonor—shame, disgrace. 

Dismiss—divest, discharge, discard. 

Disperse—scatter, deal out, spread, dissipate, dis¬ 
tribute. 

Display—parade, show, exhibit, ostentation. 

Displease—offend, anger, vex. 

Dispose—regulate, adapt, order, arrange. 

Disseminate—scatter, spread, propagate, circu¬ 
late. 

Dissertation—discourse, essay, treatise, disquisi¬ 
tion. 

Distaste —aversion, disgust, contempt, dislike, 
loathing, dissatisfaction. 

Distinguish—perceive, see, know, discern, dis¬ 
criminate. 

Distress—affliction, misery, agony, pain, sorrow, 
anguish, sadness, suffering, grief. 

District—county, circuit, locality, province, sec¬ 
tion, tract, region, territory. 

Divide—part, share, separate, distribute. 

Divulge—impart, disclose, publish, reveal, com¬ 
municate. 

Doctrine—wisdom, dogma, belief, principle, pre¬ 
cept. 

Doleful—awful, dismal, piteous, sorrowful, woe¬ 
ful, rueful. 

Drag—pull, drag, bring, haul. 

Dread—fear, apprehension. 

Dress— array, attire, vestments, garments, ap- 
parel. 

Dumb—silent, mute, still, inarticulate. 

Dutiful—submissive, respectful, obedient. 

Dye—stain, color, tinge. 


E 

Earn—gain, win, make, obtain, acquire. 

Ease—rest, repose, quiet. 

Eccentric—strange, singular, odd. 

Ecstacy—happiness, joy, delight, rapture, trans¬ 
port, enthusiasm, elevation. 

Edifice—fabric, building, structure. 

Efface—expunge, erase, obliterate, destroy, eradi¬ 
cate. 

Efficient—competent, effective, able, capable, 
effectual. 

Effort—endeavor, trial, attempt, exertion, essay. 

Elevate—raise, lift, hoist, exalt. 


Eligible—worthy, fit, capable, suitable. 
Emanate—issue, flow, arise, spring, proceed. 
Embarrass—trouble, perplex, distress, entangle, 
puzzle. 

Emblem—symbol, figure, type. 

Emergency—exigency, casualty, necessity. 
Emotion—feeling, tremor, agitation, excitement. 
Empower—enable, commission, delegate, author¬ 
ize. 

Enchant—beguile, enrapture, charm, captivate, 
bewitch, fascinate. 

Encomium—eulogy, praise. 

Encroach—trespass, intrude, infringe. 
Endeavor—effort, aim, exertion, attempt. 
Endurance—fortitude, submission, patience, 
resignation. 

Enemy—foe, opponent, antagonist, adversary. 
Enervate— unnerve, enfeeble, deteriorate, weak¬ 
en, debilitate. 

Enjoyment—happiness, joy, pleasure, gratifica¬ 
tion. 

Enlarge—extend, increase, lengthen, widen. 
Enough—ample, plenty, sufficient, abundance. 
Enrapture—charm, fascinate, attract, captivate, 
enchant. 

Enterprise—business, adventure, attempt, un¬ 
dertaking. 

Entice—tempt, allure, seduce, decoy. 

Entirely—perfectly, wholly, completely. 

Envy— jealousy, suspicion, grudging. 
Epidemical- contageous, pestilential, catching. 
Equal—uniform, adequate, commensurate. 
Eradicate- root out, extirpate, exterminate. 
Erase-expunge, cancel, efface, obliterate. 

Error fault, blunder, mistake. 

Escape —elope, pass, avoid, fly, evade, elude. 
Esteem— prize, love, respect, value, regard, ap¬ 
preciate. 

Eulogy—encomium, panegyric. 

Evade—escape, elude, shun, avoid, prevaricate. 
Even— smooth, equal, plain, uniform, level. 
Evidence—proof, witness, deposition, testimony. 
Evil—wicked, bad, sinful. 

Exact- enjoin, extort, demand, extract. 

Exalted—high, sublime, dignified, magnificent, 
raised, refined, elevated. 

Example— precedent, copy, pattern. 

Exceed—transcend, surpass, improve, outdo, ex¬ 
cel. 

Except—but, object, besides, unless. 

Excite—provoke, irritate, arouse, incite, awaken, 
stimulate. 

Excursion— jaunt, trip, tour, ramble. 
Execrable—hateful, detestable, contemptible, 
abominable. 

Exercise—exert, practice, carry on. 

Exhilarate— inspire, cheer, animate, enliven. 
Exigency — necessity, emergency. 

Expectation— belief, anticipation, confidence, 
hope, trust. 

Expedite- hurry, quicken, hasten, accelerate. 
Expel—banish, exile, cast out. 

Experience—knowledge, test, proof, experiment, 
trial. 

Explain—show, elucidate, unfold. 

Explicit—clear, plain, express, definite. 
Explore—hunt, search, examine. 

Extensive—comprehensive, wide, commodious 
large. 

Exterior—outside, outward, external. 

External—outward, exterior. 

Extravagant—profuse, lavish, wasteful, prodi¬ 
gal. 

F 

Fabricate—invent, feign, falsify, frame, forge. 
Fact—incident, circumstance. 

Faculty—ability, power, talent, gift. 

Failing—weakness, fault, foible, frailty, miscar¬ 
riage, imperfection, misfortune. 

Faith—fidelity, credit, trust, belief. 

Falsehood—falsity, lie, untruth, fiction, fabrica¬ 
tion, falsification. 

Familiar—intimate, free, unceremonious. 
Fanciful—ideal, hypochondriacal, whimsical, ca¬ 
pricious, fantastical, imaginative. 

Far—remote, distant. 

Fashion—form, style, sort, practice, mode, cus¬ 
tom, way, manner. 

Fastidious—disdainful, particular, squeamish. 
Favor—civility, benefit, grace, support. 
Favorable—propitious, suitable, auspicious. 
Faultless—guiltless, innocent, spotless, blame¬ 
less. 

Fearful— dreadful, timorous, horrible, afraid, aw¬ 
ful, terrible. 

Feasible—plausible, reasonable, practicable. 
Feeble—infirm, weak, frail. 

Feign—frame, forge, fabricate, invent. 

Fertile—fruitful, productive, prolific, abundant. 
Fervor—vehemence, warmth, zeal, heat, ardor. 
Fetter—shackle, bind, chain. 

Fiction—invention, untruth, lie, fabrieation. 
Fiery—hot, vehement, fervent, passionate, ardent, 
impulsive. 

Finesse—stratagem, trick, artifice. 

Firm—ready, partnership, strong, sturdy, solid, 
steady, immovable. 

Fitted—suited, competent, qualified, adapted. 
Flag—droop, faint, pine, decline, languish. 
Flavor—odor, taste, fragrance, savor. 

Fleeting—transient, swift, temporary, transitory. 
Flexible—pliable, pliant, supple. 












































47G 


FIFTEEN THOUSAND SYNONYMS 


Fluctuate—hesitate, vary, waver, change, vacil¬ 
late. 

Fondness—affection, tenderness, love, attach¬ 
ment. 

Forsake—relinquish, leave, desert, abandon, quit, 
abdicate. 

Forbear—refrain, spare, abstain, pause. 

Force—oblige, restrain, compel. 

Forebode—augur, foretell, betoken, presage, 
prognosticate. 

Forego—give up, quit, resign. 

Foreigner - stranger, alien. 

Forfeiture—penalty, fine. 

Forgive—absolve, excuse, remit, acquit, pardon. 

Form—rite, ceremony, shape, observance. 

Fortunate—lucky, prosperous, successful. 

Forward — immodest, progressive, ready, pre¬ 
sumptuous, confident, bold, ardent, eager. 

Fragile—brittle, tender, weak, frail. 

Frailty—weakness, foible, failing, unsteadiness, 
instability. 

Fraternity—brotherhood, society. 

Fraught—loaded, filled. 

Freak- whim, fancy, caprice, humor. 

Free—deliver, liberate, rescue, clear, enfranchise, 
affranchise. 

Freely—liberally, frankly, unreservedly, cheer¬ 
fully, spontaneously, unhesitatingly. 

Fresh—new, modern, cool, recent, novel. 

Fretful—captious, angry, peevish, petulant. 

Fright—terror, panic, alarm, consternation. 

Frighten—terrify, alarm, daunt, scare, intimidate, 
affright. 

Frivolous—futile, petty, trivial, trifling. 

Frugal careful, prudent, saving, economical. 

Frustrate—defeat, disappoint, foil, hinder, nul¬ 
lify 

Furious—impetuous, boisterous, violent, vehem¬ 
ent. 

G 

Gain—obtain, profit, get, acquire, attain, win. 

Gale—breeze, hurricane, storm, tempest. 

Gallantry—valor, bravery, courage. 

Gay—dashing, cheerful,' showy, fine, merry, 
sprightly. 

Generally—commonly, frequently, usually. 

Genteel—polite, cultured, mannerly, refined, pol¬ 
ished. 

Gentle—tame, peaceable, mild, quiet, meek. 

Germinate—sprout, vegetate, grow, bud, shoot. 

Gesture—action, attitude, motion, posture. 

Giddiness—flightiness, levity, lightness, vol¬ 
atility. 

Give—impart, yield, consign, grant, confer, be¬ 
stow. 

Glance—look, glimpse, sight. 

Glitter—glisten, radiate, shine, glare, sparkle. 

Gloom—dark, melancholy, morose, sullen, sad, 
cloudy, dull, dim. 

Graceful—comely, neat, becoming, genteel, ele¬ 
gant. 

Grant—sell, yield, give, bestow, confer, cede, 
concede. 

Grateful—thankful, pleasing, agreeable, deli¬ 
cious. 

Grave—sedate, thoughtful, important, solemn, 
slow, serious. 


High—tall, lofty. 

Hinder—stop, thwart, oppose, prevent, retard, 
interfere, obstruct, impede, embarrass. 

Hollow—empty, vacant. 

Honor—exalt, venerate, reverence, dignify, es¬ 
teem, respect, adorn, revere. 

Hopeless—dejected, despairing, desponding. 

Hostile—contrary, opposite, warlike, repugnant, 
unfriendly. 

House—domicile, quorum, dwelling, race, home, 
family, habitation. 

However—notwithstanding, still, yet, but, never¬ 
theless. 

Huge—vast, enormous, immense. 

Humanity—benevolence, benignity. 

Hurry—expedite, hasten, precipitate. 

Hypocrisy—pretense, deceit, dissimulation. 

I 

Idea—notion, perception, thought,conception,im¬ 
agination. 

Ignorant—untaught, illiterate, unlearned, unlet¬ 
tered, uninformed, unskilled. 

Illusion—deception, mockery, falsity. 

Imbecility—weakness, impotence, debility, in¬ 
firmity, languor, feebleness. 

Imitate—copy, ape, follow, mimic. 

Immediately—directly, instantly. 

Immense-vast, huge, enormous, prodigious, un¬ 
limited. 

Impair—lessen, injure, decrease, weaken. 

Impatient—eager, restless, hasty, uneasy. 

Impede—delay, hinder, obstruct, retard. 

Impediment—obstacle, hindrance, obstruction. 

Impending—imminent, threatening. 

Imperious-tyrannical,overbearing,lordly,haugh¬ 
ty, domineering. 

Impetuous—hasty, forcible, rough, vehement,vi¬ 
olent, boisterous. 

Imply—involve, mean, infer, denote, signify. 

Importunity -solicitation. 

Imprecation—anathema, curse, malediction, exe¬ 
cration. 

Impute—ascribe, attribute, charge. 

Inactive—sluggish, lazy, idle, inert, slothful, 
drowsy. 

Inattentive—remiss, negligent, dilatory, careless, 
heedless, thoughtless, inadvertant. 

Incident—circumstance, event, contingency, oc¬ 
currence, adventure. 

Inclination-disposition, bent, prepossession. 

Incompetent—unsuitable, inapt, inadequate, in¬ 
capable, insufficient. 

Increase—accession, addition, augmentation. 

Indicate—Show, reveal, point out, mark. 

Indigence—penury, poverty, want, need. 

Indiscretion—folly, injudiciousness,imprudence. 

Indistinct—dark, confused, doubtful,ambiguous. 

Inevitable—certain, unavoidable. 

Inexpedient—unfit, inconvenient, unsuitable. 

Infamous—outrageous, scandalous. 

Inference—conclusion, deduction. 

Infested—annoyed, disturbed, plagued, troubled. 

Influence—persuasion, authority, sway, power, 
credit. 

Infringe—invade, intrench, encroach, intrude. 

Ingenuity—talent, capacity, skill, genius, inven¬ 
tion. 


Greediness—ravenousness, covetousness, eager¬ 
ness, rapacity, voracity. 

Grieve—bemoan, mourn, sorrow, lament, hurt, 
afflict. 

Group—collection, assemblage, cluster. 

Guarantee—vouch for, secure, warrant. 

Guard—protect, watch, defend, shield. 

Guest—visitant, stranger, visitor. 

Guilty—depraved, debauched, sinful, criminal, 
wicked. 

H 

Habit—custom, habitude, guise. 

Hale—strong, hearty, robust, sound. 

Happiness-contentment, bliss, luck, felicity. 

Harbinger precursor, forerunner, messenger. 

Hardened-unfeeling, callous, obdurate. 

Hardly—scarcely, with difficulty, barely, 
(famag-e^’ 131 injury, ill, hurt, misfortune, 

Harmony—unison, accordance, melody, concord 
agreement. ’ 

Hasten hurry, quicken, expedite, accelerate. 

Hasty-rash, passionate, quick, angry, cursory. 

Hate—dislike, abominate, loathe, abhor, detest 
abjure. ’ 

Haughtiness — vanity, arrogance, self-conceit, 
pride, disdain. 

trial, peril, danger, venture, chance. 

Heal—cure, remedy, restore. 

Hear—harken, overhear, watch, attend, listen. 
<dooin eSS ~ S ° rrOW ’ £ ravit >’’ dejection, weight, 

Heighten—raise, aggravate, improve, advance. 

Heinous—wicked, atrocious, simple, flagrant. 

if eve" assist* 6 ’ 8upport ’ success , serve, aid, re- 

^altkSlesT^ 60118 ' intrepid ’ brave ’ noble ’ 
^itf.l\T«pf™d^a r y USe ’ Stammer ’ d0Ubt - falter ’ 

H hofribfe~ aWfUl ’ grisly ’ lastly, frightful, 


Inherent—inbred, inborn, innate. 

Iniquitous—nefarious, unjust, wicked, evil. 

Injure—harm, deteriorate, hurt, impair, damage. 

Innate—natural, inborn, inherent, imbued. 

Inordinate—immoderate, irregular, excessive, in¬ 
temperate. 

Inquisitive—curious, prying, anxious, inquiring. 

Insensibility—dullness, torpor, imperceptibilitv, 
apathy, indifference, stupidity. 

Insignificant — worthless, unimportant, trivial, 
meaningless, inconsiderable. 

Insinuate—suggest, hint, intimate. 

Inspire—animate, suggest, exhilarate, enliven, in¬ 
vigorate, cheer. 

Instill—infuse, sow, implant. 

Insufficient-inadequate, unable, incapable, un¬ 
fit, incompetent, unsuitable. 

Integrity — purity, honesty, truthfulness, prob¬ 
ity, uprightness. 

Intellect—understanding, talent, capacity, abil¬ 
ity, genius. 

Intemperate—immoderate, inordinate, excessive. 

Intercede—interpose, mediate, interfere. 

Intermission -vacation, interruption, cessation, 
rest, stop. 

Interpose-mediate, intermeddle, intercede, in¬ 
terfere. 

Interrogate—question, inquire, examine. 

Intervening — coming between, intermediate, in 
terposing. 

Intoxication — infatuation, inebriety, drunken¬ 
ness. 

Intrepid—fearless, brave, daring, bold, valiant, 
undaunted, courageous. 

Introductory—preliminary, previous, prefatory. 

Intrust—confide, commit. 

Invade — intrench, infringe, attack, enter, en¬ 
croach. 

Invalidate—weaken, overthrow, destroy, injure, 
nullify. 

Invent—discover, devise feign, fabricate, con¬ 
ceive, frame. 

Investigation—research, search, scrutiny, exam¬ 
ination, inquiry. 

Invigorate—restore, fortify, strengthen. 


Invite—call, summon, bid. 

Irascible—irritable, angry, hot, hasty, fiery. 
Irksome—troublesome, vexatious. 

Irrational—silly, foolish, absurd, unreasonable. 
Irregular—intemperate, disorderly, inordinate. 
Irruption—invasion, opening, inroad. 

J 

Jade—harass, weary, tire, dispirit, wench. 
Jealousy—envy, suspicion, emulation. 

Jest—fun, joke, sport. 

Jocund—joyful, light-hearted, mirthful, merry, 
vivacious, gay, sprightly, sportive. 

Joke—rally, sport. 

Journey—trip, voyage, tour. 

Judgment —discernment, sagacity, intelligence, 
doom, decision, sentence, opinion, discrimina¬ 
tion. 

Justify—clear, maintain, defend, absolve, excuse. 
Justness — correctness, propriety, equity, accu¬ 
racy, exactness. 

K 

Keen—shrewd, sharp, acute, cutting, piercing, 
penetrating. 

Keep —guard, sustain, hold, reserve, support, 
maintain, detain, retain. 

Kind—bland, benignant, lenient, courteous, gen¬ 
tle, indulgent, compassionate, tender, affable. 
Kind —sort, way, genus, species, manner, race, 
class. 

Knavish—deceitful, dishonest. 

Knowledge — perception, acquaintance, erudi¬ 
tion, understanding, skill, learning. 

L 

Labor- toil, exert, drudge, strive. 

Lack—want, need. 

Language—tongue, speech, dialect, idiom. 
Languid—weary, faint, dull, drooping, exhausted. 
Lassitude—prostration, enervation, fatigue, lan¬ 
guor, weariness. 

Last—latest, end, ultimate, final, hindermost. 
Latent—unseen, secret, hidden. 

Laughable—droll, comical, ridiculous, mirthful. 
Lazy—indolent, inactive, idle, inert, slothful. 
League—alliance, confederacy. 

Lean—waver, totter, incline, bend. 

Leave—resign, relinquish, bequeath, abandon. 
Lengthen—continue, protract, extend, draw out. 
Lenity—clemency, mercy. 

Let—allow, permit, hire, leave, suffer. 

Level—plain, flat, even, smooth. 

Liable—exposed, responsible, subject. 

Liberate —free, deliver, release. 

Lie—untruth, falsehood, fiction, fabrication, de¬ 
ception. 

Life—briskness, vitality, being, energy, vivacity. 
Lift—exalt, erect, raise, hoist, elevate. 

Like—similar, resembling, uniform, probable. 
Liking—inclination, fondness, affection, attach¬ 
ment. 

Linger—tarry, lag, delay, wait, saunter, hesitate, 
loiter. 

Listen—overhear, attend, hearken, hear. 

Live—dwell, reside, subsist, abide, exist. 

Load—weight, encumber, clog, burden. 

Lodge—shelter, harbor, entertain, accommodate. 
Loiter—lag, saunter, tarry, linger. 

Long—desire, hanker. 

Look-see, view, inspect, behold,appearance. 
Loquacious—talkative, garrulous. 

Lot—doom, fox-tune, share, fate, destiny, portion. 
Loud—noisy, vehement, clamorous, turbulent, 
vociferous. 

Lovely—attractive, beautiful, amiable, elegant, 
fine, handsome, charming, delightful. 

Lover—wooer, suitor, beau. 

Low—despicable, debased, humble, dejected, base, 
abject. 

Lucky—successful, fortunate, prosperous. 
Lunacy—derangement, mania, insanity, madness. 
Luxuriant—exuberant, voluptuous, excessive, 
abundant. 

Luxui-y—abundancy, excess, elegance, profusion. 

M 

Magisterial—august, prosperous, stately, ma¬ 
jestic, dignified. 

Magnitude- bulk, size, greatness. 

Majestic- august, stately, dignified. 

Malice—grudge, spite, rancor, pique. 

Mandate—order, charge, injunction, command. 
Manifest—apparent, plain, open, clear, obvious, 
evident. 

Margin—border, rim, brink, verge, edge, brim. 
Mai’k—imprint, observe, show, brand, impress, 
stamp. 

Martial—soldier-like, military, warlike. 
Massive—ponderous, heavy, large, bulky. 
Matui’e—complete, ripe, perfect. 

Mean—sordid, niggardly, penurious, low, miserly, 
abject, despicable. 

Meanwhile—meantime, intervening, interim. 
Meddle—touch, interfere, interpose, interrupt. 
Meditate—contemplate, muse. 

Meek—soft, humble, gentle, mild. 

Meeting— congregation, company, auditory, as¬ 
sembly. 

Melody—harmony, concord, happiness, unison. 
Memory—reminiscence, recollection, remem¬ 
brance. 




































FIFTEEN THOUSAND SYNONYMS. 


477 


Merchant—tradesman, trader. 

Merciless—hard-hearted, pitiless, cruel, unmerci¬ 
ful. 

Merry—lively, gay, sprightly, sportive, cheerful, 
tiappy, vivacious, mirthful. 

Metaphor—trope, symbol, emblem, allegory, 
similitude. 

Mighty—great, potent, strong, powerful. 

Mindful—heedful, attentive, regardful, observ¬ 
ant. 

Miracle—prodigy, marvel, wonder. 

Mischief—harm, hurt, damage, misfortune, in¬ 
jury. 

Misfortune—calamity, ill-luck, harm, mishap, 
disaster. 

Misuse- pervert, ill-treat, abuse, misapply. 

Mix—mingle, blend, confound. 

Model—pattern, mold, sample, copy, specimen. 

Modern—recent, new, novel, fresh, late. 

Modify—re-arrange, alter, moderate, change, ex¬ 
tenuate. 

Mollify—ease, soften, assuage, appease, moderate, 
mitigate. 

Morose - gloomy, sour, forbidding, sullen, peev¬ 
ish. 

Motive— incentive, cause, reason, principle. 

Mourn—sorrow, grieve, bewail, lament, bemoan. 

Multitude—crowd, throng, swarm. 

Murmur—complain, repine. 

Mutable—irresolute.wavering, changeable, fickle, 
unstable, inconstant, variable, unsteady. 

Mutinous—turbulent, seditious, insubordinate. 


N 

Naked—simple, unclothed, uncovered, nude, ex¬ 
posed. 

Narrative—account, tale, story. 

Nasty—filthy, foul. 

Nautical—marine, naval, maritime. 

Near—adjoining, adjacent, close, contiguous. 

Need—indigence, poverty, penury, want. 

Nefarious-wicked, evil, unjust, wrong, iniqui¬ 
tous. 

Nevertheless—however, yet, notwithstanding. 

Nice—exact, particular, delicate. 

Noble-grand, exalted, distinguished, great, ele¬ 
vated, illustrious. 

Noted—notorious, eminent, renowned, celebrated, 
distinguished, conspicuous, illustrious. 

Notion—sentiment, perception, thought, whim, 
conception, opinion, idea. 

Notwithstanding-in spite of, yet, nevertheless, 
however. 


O 

Obdurate—inflexible, obstinate, inpenitent, hard¬ 
ened, unfeeling, callous, insensible. 

Object—subject, end, aim, purpose, oppose. 

Oblige—engage, bind, force, gratify, coerce, 
favor, compel, please. 

Obscure—abstruse, concealed, hidden, indistinct, 
dark, dim, uncertain, difficult. 

Observant—regardful, attentive, watchful, mind¬ 
ful. 

Obsolete—disused, worn out, antiquated, ancient, 
old, old-fashioned. 

Obstinate—headstrong, resolute, stubborn. 

Obtain—gain, get, win, procure, secure, acquire, 


Part—concern, portion, piece, share, action, divis¬ 
ion. 

Particularly—chiefly, mainly, principally, dis¬ 
tinctly, especially, specifically. 

Partner—associate, coadjutor, accomplice, col¬ 
league. 

Passionate—excitable, hot, angry, hasty, irasci¬ 
ble. 

Pathetic—affecting, moving, touching. 

Patience—endurance, fortitude, resignation. 

Pay—salary, wages, stipened. 

Penalty— punishment, chastisement, fine, pain, 
forfeiture. 

Penitence — repentance, remorse, compunction, 
contrition. 

Penury—poverty, need, want, distress, indigence. 

Perceive—observe, discern, distinguish. 

Perfect—done, complete, finished. 

Perforate—bore, penetrate, pierce. 

Perfume—smell, odor, scent, fragrance, 

Perish—die, decay. 

Permit—tolerate, yield, allow, consent, suffer, 
admit. 

Perpetrate—commit. 

Perplex—bewilder, confuse, involve, annoy, puz¬ 
zle, harass, molest, entangle, embarrass. 

Persist—pursue, prosecute. 

Persuade—prevail upon, influence, induce, ex¬ 
hort, urge, entice. 

Pestilential—epidemical, contagious, infectious, 
mischevious, destructive. 

Petulant—peevish, cross, captious, fretful. 

Pious—religious, devout, godly, spiritual, holy. 

Pique — spite, grudge, malice, rancor, dislike, 
offense. 

Place—post, site, ground, position, spot. 

Plague — perplex, embarrass, annoy, tantalize, 
vex, importune, torment. 

Plan—scheme, contrivance, device, design, pro¬ 
ject, stratagem, arrangement. 

Play—game, sport. 

Please—delight, satisfy, humor, gratify. 

Pledge—hostage, deposit, security, pawn, earnest. 

Pliant—limber, bending, lithe, yielding, pliable, 
supple. 

Plight—state, condition, situation, case, conject¬ 
ure. 

Polite—well-bred, civil, courteous, polished, af¬ 
fable, genteel, refined. 

Politic—careful, prudent, wise, artful, cunning. 

Pompous—stately, showy, ostentatious, lofty, dig¬ 
nified. 

Portion—part, share, piece, division, quantity, 
fortune. 

Possess—hold, have, keep, occupy, enjoy. 

Posture—gesture, action, figure, position, atti¬ 
tude. 

Poverty—need, suffering, want, penury, indigence. 

Practice—habit, custom, manner, use, form, style. 

Prayer—suit, request, entreaty, application, sup¬ 
plication. 

Precedence—superiority, priority, preference. 

Precept—rule, injunction, maxim, principle, law, 
mandate, command. 

Precious—costly, expensive, valuable, choice, 
rai * e » 

Precise—exact, accurate, nice, careful, partic¬ 
ular. 

Predicament—position, plight, condition, situa- 


earn. 

Obviate—prevent, preclude, avoid. 

Occasional—frequently, casual. 

Occupy—use, hold, keep, possess. 

Odd—singular, eccentric, strange, uneven. 

Offense—injury, crime, transgression, outrage, 
trespass, misdeed, wrong, insult. 

Officious—busy, active, forward, intrusive, ob¬ 
trusive. 

Omen—presage, prognostic, sign. 

Open—disclose, reveal, unlock, unravel. 

Operation -agency, performance, action. 

Opinion—belief, sentiment, notion, idea. 

Opponent—antagonist, adversary, opposer, foe, 
enemy. 

Opprobrious—reproachful, insulting, scurrilous, 
offensive, insolent, scandalous, abusive. 

Option—choice, selection. 

Opulence—affluence, wealth, riches. 

Ordain—prescribe, invest, appoint, order. 

Order—mandate, command, injunction, precept. 

Ordinary—usual, common, general. 

Original—primary, first, pristine, primitive. 

Ostentation—show, boast, display, parade. 

Outli ve —su r vi ve. 

Outward—extraneous, apparent, extrinsic. 

Overbearing—repressive, haughty, lordly, im¬ 
pertinent. 

Overflow—fill, inundate, abound, deluge. 

Overwhelm—upturn, subdue, crush, overthrow, 
powerful. 


P 

Pacify—soothe, still, calm, quiet, conciliate. 

Pain—hurt, afflict, distress, torture, suffer, tor¬ 
ment. 

Pair—couple, brace, two. 

Palpable—apparent, plain, perceptible, gross, dis¬ 
cernible. 

Pang-sorrow, torment, anguish, torture, agony, 
distress. 

Parade—show, ostentation. 

Pare—strip, peel. 


tion. 

Predominant—controlling, supreme, prevailing 
prevalent. 

Preference—priority, advancement, choice. 
Prejudice—injury disadvantage, bias, hurt. 
Prepare—qualify, make ready, equip, arrange, fit. 
Prerogative—immunity, privilege. 

Preserve— maintain, save, uphold, protect, spare. 
Presume— suppose, believe, guess, think, surmise. 
Pretext— pretension, excuse, pretense. 

Pretty—agreeable, lovely, fine, beautiful. 
Prevent—hinder, obstruct, impede, preclude, ob¬ 
viate. 

Price—expense, worth, cost, value, charge. 
Pride—vanity, conceit, arrogance, assurance, pre¬ 
sumption, haughtiness, insolence. 

Primary—original, pristine, first, elemental. 
Print—mark, impress, stamp. 

Priority—precedence, pre-eminence, preference. 
Privacy—solitude, loneliness, seclusion, secrecy. 
Prize—esteem, value, reward. 

Probity—uprightness, integrity, reliability, ve¬ 
racity. 

Proclaim— publish, tell, declare, announce, ad¬ 
vertise. , . 

Procure—acquire, gain, obtain, get. 

Prodigious— astonishing, large, great, vast, enor- 

Profession— employment, calling,vocation,work, 

jrj 

Profit— advantage, benefit, gain, lucre. 

Profuse— wasteful, extravagant, lavish, prodigal. 
Prohibit— proscribe, interdict, forbid. 

Prolific— fertile, fruitful, productive. 

Prolong—delay, extend, protract, postpone, re- 


Promise—engagement, agreement, pledge, word, 
obligation. .... .. 

Prompt— ready, quick, assiduous, active. 

Proof— argument, evidence, testimony. 
Propensity— inclination, tendency, proneness, 
likjnff. 

Propitious— auspicious, favorable. 


Proportionate—adequate, commensurate, equal. 
Proprietor—owner, master, possessor. 

Prospect—landscape, view, survey. 

Prosperous—.ucky, successful, fortunate flour¬ 
ishing. 

Protract—retard, prolong, delay, postpone, with¬ 
hold. 

Prove—evince, manifest, demonstrate. 

Provide—furnish, prepare, procure, supply. 
Proviso—condition, stipulation, requirement. 
Prudence — carefulness, discretion, judgment, 
wisdom. 

Prying—inquisitive, curious. 

Puerile—boyish, childish, infantile, juvenile. 
Punctual—particular, prompt, exact, nice. 
Purchase—procure, buy. 

Puzzle—bewilder, confound, entangle, perplex. 

Q 

Quack—empiric, impostor, charlatan, pretender. 
Qualified—fit, adapted, capable, competent. 
Quality—attribute, property. 

Query—interrogatory, inquiry, question. 
Questionable—doubtful, suspicious. 

Quiet—repose, rest, calm, tranquility, ease, still. 
Quit—relinquish, depart, resign, forsake, leave. 
Quota—share, rate, proportion. 

R 

Race—family, generation, lineage, breed, course. 
Rage—fury, indignation, anger. 

Ramble—stroll, rove, roam, wander, range. 
Rank—degree, position, class, place, order. 
Rapacious—ravenous, greedy, voracious. 
Rapture—delight, ecstacy, joy, transport. 

Rash—hasty, thoughtless, impulsive, violent, ad¬ 
venturous. 

Ravenous—rapacious, greed, voracious. 

Reach—extent, stretch. 

Real—true, actual, certain, positive, genuine. 
Reason—proof, argument, purpose, motive, ori¬ 
gin, cause. 

Rebellion—sedition, revolt, insurrection. 

Recall—recant, retract, revoke, abjure. 

Recede—retrograde, fallback, retire, retreat. 
Reciprocal—mutual. 

Recite—rehearse, repeat, narrate. 

Reclaim—recover, correct, reform. 
Recollection—memory, remembrance. 
Reconcile—conciliate, propitiate. 

Recruit—retrieve, recover, repair, replace. 
Redeem—rescue, ransom, recover, restore. 

Refer—suggest, intimate, hint, propose, allude. 
Reform—amend, better, correct, improve. 
Refrain—forbear, spare, abstain, forego. 

Regale—entertain, gratify, feast, relish. 

Region—quarter, country, section, district. 
Regulate—rule, dispose, adjust, control, govern. 
Reject—deny, repel, refuse, decline. 

Relieve—succor, assist, mitigate, aid, help, sup¬ 
port. 

Relish—flavor, taste, enjoy. 

Remain—stay, tarry, continue, abide, sojourn. 
Remark—comment, observation, note. 

Remiss—negligent, heedless, thoughtless, care¬ 
less. 

Remnant—residue, remainder, rest. 

Renew—revive, renovate, refresh. 

Renown—fame, reputation, celebrity. 
Reparation—restitution, amends, restoration. 
Repeat—rehearse, recite, detail. 

Replenish—supply, fill, refill. 

Repose—quiet, sleep, ease, rest. 

Repugnance—dislike, aversion, hatred. 

Request—demand, beseech, entreat, ask. 
Research—inquiry, study, examination. 
Residence—abode, home, house, dwelling. 
Resign—forego, yield, renounce, abdicate. 
Resist- endure, oppose, withstand. 

Resort—haunt, frequent, visit. 

Respectful—civil, dutiful, obedient. 

Response—reply, rejoinder, answer. 

Rest—ease, quiet, repose. 

Restrain—repress, restrict, suppress, confine. 
Result—event, effect, issue. 

Retard—defer, delay, hinder, prevent. 

Retract—take back, revoke, recall, annul. 
Reveal—disclose, divulge, expose, impart. 
Revere—adore, venerate, worship, reverence. 
Revive—refresh, renew, renovate, enlighten. 
Reward—satisfaction, recompense. 

Ridicule—laugh at, satire, irony. 

Right—proper, honest, correct, direct. 
Rigorous—rigid, rough, severe, harsh. 

Rite—observance, form, ceremony, custom. 
Roam—rove, wander, range, ramble. 

Rough—harsh, uncivil, rude, uncouth. 

Route—way, path, road, course. 

Rugged—abrupt, rough. 

S 

Sacred—devoted, divine, holy. 

Sagacity— discernment, penetration, perception, 
acuteness. 

Salute—accost, address. 

Sapient—wise, discreet, sage. 

Satire—irony, sarcasm, burlesque. 

Saucy— rude, insolent, impudent. 

Saying— by-word, maxim, adage, proverb. 
Scarce—unusual, singular, rare. 

Scent— perfume, odor, fragrance, smell. 





































478 


FIFTEEN THOUSAND SYNONYMS. 


Scoff—sneer, gibe, jeer, ridicule. 

Scornful—contemptuous, disdainful. 
Scrutinize—investigate, search, examine. 
Search.—inquiry, scrutiny, pursuit. 

Seclusion—privacy, quietude. 

Secret—quiet, hidden, still, latent. 

Secure—certain, safe, sure. 

Sedate—quiet, composed, still, calm. 

See—examine, view, look, observe. 

Select—choose, pick. 

Sensitive—keen, appreciative. 

Sentiment—feeling, opinion, notion, expression. 
Serene—placid, calm. 

Settled—conclusive, decided, confirmed. 
Several—diverse, different, sundry, various. 
Shake—totter, shiver, agitate. 

Shame—ignominy, dishonor, disgrace. 

Shape—mold, fashion, form. 

Sharpness—cunning, acuteness, keenness. 

Shine—glare, glisten, glitter, gleam. 

Shocking—terrible, dreadful, horrible. 

Shorten—curtail, lessen, reduce, abridge. 
Showy—gay, gaudy, fine, grand. 

Shudder—tremble, quake, shake. 

Sickly—sick, ill, unwell, diseased. 

Signify—express, imply, utter, declare. 

Silent—mute, speechless, dumb, still. 
Similarity—likeness, similitude, resemblance, 
Simply—merely, solely, only. 

Sincere—honest, frank, true, plain. 

Situation—plight, locality, place, position. 
Siander—vilify, defame, detract, asperse. 
Slender—slim, thin, fragile, slight. 

Slow—dilatory, tedious, tardy, dull. 

Smooth—mild, easy, bland, even. 

Snarling—snappish, waspish, surly. 

Sneer—jibe, jeer, scoff. 

Social—familiar, sociable, convivial. 

Soft—yielding, pliant, mild, flexible. 

Solemn—serious, grave. 

Solid—firm, hard, enduring, fixed. 

Soothe—compose, quiet, calm, assuage. 

Sort—species, kind, order. 

Sour—acid, sharp, acrimonious, tart. 

Spacious—capacious, ample, large. 

Species—kind, sort, order, class. 

Specimen—pattern, sample, model, copy. 
Speech—address, sermon, oration, lecture. 
Sphere—globe, circle, orb. 

Spite—malice, hatred, grudge. 

Sport—recreation, pastime, game, play. 

Spread—sow, disperse, scatter, diffuse. 
Sprinkle—bedew, scatter, water. 

Stability—firmness, fixedness, continuity. 
Stammer—stutter, falter, hesitate. 

Stare—gaze, gape. 

Station—situation, place, post, position. 
Sterility—unfruithfulness, barrenness. 

Still—pacify, lull, quiet, appease, 

Stop—check, hinder, delay, rest. 

Straight—immediate, direct. 

Stratagem—artifice, cheat, finesse, fine work. 
Strife—contest, dissension, discord. 

Stroll—ramble, rove, range. 

Sturdy—firm, robust, strong. 

Subdue-surmount, subject, conquer, over¬ 
come. 

Subjoin—annex, attach, affix, connect. 
Submissive—obedient, humble, compliant. 
Substance—support, livelihood, sustenance. 
Substitute—agent, change, exchange. 

Subtract—deduct, withdraw, take from. 
Successful— prosperous, fortunate, lucky. 


Succor—defend, relieve, assist, help. 

Suffer—endure, allow, permit, bear. 

Sufficient—adequate, plenty, enough. 

Suggest—propose, hint, allude. 

Suitor—beau, lover, wooer. 

Summon—cite, bid, convoke, call. 

Superficial—slight, flimsy, shallow. 
Supplicate—implore, entreat, ask, beg. 

Sure—reliable, certain, confident. 

Surmount—subdue, conquer, overcome. 
Surprise—amazement, wonder, admiration. 
Surround—encircle, enclose, encompass. 
Suspense—doubt, hesitation. 

Sustain—maintain, carry, support, bear. 
Swarm—crowd, throng, multitude. 

Symbol—emblem, type, figure. 

Sympathy—compassion, agreement, condol¬ 
ence. 

System—order, method. 


Tale—anecdote, story. 

Talk—conference, lecture, sermon. 

Taste—relish, savor, flavor. 

Tedious—tardy, tiresome, slow. 

Temper—disposition, mood, humor. 

Temporal—secular, mundane, wordly. 

Tempt—allure, decoy, induce, entice. 
Tenderness—fondness, affection, love. 

Terms—language, expressions, words, condi¬ 
tion. 

Terrible—horrible, awful, terrific, fearful. 

Test—standard, proof, trial, experience. 
Testimony—proof, evidence. 

Think—surmise, consider, imagine, ponder. 
Thought—conceit, idea, fancy, reflection. 
Thoughtless—unthinking, hasty, foolish, care¬ 
less. 

Throw—fling, hurl, heave, cast. 

Time—epoch, era, season, date. 

Timid—afraid, bashful, fearful. 

Title—claim, name, appellation. 

Tolerate—allow, suffer, permit. 

Total—sum, gross, entire, whole. 

Tour—trip, round, journey, jaunt. 

Trade—occupation, traffic, dealing, 
Tranquility—calm, quiet, peace, stillness. 
Transcend—surpass, exceed, outdo, excel. 
Transient—short, brief, transitory. 
Tremendous—dreadful, terrific, fearful, terri¬ 
ble. 

Trespass—transgression, violation, misdemeanor, 
offense. 

Trip—voyage, journey, excursion, jaunt, ramble, 
tour. 

True—upright, honest, plain, candid, reliable 
sincere. 

Try—attempt, endeavor. 

Type—mark, illustration, emblem, figure, sym¬ 
bol. 

U 

Umpire—arbiter, arbitrator, judge. 
Unbounded—infinite, unlimited, boundless. 
Uncertain—precarious, dubious, doubtful. 
Unconquerable—insuperable, insurmountable, 
invincible. 

Undaunted—intrepid, courageous, bold, fearless. 
Under—subordinate, subject, lower, beneath. 
Unfaithful—perfidious, untruthful, treacherous, 
faithless. 

Unhandy— awkward, ungainly, clumsy, un¬ 
couth. 


Uniform—same, even, equal, alike. 

Unite—combine, connect. 

Unlike—different, dissimilar, distinct. 
Unmerciful—cruel, hard-hearted, merciless. 
Unravel—reveal, unfold, extricate, disentangle. 
Unruly—ungovernable, unmanageable, refrac¬ 
tory. 

Unspeakable—unutterable, ineffable, inexpress¬ 
ible. 

Untruth—falsehood, lie, falsity. 

Upbraid—reproach, reprove, blame, censure. 
Urbanity—civility, courtesy, suavity, affability. 
Urgent—pressing, earnest, importunate. 

Use—utility, advantage, custom, service, usage, 
habit. 

Utterly—fully, completely, perfectly, wholly. 


Vacant—unused, void, utterly, devoid, empty. 
Vain—conceited, ineffectual, fruitless, useless. 
Vanity- conceit, pride, arrogance, haughtiness. 
Variation—vicissitude,deviation, variety,change. 
Various—diverse, different, sundry, several. 
Venal—hireling, mercenary. 

Venture—risk, hazard. 

Verbal—vocal, oral. 

Vestige—track, evidence, trace, mark. 
Vicinity—section, locality, nearness, neighbor¬ 
hood. 

Vile—mean, base. 

Vindicate—depend, protect. 

Virtue—efficacy, chastity, goodness, purity. 
Vivid—bright, lucid, clear. 

Vouch—attest, assure, protest, warrant, aver. 
Vulgar—mean, low, ordinary, common. 

W 

Wages—allowance, salary, pay, hire, stipulation. 
Wan—pallid, pale. 

Want—lack, indigence, poverty, need. 
Warlike-martial, military. 

Warning—caution, notice, monition, advice. 
Wasteful—prodigal, profuse, lavish, extrava¬ 
gant. 

Way—route, means, road, fashion, plan, course, 
method. 

Wealth—riches, affluence, opulence. 

Wedding—nuptials, marriage. 

Welcome—acceptable, desirable, grateful, agree¬ 
able. 

Whimsical—fantastical, fanciful, capricious. 
Wily—crafty, cunning, subtle, artful, sly. 

Win—gain, obtain, earn, acquire. 

Wisdom—understanding, foresight, knowledge. 
Woeful—doleful, rueful, piteous. 

Worthy—meritorious, deserving, estimable. 
Writer—scribe, author. 

Wrong— injury, injustice. 


Yearly—annually. 

Yet—notwithstanding, but, still, nevertheless, 
however. 

Youthful—juvenile, adolescent. 


Zeal—enthusiasm, warmth, fervor, ardor. 
Zealous—warm, enthusiastic, earnest, anxious, 
fervent, ardent. 


KAILWAY SIGNALS. 




One pull of bell-cord signifies “stop. 

Two pulls mean “go ahead.” 

Three pulls signify “back up.” 

One whistle signifies “down brakes/’ 

Two whistles mean “off brakes.” 

Three whistles signify “back up.” 

Continued whistles indicate “danger.” 

Kapid short whistles “a cattle alarm.” 

A sweeping parting of the hands, on a level with the 
eyes, signifies “go ahead.” 

A slowly, sweeping meeting of the hands, over the head, 
means “ back slowly.” 

Downward motion of the hands, with extended arms, 
signifies “stop.” 

Beconing motion of one hand, indicates “back.” 

A red flag waved up the track, signifies “ danger.” 

A red flag standing by the roadside, means “danger 
ahead.” 

A red flag carried on a locomotive, signifies “ an engine 
following.” 

A red flag raised at a station, is a signal to “ stop.” 

A lantern swung in a circle, signifies “ back the train. 




A lantern at night raised and lowered vertically, is a 
signal to “start.” 

A lantern swung at right angles across the track, means 
“stop.” 

INTERESTING INDUSTRIAL ITEMS. 

Magazines that cost 35 cents here are sold in England 
for 24 cents. 

In Sweden a new elevator loads a 2,500-ton vessel with 
iron ore in a day. 

New England shoe firms are having most of their work 
done in country factories. 

Crefeld, Holland, has 110,000 people, and 50,000 are 
silk-w r orkers, all employed in the own homes. 

CAPACITY OF A FREIGHT CAR. 

A load, nominally, is 20,000 pounds. The following 
number can be carried: Whisky, 60 barrels; Salt, 70 
barrels; Lime 70 barrels; Flour 90 barrels ; Eggs, 130 to 
160 barrels; Flour, 200 sacks; Wood, 6 cords; Cattle, 18 
to 20 head; Hogs, 50 to 60 head; Sheep, 80 to 100 head; 
Lumber 6,000 feet; Barley, 300 bushels. 

















































HOW 





O ne of the most important and influen¬ 
tial institutions of this continent, 
and, in fact, of the whole commercial world, 
is the Board of Trade of the city of Chicago. 

Standing, as it were, in the natural gate¬ 
way where producers and consumers of food- 
stulfs must meet for purposes of exchange, 
it becomes the medium through which the 
wants of each class are most readily made 
known to the other. Perhaps the volume 
of its transactions can be better 
realized when we say that this asso¬ 
ciation has received, sold and for¬ 
warded more than one hundred and 
fifty millions of bushels of grain in a 
single year, in addition to 
mill-product, such as flour, 
middlings, mixed feed, 
meal, bran, shorts and 
It has also 
become a large ex- 
change for field seeds, 
^ such as clover, timo- 
thy, hunga- 


rian, millet 
and 
flax- 


, screenings. 


t'-l/ 


seed. Another large branch of its trade is in hog 
product, embracing mess pork, hams, bacon, dry- 
salted middles, and lard. There are thousands of per¬ 
sons who transact business occasionally through some 
of the commission merchants of the Board of Trade, 
yet who do not feel familiar with the rules and customs 
which must govern the transactions made by their 
appointed agents. 

OBJECTS. 

The objects of the association are: To main¬ 
tain a commercial exchange; to promote uniformity 
in the customs and usages of merchants; to inculcate 
principles of justice and equity in trade; to facilitate 
the speedy adjustment of business disputes; to acquire 
and to disseminate valuable commercial and economic 
information, and generally to secure to its members the 
benefits of co-operation in the furtherance of their 
legitimate pursuits. 

EARLY ORGANIZATION. 

During the years 1848 and 1849, the Board was a 
voluntary organization; from 1850 to 1859 it was 
organized under a general incorporation law of the 
State of Illinois. Since early in 1859 it has remained 
under a special charter granted by the Legislature in 
February of that year. 

This Association was incorporated by an Act of Con- 
3 gress, approved February 18,1859, and empow- 
ered to U sue and be sued; to receive, hold, 
and dispose of property; to have a common 
seal; and to make such rules, regulations 
and by-laws from time to time as they may 











































































































































480 


THE CHICAGO BOARD OF TRADE 


think proper or necessary for the government ot the 
corporation, not contrary to the laws ot the land. 
It is granted the power to “constitute 

COMMITTEES OF ARBITRATION AND APPEAL 


the President, two Vice-Presidents, and fifteen Directors. 
The President holds his office for the term of one year, 
the Vice-Presidents two years, and the Directors three 
years each. The President, one Vice-President and 
five Directors are elected annually, by ballot, on the 


for the settlement of such matters ot difference as may 
be voluntarily submitted for arbitration by members of 
the Association, or by other persons not members 
thereof; the acting chair man of either of said com¬ 
mittees, when sitting as arbitrators, may administer 
oaths to the parties and witnesses, and issue subpoenas 
and attachments, compelling the attendance of wit¬ 
nesses, the same as justices of the peace, and in like 
manner, directed to any con¬ 
stable to execute.” 

“When the submission of 
any case shall have been made 
in writing to the Arbitra¬ 
tion Committee, and a final 
award shall have been ren¬ 
dered and no appeal taken 
within the time fixed by the 
By-Laws (two business 
days after such award shall 
have been delivered to the 
parties in controversy), 
then, on filing such award 
and submission with the 
Clerk of the Circuit Court, 
an execution may issue upon 
such award as if it were a 
judgment rendered in the 
circuit court, and such award 
shall thenceforth have the 
force and effect of such a 
judgment, and shall be 
entered upon the judgment 
docket of said court.” 

The Association is authorized to elect or appoint its 
officers, inspectors, gaugers and weighers (whose cer¬ 
tificates as to quality or quantity of any article of 
produce or traffic commonly dealt in by the members 
of the corporation, shall be binding evidence between 
buyers and sellers who have required or assented to 
the employment of such appointee), and may require 
proper bonds for the faithful discharge of the duties of 
such persons, the President or Secretary to administer 
the oath of office. 

OFFICERS. 

The government of the Board of Trade is vested in 


first Monday after the second day of January, between 
the hours of ten o’clock A. M. and two o’clock P. M. 
in the Exchange Hall. 

The Secretary, Assistant Secretary, Treasurer, 
Gaugers, Weighers and Inspectors of provisions, flour, 
hay, lumber, etc., are appointed by the Board of 
Directors, on the first Tuesday succeeding the annual 
election, and hold office for one year. The Standing 

Committees are, upon the 
nomination of the President, 
appointed by the Board of 
Directors, from their own 
number. The Inspection 
Committees, for the purpose 
of having the proper branches 
of trade represented, may be 
selected in part or wholly 
from the other members of 
the Association. These com¬ 
mittees are as follows : 
Executive, consisting of three 
members. 

On finance, consisting o f 
three members. 

On membership, consisting 
of three members. 

On rooms, consisting of three 
members. 

On market reports, consist¬ 
ing of three members. 

On provision inspection, con 
sisting of five members. 

On flour inspection, consist¬ 
ing of five members. 

On flax-seed inspection, consisting of five members. 
On other inspection, consisting of three members. 
“ commercial building, “ “ “ 

“ rules, consisting of five members. 

“ legal advice, consisting of three members. 

“ transportation, “ “ “ 

“ warehouses, “ “ “ 

“ weighing, “ “ “ 

“ commissions, “ “ “ 

“ distilled spirits, “ “ “ 

On meteorological observations, consisting of three 
members. 



The Chamber of Commerce, Ghicago. 






















































































































THE CHICAGO BOARD OF TRADE. 


481 



On miscellaneous business, three members. 

The Board of Directors appoint annually an In¬ 
spector and Register of Provisions; an Inspector each 
of Flour, Flax-seed, Hay, and Sample Grain, the duty 
of the latter being merely to determine whether the 
grain is fully equal in quality to the seller’s sample, 
and uniform throughout the car or vessel when de¬ 


traders has its invariable location, assigned by the 
Room Committee, and orders for grain, provisions, 
or flour can be executed at once, without error or 
confusion, by going among those who are trading in 
the product you desire to buy or sell. Thus the 
telegraph messengers can deliver our dispatches 
promptly, and the result of the order made known 


livered. They also appoint a Weigher of Packing- by an almost immediate reply by wire.” 


house Product, and a 
Weigher of other 
commodities. The 
General Rules pro¬ 
vide, however, that 
the employment of 
these appointees is 
not compulsory. 

VISITORS 

may be introduced to 
the Exchange Rooms, 
provided that they 
are not residents of, 
or located in business 
in, the city of Chi¬ 
cago. No such per¬ 
son, however, is per¬ 
mitted to negotitate 
or transact any busi¬ 
ness in the Exchange 
Rooms. 

PRACTICAL WORK¬ 
INGS. 

In order to become 
acquainted with the 
practical workings of 
the Board of Trade, 
the writer and a 
friend called at the 
office of a member, 
and requested to be 
introduced on ’change 


“The contracts for 
future delivery are 
made in the amphi¬ 
theaters, or pits, 
as we call them, 
in the center of the 
room, and the sam¬ 
ples of car-lots on 
track, or to arrive, 
are shown upon the 
tables near the win¬ 
dows , where they 
get the best light. 
W h e n y o u entered 
the hall a moment 
ago, no doubt you 
wondered how w e 
could do business 
where all seemed 
confusion, but you 
see now how per¬ 
fect a system exists. 

THE RECEIVING 
TRADE 




during the business 

O 

session. We were 

asked to step into the passenger elevator, which landed 
us in the Exchange Hall; and after entering our names 
in the visitors’ register, and receiving complimentary 
tickets (good for six days’ admission within one month 
from date), we began our tour of inquiry. 

“ This,” said our guide, as we walked slowly among 
the various groups of men, “is the open market, 
wherein all our trades are made. Each group of 


The New Board of Trade Building 


Supposing that 
we were farmers or 
grain-buyers in 
some western state,” 
we asked of the mem¬ 
ber, “how and upon 
what terms, could 
we sell our grain 
upon this market ? ” 
“ If you wrote me in the fall from some location 
where corn was plenty,” he answered, “ and said that 
you intended to buy and crib corn for shipment to 
our market, I should reply that we would receive 
the o-rain at the out-station of the railroad, and after 
sampling each carload and placing our value upon it, 
based upon the immediate condition of the market, 
we should either exhibit the sample on ’change, and 







































































482 


THE CHICAGO BOARD OF TRADE. 


sell to some one who was forwarding corn to East¬ 
ern markets by rail, or else send the cars to the 
Elevator to be stored, and should sell it by grade.” 

“But new corn is not sufficiently dry in the fall,” 
we suggested, “and usually 
brings a higher price in 


higher 

the following summer. 
Suppose our cash capital 
became exhausted in pur¬ 
chases, upon what terms 
could we borrow, in order 
to hold our corn for an 
advance in price ? ” 

“ You would issue ware¬ 
house or crib receipts,” he 
replied, “stipulating that 
you owned a given number 
of bushels of corn, stored 
in a given location; that 
you would keep such grain 
fully insured; that you 
would ship it to me when 
called for; and that you 
would pay freight, shell¬ 
ing, if any, commission 
when sold, and interest on 
advances made. I would 
thereupon loan you the 
value of the corn, less 
reasonable margin for de¬ 
cline in value in case of a 
temporary adverse market.” 

“ With such an obligation 
outstanding,”we asked, “how 
could we sell our grain in 
case of an advance in the 
market ?” 

“ You could ship it to me 
at any time,” he said, “ and 
could refund the loan at 
your pleasure from the 
proceeds, or could sell for 
future delivery and s h i p 
the corn to fill the contract 
at the date therein speci¬ 
fied. For instance, if you 
cribbed corn in October, 
which would cost you fifty 
cents per bushel delivered at 
Chicago, and in December 
our market should reach 


DIAGRAM 



m 


T 


Sec’y 


ZD 


F ] 


2LJ 



w 


R 


JLJ 


M 


C 


J u 


Library. 


Ass’t 

Sec’y 


A—Rostrum. 

V—Pork and Lard Market. 
P—Ribs, Hams, Etc. 

X—Wheat Market. 

Y—Corn. “ 

Z—Oats. “ 

F—Flour Sample Tables. 
S—Seeds “ “ 

W—Wheat •* 


sixty cents per bushel (to be delivered in elevator 
here any day during the following May, at your 
convenience, or “seller’s option May,” as we say,) 
you could instruct me to make such a contract, and 

at once have a profit of ten 
cents jier bushel secured.” 

‘ ‘ And what if corn should 
advance further ?” we asked. 

“ Ship the grain and fill the 
contract, as your profit would 
be a good one,” he said. 

“ Would a decline be of any 
damage to our interests,” we 
asked. 

“Quite the contrary,” the 
broker replied. “If during the 
stringency of the money-mar¬ 
ket, which is usual early in 
January, the price of corn for 
May delivery should drop to 
fifty-five cents, and you be¬ 
lieve in eventually higher 
prices, you could purchase 
contracts any day to fill your 
sixty-cent sale, and hold your 
corn in the country to re-sell 
for June or July delivery 
whenever an “ upturn ” came. 
In this way you would have 
gained five cents per bushel, 
less one-fourth cent commis¬ 
sion, making the original cost 
of your corn 45| cents here 
instead of fifty cents.” 

“ But does anyone ever 
make much money in this 
way ? ” we asked, doubtfully. 

‘ ‘ We have known shippers 
to lose heavily sometimes. 
How is it ? ” 

‘ ‘ Such cases are where the 
party sells more than he is 
able to deliver, and is obliged 
to buy other corn at a higher 
price to fill his contracts; or 
where his grain “ misses con¬ 
tract grade ” on account of 
dampness, rot, dirt or other 
cause, and must be sold at a 
loss. In this case, again, he 
is obliged to buy sound grain 


O 


K 


H 


□ c 


o3 

m 


J L 


E 


Lavatory 


Coat Leading 


Loom 


Loom 


R—Rye Sample Tables. 

C—Corn “ ** 

O—Oats “ “ 

B—Barley “ “ 

H—Hay “ “ 

K—Potatoes'* “ 

M—Millstuffs Sample Tables. 
T—Telegraph Offices. 

E—Passenger Elevator. 







































































































































THE CHICAGO BOARD OF TRADE. 


483 



with which to fill his contracts, all of which are made 
for No. 2 quality, whatever the variety of grain.” 

“ But here must be a prolific source of difficulty,” 


This rule shall be in force on and after April 2, 1883; but it is pro- 
vided that all Wheat in store on said date, inspected in under the rule 
hereby amended, shall be inspected out in accordance with the provisions 
of said rule in force when inspected in. 


we urged. “ Who fixes the grade of the grain ?” 

o o o 

“ That is done by inspectors appointed by the State 
Board of Railroad and Warehouse Commissioners,” 
said the receiver, “and is entirely beyond the control 
of the Board of Trade, or any of its members. Here 
is a copy of the rules we are now working under, 
which have been found to be very satisfactory to both 
sellers and buyers. 

RULES GOVERNING THE INSPECTION OF GRAIN IN THE 

CITY OF CHICAGO, 

ST-Zt. TIE OP ILLIHOIS. 


RULE II.—SPRING WHEAT. 

No. 1 Hard Spring Wheat shall be sound, plump and well cleaned. 

No. 2 Hard Spring Wheat shall be sound, reasonably clean, and of good 
milling quality. 

No. 1 Spring Wheat shall be sound, plump and well cleaned. 

No. 2 Spring Wheat shall be sound, reasonably clean, and of good mil¬ 
ling quality. 

No. 3 Spring Wheat shall include all inferior, shrunken, or dirty Spring 
Wheat, weighing not less than 53 lbs to the measured bushel. 

Rejected Spring Wheat shall include Spring Wheat damp, musty, grown 
badly bleached, or for any other cause which renders it unfit for No. 3. 

In case of the mixture of Spring Wheat and Winter Wheat, if equal or 
superior to No. 2, it shall be graded as Mixed Wheat, according to the 
quality thereof, and if inferior to No. 2, it shall be graded as Spring 
Wheat, according to the quality thereof. 

BLACK SEA AND FLINTY PFIFE WHEAT 



The following are 
the rules adopted by 
the Board of Rail¬ 
road and Warehouse 
Commissioners, 
establishing a proper 
number and standard 
of grades for the In. 
sped ion of Grain, as 
revised by them; the 
6atne to take effect 
on and after the first 
day of September, 

1883, in lieu of alt rules 
on the same subject 
heretofore existing. 

RULE I—WINTER 
I THE A T. 

No. 1 White Winter 
Wheat shall be pure 
White Winter Wheat 
sound , plump, and 
well cleaned. 

No. 2 White Winter 
Wheat shall be White 
Winter Wheat or Red 
and White mixed, 
sound,and reasonably 
clean. 

No. 3 White 1 Vinter 
Wheat shall include 
White Winter Wheat 
or Red and W bite 
mixed, not clean and 
plump enough for No. 

2, but weighing not 
less than 54 pounds to 
the measured bushel. 

Rejected White Winter Wheat shall include White Winter Wheat 
damp, musty, or from any cause so badly damaged as to render it unfit 
for No. 3. 

No. 1 Long Red Winter Wheat shall be pure Red Winter Wheat of the 
long berried varieties', sound, plump and well cleaned. 

No. 2 Long Red Winter Wheat shall be of the same varieties as No. 1, 
sound and reasonably clean. 

Turkish Winter Wheal—The grades of Nos. 1 and 2 Turkish Winter 
Wheat shall correspond with the grades of Nos. 1 and 2 Red Winter W heat, 
except that they shall be of the Turkish variety. 

No 1 Red Winter Wheat shall be pure Red Winter Wheat of both light 
and dark colors of the shorter berried varieties; sound, plump and well 
cleaned. 

No. 2 Red Winter Wheat shall be Red Winter Wheat of both light and 
dark colors; sound and reasonably clean. 

No. 3 Red Winter Wheat shall include Red Winter Wheat not clean and 
plump enough for No. 2, but weighing not less than 54 lbs to the measured 

bushel. 


shall in no case be inspected higher than No. 2, and Rice Wheat no higher 
than Rejected. 

RULE III.—CORN- 

No. 1 Yellow Corn 
shall be yellow, 
sound, dry, plump 
and well cleaned. 

No. 1 White Corn 
Bhall be white, sound, 
dry, plump and well 
cleaned. 

No. 1 Corn shall be 
sound, dry, plump 
and well cleaned, 
white and yellow, 
anmixed with red. 

High Mixed Corn 
shall be three-quar- 
ters yellow, and 
equal to No. 2 in con. 
dition and quality. 

No. 2 Corn shall be 
dry, reasonably 
clean, but not plump 
enough for No. 1. 

No. 2 Kiln-Di'ied 
Corn shall be sound, 
plump and well 
cleaned, white or 
yellow. All Kiln, 
dried Corn not good 
enough forNo.2 Kiln- 
dried shall be graded 


Selling Grain by Sample. 


as rejected Kiln-dried Corn. 

New High Mixed Corn shall be three-fourtlis yellow of any age, 
and reasonably dry and reasonably clean, but not sufficiently dry for 
High-Mixed or No. 2. 

New Mixed Corn may be less than three-fourths yellow of any age, 
and shall be reasonably dry and reasonably clean, but not sufficiently 
dry for No. 2. 

Rejected— All damp, dirty, or otherwise badly damaged Corn, shall be 
graded as Rejected. 

RULE IV-OATS. 

No. 1 Oats shall be white, sound, clean, and reasonably free from 
other grain. 

No. 2 White Oats shall be three-quarters white, and equal to No. 2 in 
all other respects. 

No. 2 Oats shall be sound, reasonably clean and reasonably free 
from other grain. 

Rejected —All Oats damp, unsound, dirty, or from any other cause 
unfit for No. 2, shall be graded as Rejected. 

RULE T '.—RYE. 


■ Rejected Red Whiter Wheat shall include Red Winter Wheat damp, 
musty, or from any cause so badly damaged as to render it unfit for 

No. 3. 

In case of the mixture of Red and White Winter Wheat, it shall be 
graded according to inequality thereof (but not above No. 2), and classed 
with the variety which predominates in the mixtuie. 


No. 1 Rye shall be sound, plump, and well cleaned. 

No. 2 Rye shall be sound, reasonably clean, and reasonably free from 
other grain. 

Rejected— All Rye damp, musty, dirty, or from any cause unfit for No. 
2, shall be graded as Rejected. 















































































484 


THE CHICAGO BOARD OF TRADE. 


RULE VI—BARLEY. 

No 1. Barley shall he plump, bright, clean, and free from other grains. 

No. 2 Barley shall be sound, of healthy color, bright or but slightly 
stained, not plump enough for No. 1, reasonably clean and reasonably 
free from other grain. 

No. 3 Barley shall include slightly shrunken and otherwise slightly 
damaged Barley, not good enough for No. 2. 

No. 4 Barley shall include all Barley fit for malting purposes, not good 
enough for No. 3. 

No. 5 Barley shall include all Barley which is badly damaged, or for 
any cause unfit for malting purposes, except that Barley which has been 
chemically treated shall not be graded at all. 

Scotch Barley—The grades of Nos. 1, 2 and 3 Scotch Barley shall corre¬ 
spond in all respects with the grades of Nos. 1, 2 and 3 Barley, except that 
they shall be of the Scotch variety. 

This rule shall be in force on and after Dec. 15, 1882, but it is pro. 
vided that all Barley in store on said date, inspected in under the rule 
hereby amended, shall be inspected out in accordance with the provis¬ 
ions of said rule. 


law. They shall also report to the said Chief Inspector, in writing, all 
instances where warehousemen deliver, or attempt to deliver, Grain of 
a lower grade than that called for by the warehouse receipt. They shall 
also report all attempts of receivers or shippers of Grain to instruct or 
in any way influence the action or opinion of the Inspector, and the Chief 
Inspector shall report all such cases to the Commissioners. 

The said Chief Inspector is hereby authorized to collect on and after 
July 1, 1883, on all Grain inspected under his directions, as follows: 

For In-Inspection— 35 cents per car load, 10 cents per wagon or cart 
load, 50 cents per 1,000 bushels from canal boats, K of 1 cent per bushel 
from bags. 

For Out-Inspection— 50 cents for 1,000bushels to vessels, 35 cents per 
car load to cars, 35 cents per car load to teams, or 10 cents per wagon load 
to teams. 


THE SHIPPING TRADE 



RULE VII. 

The word “new ” shall be inserted in each certificate of inspection of 
a newly harvested crop of Oats until the 15th of August, of Rye until the 
1st day of September, of wheat until the 1st day of November, and of 
Barley until the 1st day of May, of each year. This change shall be con. 
strued as establishing a new grade for the time specified, to conform in 
every particular to 
the existing grades 
of grain excepting 
the distinctions o f 
“new” and “ old.” 

RULE VIII. 

All grain that is 
warm, or that is in a 
heating condition, 
is otherwise unfit 
for warehousing, 
shall not be graded. 

RULE IX. 

All inspectors shall 
make their reasons 
for grading Grain, 
when necessary, 
fully known by nota¬ 
tions on their books. 

The weight alone 
shall not determine 
the grade 

RULE X. 

Each inspector is 
required to ascertain 
the weight per meas¬ 
ured bushel of each 
lot of Wheat in¬ 
spected by him, and 
note the same on his 
book. 


Selling Flour by Sample. 


Any person who shall assume to act as an Inspector of Grain, who has 
not first been so appointed and sworn, shall be held to be an impostor, 
and shall be punished by a fine of not less than $50 nor more than 
$100 for each and every attempt to so inspect Grain, to be recovered before 
a Justice of the Peace. 

Any duly authorized Inspector of Grain who shall be guilty of neglect 
of duty, or who shall knowingly or carelessly inspect or grade any Grain 
improperly, or who shall accept any money or other consideration, 
directly or indirectly, for any neglect of duty, or the improper per¬ 
formance of any duty as Inspector of Grain, and any person who shall 
improperly influence any Inspector of Grain in the performance of his 
duties as such inspector, shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and, 
on conviction, shall be fined in a sum of not less than $100 nor more than 
$1,000 in the discretion of the Court, or shall be imprisoned in the County 
Jail no less than three nor more than twelve months, or both, in the 
discretion of the Court. 

The said Chief Inspector, and all persons inspecting Grain under his 
direction, shall in no case make the grade of the Grain above that of the 
poorest quality found in any lot of Grain inspected, when it has evidently 
been “plugged” or otherwise improperly loaded for the purpose of 
deception. Wheat which lias been subjected to “ scouring,” or to any 
process equivalent thereto, shall not be graded higher than No. 3. 

All persons employed in the inspection of Grain shall report all 
attempts to defraud the system of Grain Inspection as established by 


Having seen how grain was received and inspected, 
sent to elevators to be sold in store by grade, or held 
“on track” to be sold by sample, we turned our 
attention to the shippers who were actively examining 

and comparing 
the cleanliness, 
dryness, weight, 
color and smell 
of the samples 
on exhibition. 
As a rule the 
selections are 
made from grain 
w r hich is almost 
equal in quality 
to the next 
grade above, 
and hence 
brings several 
cents per bushel 
more than the 
market price of 
the same grade 
in store, a part 
offset by 


storage 


of which difference, however, is 
charges. 

Excepting the small percentage of grain for Chicago 
city consumption, usually delivered to buyers on team, 
track, or switched to private warehouses or mills, the 
sales by sample are made “free on board” buyers’ 
cars, and are paid for upon the sellers’ presentation of 
invoice with bill of lading, inspector’s certificate, and 
weighmaster’s certificate attached. The shipper in turn 
invoices his purchases to his customer, upon whom he 
makes a draft with bill of lading and certificates 
attached. These “shippers’ documentary bills of 
of exchange ” are eagerly sought by bankers, as they 
are usually drawn for large sums of money, and carry 
their collateral security. 






























































































THE CHICAGO BOARD OF TRADE. 


485 


If grain is bought by grade, the shipper purchases 
warehouse receipts, which he surrenders at the office of 
the elevator, duly canceled by the State Registrar of 
Grain, and upon payment of storage charges, 
receives an order for the delivery of the grain to such 
transportation agent as he may designate. The cars 
or vessels are then ordered sent to be loaded, and 
generally several days elapse before the commercial 


paper is issued, and the grain under way toward its 
destination. 

Careful judgment must be exercised, at certain 
seasons of the year, as to the condition of the grain 
selected and the state of the weather during transit, 
in order to guard against damage by heat or must. 
The initial, intermediate and terminal charges tor 
transportation and handling of the commodity must be 







Si'lllOI'lililif! 






WlSiftfi! 


iptfiss 






The Wheat Market. 


carefully canvassed if the shipper is forwarding grain 
as principal, in order to determine which locality 
affords the most profitable market. 

THE SPECULATIVE TRADE. 

Turning* again to our guide we asked an explanation 
of the modus operandi of the speculators, whose enor¬ 
mous aggregate transactions exert such a powerful 
influence upon values, as not infrequently to turn 
aside the tide of commerce, and, for a time completely 
nullify the ordinary laws of demand and supply. 

“Suppose,” said he, “that in November mess pork 


is offered at $18 per barrel for delivery in January, 
and you believe that on account of a scarcity of hogs 
or the high price of corn, pork will soon command a 
higher figure. You direct your commission merchant 
to buy five hundred barrels, depositing with him five 
hundred dollars as a margin to secure him against loss. 
Now if at any time between the date of purchase and 
the last day of January, pork should advance to $20 
per barrel for January delivery, you could order its 
sale, and at once receive your margin and the profit 
arising from the transaction.” 

“But” said we, “as a matter of fact, we consider 
$18 per barrel too high, as a rule for mess pork.” 





















































































































































































































































































































































THE CHICAGO BOARD OF TRADE. 


SELLING SHORT. 

“In that case,” said the broker, “you would be 
‘ bearish,’ as we say, and would sell the five hundred 
barrels for delivery during January, or some other 
future month, and await a period of depression in 
prices during which to buy the pork for delivery upon 
your contracts. This is what we call ‘ selling short,’ 
because you contract to deliver that of which you are 
not, as yet, fully possessed, although you have the 
means of becoming so at any time.” 

“ Of course, we cannot doubt the propriety of the 
sale of any commodity by its possessor, but is it legiti¬ 
mate or right for one to contract to deliver that which 
he does not own ? ” moralized my visiting attendant. 

“ Perfectly so,” responded the member. “ If you 
go to the Palmer House and engage a month’s board, 
you do not question the morality or legality of the 
arrangement, and yet the proprietor thereby agrees to 
deliver you a given amount of provisions (what one 
person can consume) at a given price, in a given man¬ 
ner, and within a specified time. You do not for a 
moment suppose, however, that he possesses all that 
he has contracted to deliver, nor do you question his 
perfect right to buy when and where he pleases in 
order to fulfill the contract. Again, as a parallel, if 
the market prices of flour, meat, vegetables, fuel, rent, 
or hired labor should advance during that month, the 
hotel proprietor would suffer a shrinkage in profit, or 
might even have to ‘ buy in his shorts ’ at an actual 
loss. On the other hand a general decline would 
result to his benefit. The farmer, also, who agrees 
with his grocer to deliver butter at a given price ‘ the 
year ’round ’ is a short seller, and the essence of his 
contract is precisely the same as those we make on the 
Board.” 

“Toward which side of the market do speculators 
usually incline ? ” 

“ They are pretty evenly divided. Some men are so 
constituted that, even though they believed a large 
decline imminent, they would rather wait and buy 
when an upturn started than to ‘ sell short.’ Others 
are ‘chronic bears,’ and never buy anything except to 
fill outstanding contracts. Still another class of 

O 

traders are without prejudice, and turn from the ‘long’ 
to the ‘ short ’ side of the market almost daily, and 
sometimes several times a day if following the fluctua¬ 
tions closely. This latter class we call ‘ scalpers.’ 
Speculators of small or moderate means are generally 
‘ bears.’ The annual charge for storage of any kind 
of grain in Chicago amounts to about 17 cents per 




bushel; of pork, 72 cents per barrel; of lard, 96 
cents per tierce; and of meat, 60 cents per hundred 
pounds. These charges, as also interest, insurance 
and shrinkage have to be paid by the holders of the 
actual property; hence, in selling, they add these 
items to the cost as a basis for fixing future prices. 
The short seller gains all these items clear, even 
though the price of the commodity remains unchanged. 
For example, suppose that on May 1st, No. 2 TV heat 
is selling for $1.00 per bushel, spot delivery. It 
would cost per bushel 3c for storage, fc for insurance 
and ljc for interest to hold it until July 1st, or in all, 
nearly 5c per bushel. Now suppose that on May 1st 
you sold about five thousand bushels of July Wheat at 
$1.05, and that on July 1st No. 2 Wheat was still 
being received and sold at $1.00 per bushel spot 
delivery, you could fill your contract and gain the 
‘carrying charges,’ which the holders during that 
period would lose. So that if a man bought corn in 
store at 50 cents per bushel and held it a year, he 
would have to sell at 70 cents to cover storage and 
insurance charges, and at 74 cents to make him 8 per 
cent on his investment.” 

“If this showing be true,” we asked, “why do not 
all speculators ‘ go short on futures ? ’ ” 

“ Because the natural laws of supply and demand 
step in and say, ‘Thus far and no further !’” There 
always comes a time when the great products of the 
country are in demand for actual use, and the con¬ 
servative, moneyed merchants who believe that prices 
are unnaturally depressed by tightness of money, or 
general ‘bear’ speculation, come forward and pur¬ 
chase as much as their trade will require for a season, 
and wait for an advance. Such men, also, frequently 
have a large following of speculative friends who 
operate similarly, and sometimes jointly, and thus 
enormous quantities of pork, lard or grain become 
centered in a few hands, and the result is frequently 

A ‘CORNERED’ MARKET. 

This state of commercial affairs results in rare 
instances by accident. If, for instance, a serious 
disaster to crops or a general European war were 
threatened, two hundred men in different parts of the 
United States who were entirely unknown to one 
another, might each order his commission merchant to 
contract in Chicago for 50,000 bushels of wheat for 
July delivery, and forward the grain to New York as 
fast as received. Thus an aggregate of 10,000,000 
bushels would be engrossed, and if but 5,000,000 













































bushels of No. 2 Wheat could be delivered according 
to agreement, the ‘shorts’ would probably bid the 
market up to an extravagant figure in the settlement 
of their contracts. Often the price paid is as much as 
at the seaboard, and sometimes European prices are 
demanded. 

“ A corner is usually the result of weeks or months 
of shrewd planning and intent watching for a favorable 
opportunity to spring the trap upon the unwary. 

Some mistaken persons argue that corners in grain and 
provisions are a benefit to producers, inasmuch as they 
temporarily enhance the price of produce, and make | attempted 
farming more 
profitable. The 
same might be 
said of an inter- 
na 1 war, and 
yet no sane man 
would suggest 
a war as a bless- 
ing. 

“Corners are 
seldom attempt¬ 
ed until the par¬ 
ticular product 
has passed 
largely from 
first hands, so 
that the high 
prices attained 
do not benefit 
the producer, 
but only tend 
to stimulate an 
over-production 

of the next succeeding crop, and the result is a re¬ 
action to market prices much lower than actual values. 

Legitimate trade having been stifled or driven else¬ 
where for a time, is timid and slow to return, and a 
period of unnatural depression follows. 

“That corners are abhorent to law is indisputable. 

The Roman law made the engrossing, or ‘cornering,’ 
of any kind of provision a crime and punishable by a fine. 


and contracts made in contemplation of them are con¬ 
sidered gambling contracts, and are set aside and made 
utterly void by a court of equity. Under the Statute 
Law of Illinois whoever ‘ corners the market or 
attempts to do so in relation to any commodity, shall 
be fined not less than $10; not more than $1,000, or 
confined in the county jail not exceeding one year, or 
both.’ Still, with the law so explicit and distinct, 
the difficulty of obtaining sufficient legal proof of a 
corner is such that the indictment of the persons who 
are supposed to have operated them has seldom been 


“There is one 
other form 
of contract 
which some of 
our s o-c ailed 
‘ best members 
of the Board ’ 
still persist in 
making. The 
practice is con¬ 
trary to law; 
explicitly for¬ 
bidden in the 
Exchange Hall, 
under penalty; 
and is acknowl¬ 
edged to be per¬ 
nicious by the 
Board as a body, 
and yet it is by 
no means an un- 


The Arbitration Committee in Session. 


common prac¬ 
tice for certain 


In the English common law 


engrossing 


the market 


is described by Blackstone as ‘ getting into one’s pos¬ 
session or buying up large quantities of corn or other 
dead victual with intent to sell them again at an un¬ 
reasonable price, and is injurious to the public, and an 
offense indictable and punishable at the common law.’ 
The}^ have been declared by courts to be ‘ mischievous 
conspiracies’ and ‘frauds leveled against the public,’ 


members to buy and sell 

PUTS, CALLS AND STRADDLES. 

“ A ‘ put ’ is an agreement to receive and pay for a 
given amount of a certain commodity at a fixed price, 
if delivered within a specified time. The privilege is 
sold for a consideration, and the buyer may deliver the 
commodity or not, as he may prefer. 

“A ‘call’ is an agreement to deliver a given amount 
of a certain commodity at a fixed price, if required 
within a specified time. The privilege is sold for a 
consideration, and the buyer may call for the com¬ 
modity or not, as he may prefer. A ‘ straddle ’ is 
an agreement, for a consideration, to either buy or sell 
(as the buyer of the ‘ straddle ’ may elect) a given 
amount of a certain commodity at a fixed price, 






















































































































































488 


THE CHICAGO BOARD OF TRADE. 



provided that such commodity be tendered or called 
for within a specified time. 

“For instance, suppose that on April 1st, No. 2 Corn 
for May delivery is selling at 55 cents per bushel, and 
A sells B a ‘ straddle’ on 5,000 bushels, good for three 
days, in consideration of 1 cent per bushel, or $50cash 
in hand. Now if, during the next three days, May 
Corn should decline to 52 cents, B could buy 5,000 
bushels and ‘ put’ it (by giving notice of his intention 
to deliver it) to A at 55 cents, and thus make a net 
profit of two cents per bushel, including the cost of 
the privilege. If, on the other hand, May Corn should 
within the three days advance to 57 cents, B could sell 
5,000 bushels in the market and then ‘call’ the same 
amount from A at 55 cents, under the agreement, and 
the transaction would show to B a net profit of 1 cent 
per bushel. 

“Still further, if May Corn should within those 
three days continue to fluctuate only between 54 and 
56 cents, the privilege to ‘straddle the market’ would 
be useless, and B would receive no equivalent for the 
$50 he had paid out. Thus you see the ‘ straddle ’ was 
only a wager of $50 that the fluctation would exceed 
1 cent per bushel from 55 cents, within three days; 
and the law declares all such to be gambling con¬ 
tracts and void on their face.” 

“How do these gambling contracts vary from the 
contracts which you make from day to day, and which 
are legally and morally right?” we asked. 

“I can best illustrate,” said the member, “by an 
actual case. Here is a contract for some wheat which 
I purchased a week ago; read it. 

FORM OF CONTRACT. 

Chicago, Ills., May 15,1883. 

A. Farmer & Son have this clay sold to the New York Milling Com¬ 
pany, Twenty Thousand bushels of No. 2 Red Winter Wheat at One Dollar 
and Twelve Cents per bushel in store, to be delivered at the sellers’ 
option during November, 1883; deliverable in lots of Five Thousand 
bushels each; regular on delivery. This contract is subj ect in all respects 
to the rules and regulations of the Board of Trade of the city of Chicago. 
Signed in duplicate, 

20,000 Bus. ) A. FARMER & SON, 

NEW YORK MILLING CO., 

per John Burr, Agt. 


No.2 R.W.Wht 
@$ 1.12 


'I 


“Now you will notice,” said the broker, “that I 
have bought the grain in good faith, and for its legiti- 
lhate purpose. The seller may have it now in store; 
or he may intend to deliver it after his growing crop 
is harvested; or he may be ‘selling short’ for a specu¬ 
lation, expecting to buy of some one else before the 
maturity of our contract, at a price that will pay him 
a profit. As for myself, if in a few weeks Bed Winter 
Wheat should advance in Chicago, say to $1.20, and at 


the same time was offered in New York City at $1.30, 
and the freight was 15 cents per bushel from here to 
New York, I should sell my 20,000 bushels here and 
buy the same amount in New York and thus save 5 
cents per bushel.” 

“ And yet,” urged my friend again, “ the courts 
sometimes decline to pass judgment for damages for 
non-fulfillment of your ‘options’ on the ground that 
they are gambling contracts.” 

“Never where the case is presented as it actually 
exists,” the member explained. “That word ‘option’ 
puzzles some well-read lawyers and excellent judges 
a good deal. They confuse the ideas of ‘ puts’ and 
‘calls’ (where the seller may deliver or not , and the 
buyer may receive or not) with our perfectly valid 
contract in which the only option possible or intended 
is the day, during a given month, on which the seller 
may choose to deliver the property. I have here¬ 
tofore explained that no trade is ever made upon the 
Board in which both buyer and seller agree that no prop¬ 
erty shall pass, but the difference be settled in money, 
and therefore none of our trades can be set aside as 
‘ gambling contracts ’ unless made in contemplation of 
a ‘corner.’ 

“Although contracts for future delivery of any 
commodity at the buyer’s demand as to time, 
within a specified period, are permissible under our 
rules, they are rarely made nowadays, but all con¬ 
tracts give the seller the privilege of delivering the 
property, in store, on any business day during the 
specified time, between the hours of 9 and 11 o’clock 
A. M. by tendering the proper warehouse receipts, or 
between the hours of 1.30 and 2.15 P. M. by delivery 
of a notice stating in detail the warehouse receipts 
proposed to be delivered; the contract price, the net 
cash value (deducting extra storage, if any) of the 
property at the contract price; and the place where 
such receipts may be obtained.” 

“Please explain the technical phrases in the form of 
contract you have just shown us,” we asked. 

“Well, firstly,” was the response, “all our grain 
trades for future delivery are made in lots of five 
thousand bushels each, or multiples thereof, so for con¬ 
venience sake the seller is required to deliver my 20,000 
bushels of wheat in lots of 5,000 bushels each, as I 
may, perhaps, have re-sold it to four different parties 
in such amounts, and the labor of sorting out the ware¬ 
house receipts for re-delivery would be considerable. 

“Secondly, by ‘ regular on delivery’ we mean that 
the elevator receipts tendered shall have been issued 
by warehousemen of unquestioned good financial stand- 








































THE CHICAGO BOARD OF TRADE. 


in^ and credit; that the warehouses shall be accessible 
to vessels, connected with eastern railway lines and 
have modern appliances for handling grain; that such 



receipts shall have been registered by the proper state 
officer; that they shall have five days to run free of 
storage, and that the tender shall be made at the 


GRAIN CONTRACT ILLUSTRATED—SOLD. 


Office of M 


May 15, Afifci*. 

of dbaue ddoi dadtd da- dde- New Fork Milling Com¬ 

pany, Twenty Thousand Bushels y No. 2 Red Winter Wheat One Dollar and 
Twelve Cents dtidded crv ddade-, dc- -de (d&du^tecd etd ddle- d^ddi. d (dutcny 

November. /<?&<$; cd&ddu&it&dde- d&dd yd (^ddvcy-td-t^n^d dluddedd e-ncdl/ leytid&A. &n 

cdedduely-. 

This Contract is subject, in all respects, to the Rules and Regulations of the Board of Trade in the City of Chicago. 

A. FARMER & SON. 


GRAIN CONTRACT—BOUGHT. 



! No— 


Office of 



M MILLING COM 

' l 



May 15, /<S r <S r J. 

Qy,uL df/cdfl ffifydddiy- (X@l<Mriytzsris>/- (ad. (ffdde^ ddud cday dLsuydld yd 

I J_. Farmer 8f Son, Twenty Thousand Bushels yd No. 2 Red Winter Wheat ^ 
I One Dollar and Twelve Cents dadde-d ov ddcde^, dc- dt. cdtdcuedec/ ad dd* Sfddt d 

| {y^do'^t td&tdC'yvy N ovember^ cFF3/ (d&dt^t-iatddc </yi- ddd- yd (^ffidcsirA-ctat-cd fdttdd&d’ 

This Contract is subject , in all respects, to the Rules and Regulations of the Board of Trade in the city of Chicago. 

NEW YORK MILLING COMPANY. 


• erzod: i€*$4tdiz/s <w- 


proper time of day, as prescribed by our rules. 

“Thirdly, the reference to the rules and regulations 
entails observance of our requirements as to time and 


mode of payment; and of procedure in case of default 
in delivery, or refusal to receive, with prescribed 
penalties.” 









































































490 


THE CHICAGO BOARD OF TRADE. 


‘ ‘ we would like to see 


For the first 10 days or part thereof, l^c per bushel. 



0- 


“ If convenient,” we asked, 

jour 

FORM OF WAREHOUSE RECEIPTS.” 

“I have with me,” said the commission merchant, 
“a receipt for a carload of rye which I am about to 
ship. It reads as illustrated by the form below. 

“ These receipts,” he continued, “after having been 
properly registered and indorsed, are negotiable, and 
the grain deliverable to the holder of the receipt; so 
that if one is lost it must be advertised and delivery 
stopped at once, in order to prevent fraud.” 

THE PUBLISHED RATES OF STORAGE, 
we were informed, are as follows on grain received 
in bulk: 

If inspected in good condition when received— 


For each additional 10 days or part thereof, Jc per 
bushel. 

If condemned as unmerchantable when received— 

For the first 10 days, or part thereof, 2c per bushel. 
For each additional 5 days, or part thereof, fe per 
bushel. 

From Novemoer 15, to April 15, the above rates will 
be charged on grain in good condition until four cents 
per bushel has accrued, after which no additional 
storage will be charged during the time named, so 
long as the grain remains in good condition. After 
April 15 the ‘summer rate’ of storage is again resumed. 

The usual charge for storage of provisions per 
calendar month is six cents per barrel for Mess Pork, 


WAREHOUSE RECEIPT. 

AAA AAAAAAAA 



4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 

t 


& % 






? No . 7861 


April 19, 




Acmv c « r Vi?.?. t Hundred, 


f Twenty-seven and 


S2 

56 


T ^ 






No. Two Rye, 

J 'l&C€4^ls£ tpnd<2^?c AtZ/ls^ed. 





This gram is subject to our 
advertised rates of storage. 


It is hereby agreed by the holders of this receipt, that the grain herein mentioned may be stored 
with other grain of the same quality by inspection; Loss by fire or heating at owner’s risk. 


J 


Bus. . Lbs 


a, 


'l-nimisl. 



vvwwvv wvwv^ ww wwvvv ww 


eight cents per tierce for Lard, and five cents per 
hundred pounds for salted meats in bulk. 

MARGINS. 

“ In case you make a sale to a member of the Board 
of Trade who becomes insolvent before the maturity 
of the contract,” we inquired, “how do you dispose 
of the property, and who suffers the loss in case that 
the market has declined since the sale was made ?” 

“ The fulfillment of contracts is, in all cases, guar¬ 
anteed to our customers,” said the broker, “and any 
loss incurred by default on the part of his fellow-mem¬ 
ber falls upon the commission merchant. Under our 
rules, however, there is no necessity for making such 
a loss, and if we avail ourselves of our margin rules 
in all cases, there can be no such thing as an 



insolvent commission merchant. 

“On all time contracts purchasers have the right to 
require of sellers, as a security, ten per cent margin 
based upon the contract price of the property bought, 
and further security, from time to time, to the extent 
of any advance in the market value above said price. 
In like manner sellers have the right to require ten 
per cent of the contract price as margins from the 
buyers, and in addition, any difference that may occur 
between the estimated legitimate value of any such 
property and the price of sale. 

“ For instance, on a contract for 5,000 bushels of 
Wheat at $1.00 per bushel the buyer and seller may 
each be required to deposit (with the Treasurer of the 
Association or with some bank duly authorized by the 








































































THE CHICAGO BOARD OF TRADE. 


491 


Board of Directors to receive such deposits) $500, as a 
margin at the time the contract is made. If the price 
should decline to 95 cents per bushel, the seller could 
require the buyer to deposit $250 additional margin, 
and he would thus be secured against loss until the 
market had declined below 85c. Again, if the market 
should advance from $1.00 to $1.05 the buyer could 
require the seller to furnish $250 additional margin, 
and he could thus suffer no loss until the advance 
should reach $1.15. Thus you see that a commission 
merchant can guaranty ample security to his cus¬ 
tomer and not ‘ stand in the gap/ except in case of 
unusually severe fluctuations. As the rules require 
margins to be deposited within one hour after they are 
properly called, we can generally protect our interests 
before the security 
is entirely ex¬ 
hausted. 

“ On account of 
a desire to seem 
lenient,or through 
a false notion of 
courtesy/’the com¬ 
mission merchant 
continued, “the 
parties . to con¬ 
tracts do not 
always require 
sufficient margins, 
and hence incur 
unnecessary losses. 

Not long ago I 
met an ex-mem¬ 
ber of the Board, 
who is now in a 
moderate salaried position in an office in Chicago, who 
said to me, “You will remember that I failed in busi¬ 
ness a few months ago. Nobody was more surprised 
at my failure than I was, myself. I started out with 
a splendid line of trade, and every assurance of suc¬ 
cess that one could wish. I had $25,000 cash capital 
and excellent credit, and the earned commissions on 
my books were $1,500 per week from the start. Now 
what do } r ou suppose caused my suspension ?” 

I said that I presumed that he got to speculating 
in larger amounts of product than he could safely 
carry, and was sold out by other parties during some 
depression, after his margins had become exhausted. 

“No, sir!” said he, impressively. “I never was 
personally interested to the extent of a single dollar 
in any trade I ever made, and as this was generally 


known among my fellow-members they did not 
usually require me to deposit margins on my trades 
with them. Hence, as I had no immediate need for the 
money, I did not call upon my customers for such 
security, as I should have done if my friends had com¬ 
pelled me to do so. When, therefore, a sudden depres¬ 
sion occurred in values, and I was required to furnish 
margins down to the market prices within one hour’s 
time, of course, I faced a physical impossibility, and 
so suspended business, and my contracts were sold 
out during a panic. Of course, I telegraphed my cor¬ 
respondents of the situation, but before answers came 
the market had recovered and prices were away up 
again. I am now holding some ‘slow notes’ and 
indulging in hope. 

“You will there¬ 
fore appreciate the 
necessity of plac¬ 
ing margins in the 
hands of the com¬ 
mission merchant 
at the time the 
contract is made. 
He needs this to 
protect the in¬ 
terests of his cus¬ 
tomer, his fellow 
members and him¬ 
self.” 

“What amount 
of margin is usual- 
ly required of 
parties who buy 
or sell for future 
delivery in your 

market ?” we asked. 

“ That is wholly a matter of agreement between the 
principal and his broker,” was the reply; “ but experi¬ 
ence has determined that the following amounts are 
equitable, and custom has established them as the 
usual rates. 

On each 5,000 bushels of Wheat, 5c per bushel or 

$250. 

On each 5,000 bushels of Corn, 3c per bushel, or $150. 
On each 5,000 bushels of Oats, 3c per bushel, or $150. 
On each 250 barrels of Pork, $1.00 per barrel, or $250. 
On each 250 tierces of Lard (estimated at 320 lbs per 
tierce—80,000 ibs) Jc per lb, or $400. 

On each 50,000 lbs of Salted Meats, Jc per lb or $250. 

“ These quantities are the smallest amounts which 
can be bought or sold for future delivery under our 



The Board of Directors in Session. 





































































































































































492 


THE CHICAGO BOARD OF TRADE. 


rules, and all contracts are made for these amounts or 
their multiples. 

“ Of course, customers are always understood to be 
trading subject to the rules of the association where 
their contracts are made, and they therefore stand 
in the same relation to their commission merchant (so 
far as margins and fulfillment of contracts are con¬ 
cerned) that he does to the other members of the asso¬ 
ciation.” 

“ It occurs to me, I said, “ that when the specula¬ 
tive trading is very large, and especially in any com¬ 
modity for a late future delivery, these margins must 
absorb enormous amounts of capital.” 

“Yes,” was the reply, “our banks usually hold 
several millions of money for marginal purposes during 
the last of summer, to secure contracts for the delivery 
of the maturing crops, of which sales for future 
delivery have in many cases been effected. Some¬ 
times, hoAvever, as I have explained, the prices in 
autumn are so low that the farmer would rather buy 
the grain in Chicago to fill his contract than to ship 
his own, preferring to await higher prices in spring. 
Suppose that he does this, and that in a few weeks a 
sudden advance in prices occurs and he makes a second 
sale of his grain. Now a second decline may also occur, 
and he will again buy back sufficient grain to fill his 
obligations. Should this process be repeated five 
times before that farmer finally shipped in his own 
grain for actual delivery, you will see at once that the 
commission merchant’s books would represent sales 
of five times the amount of grain which the farmer 
raised. Now in fact the first four trades (sale and 
re-purchase) became purely speculative, although in 
each instance the farmer may have originally con¬ 
cluded that he would forward his own crop to market. 

SETTLEMENTS. 

“In June, 1863, a prominent member of the Board, 
who is still one of its ‘ pillars,’ Avas ordered by an 
Iowa farmer to sell 5,0)0 bushels of No. 2 Mixed Oats 
for September delivery, the price being favorable for 
the producer. As the crop matured and promised a 
heavy yield, the price declined severely. Then the 
winds and rain beat down the oats badly in many sec¬ 
tions of the country and they Avere thought to have 
been ruined. This created a speculative demand for 
oats for January delivery, so the farmer bought back 
his September oats and resold them for January at a 
handsome advance. Considerable excitement prevailed, 
opinons of values varied widely, fluctuations were severe, 
and many opportunities were offered to sell the oats at 


a splendid profit over cost of production, and in turn 
to re-purchase them at less than their real value. 
Finally the producer concluded to carry his oats over 
to the next year, and bought to fill his last contract 
on the first decline below the price of the sale. The 
commission merchant then found that he had sold his 
customer’s 5,000 bushels of oats twenty-one times, and 
bought other oats in every instance to fulfill the con¬ 
tracts. Inasmuch, therefore, as his obligations were 
provided for, it occurred to him that if those parties 
who were receiving the carlots of oats which he had 
bought would agree to deliver them to the parties to 
whom he had sold, he might offset the contracts against 
one another on his books, and get his margins released 
by offering to adjust the profits or losses so represented. 
His books were thus cleared, and the delivery from the 
original seller to the shipper took place without the 
grain going through the hands of the middle party. 
The system was afterward extended so as to drop out 
two or more middle men, by clearing, or offsetting, 
contracts for purchase against contracts for sale, where 
they Avere identical as to number of bushels, kind and 
grade of grain, and time of delivery. Sometimes, for 
instance, Ave Avould buy 5,000 bushels of May Corn for 
A. B. from W. & Co. and the same for C. D. from 
H. & Bro. Noav when A. B. ordered his corn sold, it 
happened that IT. & Bro. bought it. In case we 
Avanted to offset our contracts Avith H. & Bro., Ave 
Avould have to get the consent of our customer C. D. 
to substitute the grain coming to us from W. & Co. 
in his (C. D.’s) account instead of the corn bought from 
II. & Bro., the purchase-contracts being identical. 
This necessity finally gave rise to our rule on this sub¬ 
ject, which reads as folloAvs: 

“In case any member of the Association, acting as 
a commission merchant, shall have made purchases or 
sales, by order and for account of another, Avhetherthe 
party for whom any such purchase or sale Avas made 
shall be a member of the Board of Trade or othenvise, 
and it shall subsequently appear that such trades may be 
offset and settled by other trades made by said com¬ 
mission merchant, he shall be deemed authorized to 
make such offset and settlement, and to substitute 
some other person or persons for the one from or to 
Avhom he may have purchased or sold the property 
originally; Provided, that in cases of such substitu¬ 
tion the member or firm making the same shall be 
held to guaranty to his or their principal the ultimate 
fulfillment of all contracts made for account of such 
principal which have been so transferred, and shall be 
held liable to said principal for all damages or loss 





































CHICAGO BOARD OF TRADE 

























































































































































































































































































































































































I 


I 



THE CHICAGO BOARD OF TRADE 


resulting from such substitution. 

“ This process is usually done in a hall adjoining the 
Exchange, which is set apart for that purpose, and a 
busy place it is. About two hundred settling clerks 
are usually in attendance, some of them being mere 
boys, but a bright, active, earnest lot they are. They 
here learn application to business, self-dependence, 
wonderful rapidity in computation, and absolute cor¬ 
rectness in results. Most of the younger present 
members of the Board have ‘ served their apprentice¬ 
ship’ in this clearing house.” 

“Finally, are your charges for services uniform, and 
what are they ?” we asked, beginning to notice that 
the closing hour was near at hand. 

COMMISSIONS. 


“ Our rates of commission were adopted by a ballot 
vote of the Board,” said the member, handing us a copy 
of the Rules, “and are declared to be the minimum net 
charges for services performed; and to be exclusive of 
any charges upon the property or transaction, such as 
storage, interest, insurance, inspection, or weighing; 
and telegrams received from customers, as well as the 
answers sent, are expected to be at the customer’s 
expense. The first violation of this rule by any mem¬ 
ber is punishable by suspension from all privileges of 
the Board for at least one month, and upon a second 
conviction the rules say that he shall be expelled from 
the Association. 

The following is the schedule of commissions 


FOR THE SALE OF PROPERTY ON CONSIGNMENTS. 


Wheat and Rye, by car-load lots, in store, 
free on board cars or vessels, on track, 
delivered, or to be shipped from any 


other point.1 cent per bu. 

Corn and Oats, by car-load lots in store, \ “ “ 

Corn, by sample on track.1 “ “ 

Barley, by car-load lots, in store.1 “ “ 


Barley, by car-load lots, free on board 
cars or vessels, on track delivered, or 
to be shipped from any other point, lucent# per bu. 

All kinds of grain by canal-boat loads, 
in store, afloat or free on board 


vessels.f cent per bu. 

Flax Seed, in bulk.1 per cent. 

“ “ in bags.1J “ “ 

Clover Seed, in less than car-load lots.1| “ “ 

“ “ car-load lots.1 “ “ 

Timothy Seed.1J “ “ 

All other seeds.2 “ “ 

Dressed Hogs, in car-load lots.1£ “ “ 

Dressed Hogs, in less than car-load lots, l£@2£ per 
cent. 

Bran, Shorts and Millstuffs.$3.50 por car. 

Corn Meal.$5.00 per car. 

Hay (rate not officially scheduled) ... 50 cents per ton. 
Broom Corn.£ cent per pound. 


FOR THE PURCHASE AND SHIPMENT OF PROPERTY. 


Wheat, Rye and Barley, to be shipped 


by vessel cargo.| cent per bushel. 

Other grain to be shipped by vessel 

cargo.| cent per bushel. 

All grain, to be shipped by rail.J cent per bushel. 

Lard, Mess Pork and other Meats.J of 1 per cent. 


FOR THE PURCHASE AND SALE OF PROPERTY IN THE 

CHICAGO MARKET. 


Grain, of all kinds, in lots of 5,000 

bushels or more.. £ cent per bushel. 

Lard, in lots of 250 tierces or more, 10 cents per 
tierce. 

Mess Pork, in lots of 250 barrels or more, 5 cents per 
barrel. 

Other meats, in lots of 50,000 pounds or more, f of 1 
per cent. 

In cases where the transaction is made for member 
of the Board, one-half of the rates under this heading 
may be charged. 

With this information we closed our investigations 
for the day. 

The sound of the bell admonished us that the 
Exchange Hall must be vacated, and thanking our 
guide for his attention, we stepped into the elevator, 
feeling better acquainted, by means of our visit, with 
the rules and customs of the Chicago Board of Trade. 


I 































































D 


IS4J 







ooming up in the distant land¬ 
scape of one of our great com¬ 
mercial centers, the huge grain 
elevator presents nothing either 
picturesque or impressive to the 
observer, except as it is suggest¬ 
ive of that vast and most important 
of all the world’s industries, the grain 
trade, of which it is daily becoming an 
increasingly important factor. 

The elevator is peculiarly an Ameri¬ 
can institution, and made necessary by 
an immense exportation of grain to 
foreign ports. In continental Europe 
the methods in vogue for handling 
grain are of the most primitive kind, and calculated to 
excite the derision of the American, who is acquainted 
with our improved machinery and facilities for handling 
and storing grain in our great elevators. In the Black 
Sea ports of liussia, for instance, whole cargoes of grain 
are loaded into vessels from baskets borne on the men’s 
backs between the storehouse and the point of deliv¬ 
ery. A Swedish invention is a floating elevator with a 
jointed folding “ leg” which, although far superior to 
the basket system, is almost as much inferior to the 
devices and improved appliances of the great elevators 
of American grain ports. 



Scattered throughout the United States, from the 
small interior town to the great centers and ports of 
receipt and delivery of grain, may be seen the grain ele¬ 
vator, ranging in size and capacity from the insignificant 
to the enormous; the latter embracing within its huge 
dimensions a storage capacity for millions of bushels of 
the products of the farm, and possessing most ingenious 
appliances and machinery for handling vast cargoes of 
grain without manual labor. 

The vast system of grain storage has been necessi¬ 
tated by the immense crop of the cereal products an¬ 
nually produced in this country, over and above the 
amount consumed in the United States. This grain 
must be stored until it is consumed or carried to for¬ 
eign lands. 

In the large cities, or grain centers of the United 
States, it is customary for one or more firms or compa¬ 
nies, to own the grain elevators, and the business of 
such firm or company is limited strictly to the storing 
of grain. A fixed rate is charged for storage. In some 
cases the elevators are owned by the railroad company, 
on whose land they are located, and are leased to 
the elevator company. In other cases they arc built 
and owned by the elevator company, whose profit 
lies in the compensation exacted from the owners 
of grain stored therein. The Inspection Depart¬ 
ment, which is an institution of the state gov- 
















































































ELEVATOR AND GRAIN TRADE. 


eminent, employ inspectors, whose duty it is to ex¬ 
amine all cars containing grain consigned to market, 
provided the cars are not to be reshipped to other 
points. The inspector determines the grade of the 
grain and places a ticket on the car, on which is writ¬ 
ten the car number, the kind of grain, and the grade. 
The inspection department makes returns of all cars 
received, the amount contained, and grade of grain, to 
the Registry Department, which is also a state institu¬ 
tion. The Inspection department also makes returns 



to the Registrar of all shipments of grain from the 
elevators. 

The duties of the Registrar are to exercise a super¬ 
vision over the elevators, and keep account of all grain 
in each elevator and the number of receipts outstand¬ 
ing. When a commission merchant has grain con¬ 
signed to him, he must have the receipt issued to him 
by the elevator company registered, and have the reg¬ 
istry stamp placed upon the face. Until this is done no 
grain will be delivered from the elevator on such receipt. 



ELEVATOR “C” AT LOCUST POINT, BALTIMORE, THE LARGEST IN THE UNITFD STATES. 



AA hen cars are received into the elevator yard, an 
engine, which is in attendance for the purpose, runs 
them into the elevator, and each car is placed directly 
opposite a set of grain buckets, which apparatus will 
be examined hereafter. 

Beneath each car door is a hopper, or as it is some¬ 
times called, a “ receiver,” which is a V shaped pit, set 
into the floor (see figure 5 H). Almost immediately 
above the receiver and opposite the car door, are two 
chains or ropes attached to the steam shovel (see figure 
4). This machine is so constructed that it draws the 
shovels toward it by means of these chains or ropes, 


which wind around a pulley drum (see figure 2 C) 
until the shovels are drawn to the car door, then by a 
peculiar contrivance the chains are relaxed and the 
shovels can be once more taken back for a fresh load, 
these shovels are made of wood, a ring 1 being fastened 
on each end of them by which the chains are attached 
or detached at will, ihe inspection ticket is taken 
from the car and a copy of it placed in a small elevator 
chute, which carries it into the cupola of the warehouse, 
where the weighman is waiting to weigh the grain (see 
figure 2 E). This copy of the inspection ticket he enters 
on his book. A signal is then given to the weighman 

































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































ELEVATOR AMD GRAIN TRADE. 


497 



by men stationed below who pull a rope running up 
and attached to an arm, or, in some cases, a bell. 
When the rope is tightened the arm is raised, or the 
bell is rung, and the weighman knows that the car is 
ready to unload. After this signal is given the process 
of unloading is begun. 

The car door is opened and the 
grain spouts out and falls into the 
receiver beneath. After all the 
of rain that can be got out in that 
way has run out, a gang of men 
(two to each car) proceed to use the 
shovels. They enter the ear, which 
is only half full, and digging the 
shovels into the grain, hold them 
in position. Relaxing the chains 
sets the drums in motion and 
draws the shovels to the car door, 
full of grain, which falls into the 
receiver. 

The chain is then relaxed, the 
shovels are once more drawn back 
for another load, and are placed in 
another part of the car. The 
same operation is repeated until 
the car is cleared of grain, when it 
is swept clean with brooms. By 
this simple and ingenious con¬ 
trivance a car load of from 700 to 
1000 bushels of grain is emptied 
at an expense of tAventy cents, 
whereas to perform the same ope¬ 
ration by manual labor would cost 
seventy cents, besides occupying 

The receiver 
that the flow of 


a much longer time. 


is so arranged 
grain can be regulated to a mini¬ 


mum speed. This is necessary, as 
when the grain runs into the 
receiver it is caught by buckets 
(see fig. G) and carried to the 
upper part of the elevator, and if 
the grain were to run in too fast 
the buckets could not carry it all, 
and the “boot,” which is a box 
under the buckets (see fig. 5), would be choked. This 
flow is checked by means of a slide (see figure 5 I) 
which moves up or down. 

\ The buckets, which catch the grain as it runs down- 
/ ward from the receiver, are riveted to an endless belt, 
which runs over drums, one at the top and one at the 



bottom of the building (see figure 1). The buckets 
are made of tin or sheet iron, and are about a foot 
apart. This bucket-belt is called an “ elevator,” and 
it is inclosed by what is called a “ leg,” which is simpy 
a wooden box covering (see fig. 1), starting from the 

drum at the top and running to 
the drum at the bottom of the 


building. 


Through this leg the 


buckets are carried by the belt, 
filled with grain. The lower 
drum is encased by the “ boot,” 
and though there is plenty of 
room in this “boot” for the 
buckets to pass around the drum, 
yet sometimes a piece of wood 
gets into the “boot” or the 
“boot” is choked by the grain 
running in too rapidly, and the 
buckets are torn from the belt, or 
the belt breaks. In such a case 
the “boot” must be opened and 
the obstruction removed. Before 
this can be done, however, the 
drum must be stopped, which 
draws the belt. This can now be 
done in a few seconds by means of 
a very simple contrivance which 
consists in a rope running from 
the lower floor, connecting with 
swinging beams, joined to the 
drum at the top of the elevator, 
which throws the machinery out 
of gear. This improvement has 
been lately introduced under the 
Lotz patent. The buckets catch¬ 
ing the grain as it falls into the 
receiver, carry it up to the top 
drum. As the buckets pass over 
the drum they become inverted, 
and the grain pours out into the 
scale-bin (see fig. 2 “f”). When 
the grain is all out of the car a 
signal is given by letting fall the 
arm or pulling the bell cord. The 
weight of the grain is then noted. 
This weight is taken by pounds, and afterwards reduced 
to bushels. In most of the states the number of 
pounds per bushel of corn is fixed at 56, oats 32, rye 
56, barley 48, and wheat 60. The number of pounds 
that the car load weighs is taken down in the book, by 
the weighman, the kind and grade of grain and the 























































































































498 


ELEVATOR AND GRAIN TRADE. 





number of the bin into which it is to go, is then sent 
down to a man below who arranges the spouts running 
from the scale bin, so that the grain shall run into a 
bin containing the same kind and grade of grain as 
that in the scale, and into the bin numbered in the 
memorandum. 

The weighman then pulls a handle which opens the 
spout hole in the bot¬ 
tom of the scale-bin, 
and the grain runs into 
the spouts thence to 
the storage bins. The 
person who arranges 
the spouts must under¬ 
stand his business thor¬ 
oughly, as the mixing 
of different kinds of 
grain would entail 
much trouble, and in 
some cases loss. 

The spouts are square 
conduits made of wood 
through which the 
grains run in any direc¬ 
tion that ' they are 
pointed. 

Each spout is so ar¬ 
ranged that it will 
empty into any one of 
several other spouts, 
and these in turn may 
be placed so as to run 
the gram into any one 
of several other bins, 
each one of which 
is numbered. By this 
means any one of a 
large number of bins 
may be reached from 
the same starting- 
point, namely, the 
scale-bin. 

After the grain 
reaches the bin it re¬ 



grade of grain, is sent down to the main office, which 
is usually located in the business portion of the city. 

In elevators of large size there are at least five or 
six sets of elevator buckets for receiving, and the same 
number for shipping purposes. 

There is necessarily a receiver, or hopper, as it is 
sometimes called, and a scale to each set of buckets. 

The use of the ‘ ‘ship¬ 
ping elevator” buckets 
will be explained here¬ 
after. 

The receiving buck¬ 
ets are placed on one 
side of the elevator, 
and the shipping buck¬ 
ets on the other. 

The railroad, over 
whose track the grain 
arrives, renders ex¬ 
pense bills to the ele¬ 
vator company. From 
these expense bills the 
name of the consignee 
is ascertained. They 
also contain the num¬ 
bers of the cars, the 
number and date of the 
way bill, the weight 
as ascertained by the 
elevator company, the 
kind of grain (but not 
the grade), consignor’s 
name, the place of ship¬ 
ment, the rate of 
freight, and the freight 
and inspection charges. 
Upon payment of these 
charges a receipt is 
issued from the main 
office of the elevator 
company for the con¬ 
tents of the car, deliv¬ 
erable to the order of 
the consignee, dated 


A Transverse Section of a Grain Elevator. A denotes lower floor, a a car tracks, b b 
elevator-boots, c shafting for grain-shoveling machine, B B B grain bins, D spouting 
. floor, E floor containing the shipping scale bin d, F floor containing shipping garner e, ~ . , 

mains there until ready and receiving scale bin f, G machinery floor, n rope connecting with swinging beams. the day the grain Went 

for shipment, unless there is danger of its getting out 

of condition by heating, in which case it is run through 

different spouts until it resumes its proper condition. 

The grain being landed in the bin, the weighman’s 

book containing the numbers and initials of the cars, 

the number of bushels and pounds, and the kind and 


into store; the receipt, however, not being ready for 
delivery until the next day. 

In most cases the elevator company is agent for the 
road over whose track the grain is received, to collect 
the freight charges on the grain, which must be paid 
before the receipts will be delivered. 












































































































































































































































ELEVATOR AND GRAIN TRADE. 


499 


When the grain is consigned deliverable to the ship¬ 
per’s order, the person claiming to be the one entitled 
to receive the grain must produce the original bill of 
lading. The same is also the case, where a negotiable 
bill of lading has been issued by the road, and in fact, 
whenever the expense bill shows by its wording that 
the shipper retains an interest in the consignment, a 
bill of lading must be surrendered by the person 
obtaining the warehouse receipt. After the receipt 
has been delivered to the consignee, he usually sells it 
on ’Change (indorsing on the back the words “ In 
Store” over his signature) and renders an account of 
sale to the consignor. The elevator company receives 
a compensation for every bushel of grain stored accord¬ 
ing to the time it remains. 

The warehouse law of Illinois allows one and a quar¬ 
ter cents for the first ten days, and one-half cent every 



A partial Transverse Sectional View of several Grain Bins, 
showing tlieir construction. The letter d denotes rings for 
foot-rests for entering the bins. 

ten days thereafter, on every bushel stored, but by 
agreement between the prominent elevator firms of 
Chicago, after the fifteenth day of November, on 
grain in good condition, storage will be at the forego¬ 
ing rates, until four cents per bushel shall have 
accrued, after which no additional storage will be 
charged until the fifteenth day of April, provided the 
grain remains in good condition. 

When the grain has lain in store between these dates 
Ion" enough to have accrued four cents per bushel at 
the legal rate, then only four cents are charged, and 
the cents rule is ignored. Storage is then figured 
by what is called the “ winter storage” rule, which is 
four cents for storing between the 15th of November and 
tho 15th of April, and one-half cent every ten days or 
part thereof previous to, and one-half cent every ten days 


or part thereof after the time allowed for winter stor¬ 
age; provided, that the four cents charged for winter 
storage fully accrues previous to the 15th of April. 

For illustration, suppose that a car containing five 
hundred bushels of corn, goes into store October first, 
the receipt bearing that date, and that on October 31st 
the receipt is returned, and the grain is shipped from 
the elevator. The party who returns the receipt hav¬ 
ing received the grain, is obliged to pay storage. The 
grain having been in store thirty days he will have to 
pay per bushel, 1cents for the first ten days, and one- 
half cent every ten days thereafter, making cents, 
which, after adding 35 cents per car load for inspecting 
the grain out of store, which the elevator company 
collects for the state warehouse commissioners, will 
amount to eleven dollars and fifty-five cents. 

But suppose that the grain for which the receipt was 
issued, is not taken out until winter storage has accrued; 
say not until February 15th; the storage in this case 
would be four cents per bushel for the time it had been 
in store after the 15th of November, and one-half cent 
for every ten days or fractional part thereof, previous to 
that date. From October first to November 15th is forty- 
five days, which would be 2b cents ; this added to the four 
cents will makefij cents per bushel, or $32.50, to which 
must be added the out-inspection charges as before. 

Warehouse receipts upon blank indorsement, or in¬ 
dorsement to the order of another, are negotiable. On 
the following page is given the form of an elevator 
receipt, and also, a form of an order for delivery of 
grain for shipment. When a forwarding merchant 
wishes to ship a cargo of grain from store, he buys these 
warehouse receipts on the Board of Trade, and surren¬ 
ders them to the elevator company that issued them, in 
return for which he receives an order (see the form). 

This order he gives to the agent of the vessel, who 
sends it with the vessel to the elevator. The order is 
handed to the foreman of the elevator who attends to 
the loading of the vessel. 

When the vessel is brought up against the dock, a 
spout is run from the elevator into her hatch. Spouts 
are then directed from the bins containing the "rain to 
be run out, so that it will run into the shipping “ re¬ 
ceiver,” which is similar to the one into which the 
grain empties from the cars when it is received into 
store (see fig. 5 H). 

By pulling a rope, a slide in the bottom of the bin 
is opened and the grain runs through the spouts into 
the receiver, the slide in the receiver having been pre¬ 
viously opened by raising a handle connected with a rod 
running up into the scale room, and to which another 
























































500 


ELEVATOR AND GRAIN TRADE. 


handle is attached, by which the weighman can shut off 
the flow of grain from above when he wishes so to do. 

When the weighman sees the handle rise, he knows 
that the slide is opened and the grain is running into 
the buckets. 

The elevator buckets carry the grain to the top of 
the house and drop it into a hopper bin. This bin is 
small, and is located immediately above the scale bin, 


so that when the slide is drawn the grain falls into it 
(see figure 2 e). 

When this hopper bin is filled Avith grain, the weigh¬ 
man pulls a handle, to which is attached a rod joined 
to the slide spoken of. This lets the grain into the 
scale bin (see figure 2 d). He then pushes the handle 
back in place and the buckets soon refill the hopper 
bin. The weighman, in the meantime, records the 



FORM OF AN ELEVATOR RECEIPT. 


ITT 


0 


SSOWI* J©jf. 



4-r 








No. 4429 K. Omaha, May 22, 188 . 

!'Received in store from Car 2923 1 Four Hundred and Twenty 04 Bushels 
of Two Com, subject only to Vie order hereon of Jones <€• O’Brien, and the sur¬ 
render of this receipt, and payment of charges. 

This grain is subject to our 
advertised rates of storage. 

It is hereby agreed by the holders of this receipt that the grain herein mentioned may be 
stored with other grain of the same quality by inspection. Loss by fire or heating 
at owner’s risk. 


420 Bush. 04 Lbs. 



Brown, Jones & Co. 




■ ,n,-A n.'i ' A jt a I'jJur ,rr . nw~ . - P i~ . j , T r-f -r, r-j T ( 


FORM OF AN ORDER FOR THE DELIVERY OF GRAIN FOR SHIPMENT. 



No. 



a 


; ll 




s 




Omaha, March 7, 188 . 




H 


Deliuer Propeller James W. Jones,. 

Fifty Thousand Two Hundred and Ten. 20 Bushels 

Two Corn, account of Jansen & Smith. 

50,210 20 Bush. 2 Corn. BROWN, JONES & CO. 


weight of the grain, as does also the tallyman, who is 
a person permitted to be present to witness the weigh¬ 
ing of the grain in the interest of the shipper, or the 
vessel owners. 

After entering the weight in his book the weighman 
pulls another handle, which connects with the slide in 
the bottom of the scales, and the grain runs through a 
spout below it. This spout is arranged to point in 


any direction, and is called a “ revolving spout.” 
Beneath this revolving spout are placed other spouts, 
some running into shipping bins, some into storing 
bins, and one running directly downward for the pur¬ 
pose of loading cars and wagons. 

W hen a vessel is being loaded, the revolving spout 
is pointed directly over the spout running into the 
shipping bin; the grain runs through the spouts into 












































































































n 



the shipping bin, thence through the spout running 
from the shipping bin to the vessel, into the hatch. 
When a wagon is being loaded the grain does not go 
into the shipping bins at all, but directly down through 
the spout mentioned, into the wagon waiting to be 
loaded. 

After the vessel is partly loaded it becomes necessary 
to “trim” the grain. “Trimming” is the process of 
shoveling - the grain into the corners of the hold of the 
vessel, so that no room shall be wasted. 


The foreman of the elevator makes returns to the 
main office on a ticket, giving the name of the vessel, 
the number of bushels she took aboard, the kind of 
grain and grade, the name of the shipper and the date 
the boat arrived. Storage ceases when the boat arrives, 
on all receipts handed in previous to or on the day of 
her arrival. If, however, receipts on which the storage 
is “ runing out ” (that is, receipts so dated that one day 
more will cause one-half cent extra to accrue) the day 
the boat arrives, are not handed in until the day after, 


Fig. 4. 


SHOVELING MACHINE. 


then the extra one-half cent is charged without regard 
to when the boat arrived. 

When a shipper loads out a car, or several cars, he 

o-ets an order in the same manner as in the case ot 
© 

loading a vessel and delivers the order to the agent 
of the railroad which is to furnish cars. The agent 
sends the car, with the order, to the elevator, and 
the grain is run into it in precisely the same man¬ 
ner as into the vessel, with the exception that the 
grain, instead of first running from the scale bin into 
a shipping bin, runs into the car by means of a spout 


running directly downward. In loading cars it is nec¬ 
essary to “ trim” the grain the same as in the case of 
vessels. The cars are only about half filled when 
loaded, which gives the men room enough to use their 
shovels. Trimmers are furnished for vessels by the 
vessel owners, but the elevator company furnishes the 
men for trimming cars. When the cars are loaded 
they are switched out of the elevator and ticketed to 
the place to which they are consigned. They are thou / - 
sent by the railroad company to their destination. 
Bills of lading are issued by the railroad to the shipper 


















































































































502 


ELEVATOR AND GRAIN TRADE. 


from the weights determined by the elevator scales. 
Returns are made by the foreman of the elevator to 
the main office, where the storage bill is made out in 
the same manner as with vessels. The arrival of cars 
at the elevator causes storage to cease, as with vessels. 
It is the statutory duty of all elevator companies at 
Chicago to render a daily report of all shipments 
which were made the day previous, and also the re¬ 
ceipts which were surrendered on these shipments. 
This report shows the numbers of the receipts, the 
date, number of bushels, and the kind and grade of 
grain. The receipts are cut with a canceling spindle, 
and representatives from the Registry Department 
compare the report so rendered, with the receipts, and 
finding it correct, enter it upon the books in the Reg¬ 
istry Department. The receipts are then booked and 
filed away for reference in the vaults of the elevator 
company. All grain of 
the same kind and grade 
is mixed together in 
public warehouses of 
the class A and B as 
prescribed in the ware¬ 
house laws of Illinois. 

Class A comprises 
those warehouses in 
which grain is mixed, 
and located in cities 
having not less than 
100,000 inhabitants. 

Class B includes “ all 
other warehouses, ele¬ 
vators and granaries in 
which grain is stored in 
bulk, and in which the 
grain of different own¬ 
ers is mixed.” Class C embraces “all other ware¬ 
houses or places where property of any kind is stored 
for consideration.” Chicago elevators are of the Class 
A. In some cases where grain, graded as a certain 
kind, is of such good quality that it falls slightly short 
of being graded one degree higher, or where it is of a 
kind different from ordinary, as, for instance, white 
number two corn, it is put into a special bin, upon 
request of the consignee, this request being granted 
except when the elevators are crowded for room. In 
the case mentioned (of “ white ” two corn) the Inspec¬ 
tion Department creates no such grade, therefore the 
receipt is issued simply for “ two corn,” and across the 
face is written “ special bin,” and the number of the 
bin containing the grain. In fact, in all cases where 


grain is placed in “special bin” the receipts are 
written exactly as usual, with the addition of the nota¬ 
tion across the face. When grain is put in special bin 
it is generally sold by sample and brings a higher price 
than otherwise, mixed as it would be, with grain of an 
inferior quality. In most elevators there are what are 
termed “pocket” bins. This is an ordinary bin, 
divided by partitions so as to form four smaller bins. 
Each of these compartments is called a “ pocket bin,” 
and are frequently used for special-bin grain. When 
grain gets out of condition it is “posted” on ’Change; 
that is, the number of the receipt and the number of 
the bin is given, and the owner of the grain notified to 
take it out of store. As will be seen by reading the 
receipt, loss by fire or heating is at the owner’s risk, 
therefore it is the duty of the owner of the receipt to 
insure his grain and not that of the elevator company, 

their liability only ex¬ 
tending to proper care 
and storage. Some ele¬ 
vators are also equipped 
for receiving grain from 
canal boats. The boat 
is brought up directly 
under a “ leg” which is 
constructed for this spe¬ 
cial purpose. The leg 
is the same as is used 
for holding the elevator 
buckets, which has al¬ 
ready been described. 
Through this leg,bucket 
belts pass, carrying the 
grain up and emptying 
it into a receiver spout, 
from which it runs into 
the scale bin. The leg, which stands nearly parallel 
with the side of the elevator, and almost perpendicu¬ 
lar, is raised and lowered by means of a pair of arms 
running out from the elevator and attached to the leg 
at its top. On the inside of the elevator these arms, 
which are parallel, and joined together, are fastened on 
a hinge. On the lower floor of the elevator is a drum, 
around which is wound a wire rope. This wire rope 
runs into the upper part of the elevator, then across 
another drum immediately over the end of the arms 
nearest to the leg. It then runs down and is joined to 
these arms, so that when it is desired to raise the leg, 
the lower drum is set in motion and the wire rope is / 
wound over it. By this means the rope is shortened P 
and the leg is raised. When it is to be lowered the 



A Vertical Section of the lower enrl of the Elevator Boot and Tank. 
A denotes a metal tank, IS the elevator boot with its sides joined to the 
timbers of the elevator leg C, c guides of sliding boxes d, I) iower 
drum, E endless belt, F grain buckets, G screw to secure the even run. 
ning of the belt and for tightening the same. H inclined grain-chutes. 
I adjustable slides or gates regulating flow of grain. 











































































ELEVATOR AND GRAIN TRADE. 


503 


drum below is reversed. At the end of the arms near 
to the hinge is a pulley drum. Around this is run the 
belt which propels the drum in the leg, over which the 
bucket belts traverse. After the leg is lowered into 
the canal boat, the grain is shoveled around the leg, 
and is caught by the buckets and elevated into the 
receiver, thence into the scale bin, and after being 
weighed and run into a receiver, is caught by the 
buckets and thrown into a hopper, and thence runs 
through spouts into the storage bins. 

Grain is loaded into a canal boat in the same manner 
as into any vessel. The inspection charges from canal 
boats are 50 cents per thousand bushels. The charges 
for inspection of grain into store as well as out of 


Fig. 6. 



GRAIN BUCKET. 


store, are 35 cents per car load, 10 cents per team 
load, 35 cents per car load to team, and 50 cents per 
thousand bushels by vessel. 

The inspection and classification of flaxseed has not 
been assumed by the state inspection department. An 
inspector is however appointed by the Board of Trade. 
His charges for inspecting flaxseed are 60 cents per car 
into store, 30 cents per car out of store, and 40 cents 
per thousand bushels going out by vessel. Cars hold¬ 
ing- flaxseed must be lined with cloth in order to pre- 
vent it from sifting out. This is not necessary with 
grain. When flaxseed is put into store the inspector 
makes a test of the amount of foreign substance mixed 
with it, and makes returns of the result to the elevator 
company. The receipt is then issued for the gross 
amount of bushels and pounds received, and on the 


back is indorsed the gross amount, the percentage of 
foreign substance it contains, the number of pounds 
this percentage amounts to, and the net amount of pure 
seed. When the receipt is sold, it is sold on the basis 
of pure seed only. When the holder of the receipt 
brings it in for shipment ho is given credit for the 
gross amount mentioned in the receipt, and if the per¬ 
centage of foreign matter in the flaxseed that he receives 
is larger than the amount indorsed on the back of the 

o 

receipt, he receives compensation in money in adjust¬ 
ment of the difference. For illustration, if the differ¬ 
ence between the two percentages is ten per cent, then 
ten per cent of the gross amount called for in the 
receipt is determined, and the value computed at the 
market rate, and paid over by the elevator company. 
On the contrary, if the difference is against the ship¬ 
per, it is to be collected from him in the same manner. 

There arc, in the several elevators, various differ¬ 
ences in construction, and in the manner of conducting 
them. For example, there are a variety of contri¬ 
vances for signals. The arrangements of the spouts 
sometimes differ, and perhaps no two elevators are 
ever built exactly alike, but with these slight varia¬ 
tions, the description that has been given will be found 
to be a correct one, and will apply to every elevator 
built in modern style. The bins in an elevator are 
built up of layers of square timber, laid one upon 
another (as seen in figure 3) and spiked together. The 
bottoms of these bins are made to slant to a center so 
that all the grain in the bin will run out when the 
slide is open. The bottoms of the bins are at least 25 
feet above the main floor of the elevators, so there 
is no danger to the grain they contain from overflow of 
the river on which they are located. The diagrams 
show the plans upon which the elevators are con¬ 
structed, and it will be seen that great ingenuity has 
been displayed by the inventors of our day in creating 
something approximate to perfection in facilities for 
receiving, storing and shipping eastward the great 
cereal product of our country. 































































THE NEW ORLEANS COTTON EXCHANGE 








efore our war of independence, a short 
stapled cotton of inferior value had been 
cultivated in the Southern Colonies and 
used for domestic purposes. This was 
the upland or bowed cotton of Georgia 
and South Carolina. The name 
“ Bowed” was attached to it in 
foreign countries, from the 
operation of bowing to clear 
it from dirt and knots. The 
vibration of the bow strings 
opened the knots or matted 
masses of cotton, shook out the 
dust and raised a downy fleece. 

Yet America was hardly known 
as a cotton raising country, at 
the close of our war for inde¬ 
pendence. So small was our 
growth of cotton, that in 1784, 
an American vessel having on 
board eight bales of cotton was 
seized on its arrival at Liver¬ 
pool as a smuggler, the author¬ 
ities there not believing it possi¬ 
ble that such an amount of cot¬ 
ton could be raised for export 
in the United States. 

In the year 1800 our home manufacture consumed 
500 bales of cotton of 300 lbs each or 150,000 lbs. Ten 
years later the consumption had risen to 3,000,000 ibs, 
and in 1815, at the close of our second war with 
England, to 27,000,000 Tbs., making 81,000,000 yards 


COTTON BUD AND BLOSSOM 


of cotton, costing $24,000,000 and furnishing employ¬ 
ment to 100,000 operatives. 

The United States is the great cotton field of the 
world, and the demand for this product increases every 
year. In 1830 our productions amounted to one mil¬ 
lion bales annually, and the 
largest crop ever raised under 
the regime of slavery was a trifle 
over four millions of bales. In 
the south of to-day, under free 
labor, the annual cotton crop 
reaches to more than six and 
one-half million bales, valued 
at three hundred millions of 
dollars. In a genial and favor- 
ble climate; with the well 
adapted soil of our southern 
states, which is practically un¬ 
limited in its productive power, 
the future of our cotton interests 
will no doubt show greater 
strides of advancement than the 
past, and the next twenty years 
the skill and persistence of 
requited labor will probably 
result in its extensive manu¬ 
facture throughout the south. 

Cotton fibers vary in length from half an inch to an 
inch and three-quarters, and each fiber tapers to a fine 
point. These variations in length and thickness belong 
to plants of different kinds and countries, each kind 
being nearly uniform in both dimensions. All the useful 











































































THE NEW ORLEANS COTTON EXCHANGE. 



kinds grow upon plants, inclosed within pods, which 
protect it until ripened, when the pods burst from 
the expansive power of the imprisoned fibers and it 
lies a fleecy ball, ready for the hand of the picker. 
Scientists differ as to the number of varieties, some 
enumerating eight, some ten and some nearly a hundred 
varieties; yet for all practical purposes, three kinds 
only are necessary to be mentioned. Herbaceous cot¬ 
ton, which is of one summer’s growth, and most largely 
cultivated in the United States, India and China. Its 
general hight is from 18 to 30 inches, though it may 
be made to grow eight to ten feet high. When the pod 
ripens and bursts, three locks of snow-white or some¬ 



times yellowish down are seen, inclosing and closely 
adhering to the seeds, which form about two-thirds of 
the bulk. This species is planted each year in the 
early spring, and the cotton gathered. In India, it was 
formerly the custom to sow the seed broadcast; the 
natives were also careless at every stage, and hence the 
Indian cotton is much inferior to that of our own 
country. The shrub cotton grows wherever the herba¬ 
ceous plant flourishes, and in cool climates it is an 
annual, and in the hottest, a perennial, sometimes 
yielding two crops a year, attaining a hight of 10 or 
20 feet. Tree cotton is found in India, China, 
Egypt and Africa, and it attains a hight of from 12 to 



PICKING THE COTTON. 


20 feet. All the varieties flourish best on a dry sandy 
soil, and a wet season is greatly dreaded by the cotton 
planter. Cotton loves the air of the sea-coast, and the 
finest staple known is our own Sea Island cotton of 
South Carolina and Georgia, which, when grown 
inland, quickly degenerates in length of fiber and quality. 
Pine barrens, by plentiful and annual applications of 
sea mud as a fertilizer, have been changed into fruit¬ 
ful cotton fields, amply paying the expenditure of 
money and labor bestowed. The Sea Island cotton 
is much longer in the fiber than any other. It is very 
strong, even and has a silky texture. It is different 
from most of our other cottons, having black seeds, 
while the seeds of nearly all other varieties are green. 


It Avas introduced from the Bahama islands in 1786, 
and its culture soon extended along 1 the islands of Georgia 

O O 

and South Carolina. The United States exceeds all other 
nations in the production of cotton, both as to quantity 
and quality. The seed is generally sown in March and 
April in i’oavs from four to five feet apart, and in drills 
eighteen inches apart. Hand planting has been found 
better than any machine invented as yet. The young 
plants need careful weeding, and to have the ground Avell 
stirred between the rows. In June, the fields look likea 
huge flower garden. The harvest or picking season 
usually commences in August and lasts until November, 
as successive pickings folloAV each other as the balls ripen. 
The yield varies from 130 lbs per acre on the uplands 



32 












































































506 


THE NEW ORLEANS COTTON EXCHANGE. 



to 400 ibs on the richer lowlands. No machine has yet 
been found to do away with hand labor in plucking 
the ball of downy cotton from out the pod, and a 
smart hand can pick from 200 to 300 pounds per day. 

After the cotton is picked in the fields, it is sent to 
the ginning mill, located at a convenient point on the 
plantation. The ginning of cotton consists in separat¬ 
ing the seeds from the fiber, and the reader is probably 
familiar with the invention of the cotton gin by Eli 
Whitney, in 1793, by which the culture of the plant 
was entirely revolutionized, and such a wonderful 
impetus given to it, while the value of cotton lands 
was in many states doubled. In con¬ 
nection with the gin, located on the 
plantation at the “gin-house,” is also 
a press for the purpose of compressing 
the downy fiber and binding it into 
bales. The ginning machine and the 
press now consists of greatly improved 
machinery, and may be run by hand, 
horse, water or steam power. Here¬ 
with is given an illustration of the 
Triumph Cotton Press, which is much 
in use in the south. It is simple in 
its construction and presses 400 lbs 
of cotton into a bale of about 40 cubic 
feet. After it is thus compressed and 
baled, it is shipped and when it reaches 
St. Louis, Vicksburg or New Orleans 
it goes to the Compress Works, where 
it is re-baled and re-pressed. Some of 
these presses in the compress works 
are gigantic pieces of machinery, one 
of them being over 45 feet high, 36 feet 
wide and weighing 600,000 pounds. 

The engraving on the next page gives a 
good idea of its immense size, strength 
and power. Sixty to seventy-five bales 
an hour are frequently turned out, and in no respect 
has the cotton manufacture taken so long a stride in the 
last five years as it has in the improvements made in 
machinery for compressing and baling the cotton. 

Cotton excels all other textile substances in the 
capability of being spun into fine threads of uniform 
twist, strength and diameter. Take hold of a few fila¬ 
ments with the thumb and finder and draw them from 

O 

a ball or pile and see how each fiber lays hold of and 
draws out another or more, and how easily they slide 
by each other and yet remain connected, and in almost 
parallel lines. These are the qualities which have 
made the cotton plant the king of plants, cotton cul¬ 



Pressing and Baling the Cotton. 


ture, the employment of millions, and cotton manu¬ 
facture, the most wonderful industry of modern times, 
only rivalled by those of iron and steel. 

The manufacture of cotton, by all the various 
processes from cleaning and disentangling the fibres, 
up to the spinning and weaving into the cloth for our 
garments, is full of interest, and invites capital and 
enterprise. The south is just now awakening to the 
fact that it does not pay to export the raw material, 
have somebody else to put the labor into it that trebles 
its value, and then return it for the original raiser to 
buy at an added price. Originally the seed of the cot¬ 
ton was regarded by southern planters, 
v as something of no value, and was 
destroyed by fire and in other ways; 
yet in time, it was found that the cot¬ 
ton seed as a fertilizer would return 
from one-fourth to one-third of the 
nourishment it had drawn from the 
earth. Still more, it was also shown 
that the cake left after extracting the 
oil was about as good a fertilizer as 
before. The cotton seed product of 
1881 sold for $9,600,000, of which 
amount over four million dollars repre¬ 
sented the labor bestowed upon it. It 
is estimated that a ton of seed when 
worked, costs about $14 to $15, of 
which from five to six dollars repre¬ 
sents labor. The seed cake alone sells 
for as much as the labor; besides a ton 
of cotton seed gives about 35 gallons 
oil at 35 cents per gallon, or $12.25, 
and we have estimated nothing for the 
hulls, which sell to the paper pulp 
manufacturer. 

COTTON SPECULATION. 


If the capitalist has no desire to raise the cotton or 
gin it, or manufacture it or the oil, he still has a chance 
as a cotton factor or speculator. 

Given a crop worth $300,000,000 and that cannot 
be used in the country where raised, and it would be 
wonderful if opinions did not differ as to the future 
price. Also consider that that price will be affected, 
not only by the amount raised at home, but also in 
South America, India, Egypt, and in other cotton 
fields throughout the world, and you will see a chance 
for opinions to differ as to probable yield, in the 
future. The value of the staple is, of course, affected 
by the amount, kind, quality of the crop, not only in 























































THE NEW ORLEANS COTTON EXCHANGE. 


507 



the United States, but also in South America, the 
India Islands, Egypt, Africa and India. Information 
derived from different sources will, of course, differ as 
to the points named. In addition to these causes for a 
difference of opinion as to the value of the cotton, 
another element of difference comes in the way of 
various opinions as to the demand, or the probable 
amounts to be used by the mills of the United States, 
England, etc. The demand from the mills is effected 
by the probable sales of manufactured goods in China, 
India, Africa, Europe and America. Hence various 
opinions as to price, and 
consequent tendency to 
buy and sell for future 
delivery according to the 
ideas entertained by the 
dealer. The New Orleans 
Cotton Exchange has be¬ 
come, from its natural 
location in the midst of 
the cotton producing sec¬ 
tion of our country in the 
metropolis of the south, 
the great point for the 
sale and purchase of cot¬ 
ton, as shipped to New 
Orleans, and also for ex¬ 
tensive speculation and 
buying and selling for 
future delivery. 

The New Orleans Cot¬ 
ton Exchange consists of 
an Association of 491 
members, each of whom 
pays an annual member¬ 
ship fee of $100. 

Inaugurated in 18 71, 
with a membership of 100, 
which afterward dwindled to about 80, it seemed 
likely to die a natural death. New measures were 
adopted, especially in the way of gathering the news, 
daily, concerning the production prospects and condi¬ 
tion of the cotton of the world. Under these improved 
plans of work and the increase of order and system, 
and in consequence of effectiveness in each department, 
the membership has grown as stated above, and the 
Cotton Exchange has become a recognized power and 
authority in all matters pertaining to the cotton crop. 

With a view to learning all that could be learned 
of its system of work, we interviewed one of its mem¬ 
bers. With the kindly courtesy of the New Orleans 


THE COTTON COMPRESSER. 


business man, he promised to give us all the informa¬ 
tion in his power, and we were soon standing in front 
of the new and elegant building which the Exchange 
has erected. 

“ That,’* said our friend, “ is the home of the New 
Orleans Cotton Exchange. Some three years ago, we 
found that our income from all departments of the 
Exchange was about $125,000 per year, but had not 
sufficient room to transact our business comfortably. 
In fact, we had outgrown our old accomodations so 
much, that we decided to build our own home. At a 

cost for building- and 
ground of about $300,000 
we have a home that suits 
us and that our people are 
proud of. 

‘ ‘ W e expen d about 
$30,000 annually in secur¬ 
ing information, embrac¬ 
ing* every movement of 
any consequence in the 
staple from every ship¬ 
ping point along the Gulf 
and Atlantic coast, from 
Mexico to Boston. Nay, 
more, we have our corre¬ 
spondents watching the 
cotton movements as far 
as India, and each specu¬ 
lator knows all that can 
be known, and that is 
desirable, concerning cot¬ 
ton movements elsewhere, 
almost as well as along 
our own levees. 

“In fact, each of us 
gets for $100 per year 
what it would otherwise 
Each one of us knows 


cost us $30,000 to obtain, 
within a few moments, the sligliest change in any 
important cotton market in the world, and whether 
that change is for or against us. There is no long 
peried of suspense, lest while we are buying or selling 
as guided by events here, another set of events some¬ 
where else may have entirely changed the condition 
of affiiirs unknown to us.” 

Having entered the Exchange building, we find 
spacious halls, corridors and offices; marble floors, 
frescoed ceilings, and rich furniture. The interior of 
the Exchange has an air of comfort, spaciousness and 
stability about it, which impresses the visitor at once 


















































































































































508 


THE NEW ORLEANS COTTON EXCHANGE. 


and upon looking further, the convenience of arrange¬ 
ment to facilitate business, not only in the Exchange 
Hall, but also in committee rooms and Board Rooms, 
is very apparent. 

“I will introduce you to our secretary, H. G. 
Hester, who is a statistical expert, and so recognized 
by government, and wherever cotton is bought or 
sold. He will give you the details of our system of 
work.” 

We at once recognized in the secretary a man of 
that system, exactitude and genius for organization 
sufficient to control and direct a great enterprise; and 
we believed what our friend had previously said, that 
to him the Exchange owes its magnitude, thoroughness 
and efficiency. 

After stating briefly the object of our call, 
and referring to a few especial points and features 
of the Cotton Exchange on which we desired informa¬ 
tion, the secretary said: 

“The cotton traders of New Orleans found that 
something must be done to keep up with the times; 
that steam and electricity had completely broken down 
the old ways of doing business. For one thing, accur¬ 
ate information must be had at once of every change 
in cotton movements and all the causes affecting or 
directing these movements. 

“ That we supply by our telegraphic system as you 
do, on your Board of Trade in Chicago. 

“ A second matter demanding action, was the fact 
that from the time a bale of cotton left the planter’s 
gin-house, until it left here on ship board and was 
fairly out of the Pass, there was a continual ‘ loss of 
weight from sampling, picking and stealing,’and a con¬ 
sequent continual dissatisfaction and suspicion of unfair 
dealing all along the line from planter to the manufact¬ 
urer. This blot had to be removed or our trade would be 
lost, and you have no idea of what the loss amounted 
to each year. We have stopped that by our ‘ System 
of Supervision.’ Receivers pay four cents a bale to the 
Cotton Exchange to meet the outlay of the $50,000 
which our supervision costs annually, and that they do 
it cheerfully, shows something of what the pickings, 
samplings and stealings amounted to under the old 
system, or rather lack of system. The fact is that 
people could, and did, grow rich from the samplings 
and stealings of cotton in this market. 

Again, usages and classifications varied so much that 
the trade seemed confusion confounded. This state of 
affairs gave rise to our present Cotton Exchange, by 
which we aim to avoid all such embarrassments to the 
trade. 


THE OBJECT. 

The charter declares the purposes of the Cotton 
Exchange to be, To provide suitable rooms for a Cotton 
Exchange in the city of New Orleans; to adjust con¬ 
troversies between members; to establish just and 
equitable principles,'uniform usages, rules and regula¬ 
tions, and standards for classifications, which shall 
govern all transactions connected with the cotton 
trade, and to increase the facilities and amount of cot¬ 
ton business in the city of New Orleans, as well as to 
acquire, preserve and disseminate information con¬ 
nected with the trade; to decrease the risk incident 
thereto, and to generally promote the interests of the 
trade. 

To carry these purposes into definite action and to 
definitely locate the responsibility of their perform¬ 
ance, the following committees were established 
under the constitution and by-laws, viz : Committees 
on Membership; Information and Statistics; Trade; 
Classification and Quotations; Finance; Arbitration 
and on Appeals. The Committee on Membership have 
charge of all applications for membership and of 
charges against members for improper conduct. Com¬ 
mittee on Information and Statistics have charge of all 
matters pertaining to the supply of newspapers, mar¬ 
ket reports, telegraphic information, and statistical 
information for the use of the Exchange; and it shall 
be the duty of said Committee to organize plans for 
obtaining early, reliable, and regular information, af¬ 
fecting the price of cotton producing and all cotton con- 
suming sections. Another important committee is that 
on Classification and Quotation. It shall inquire 
and report as to the standard of other principal mar¬ 
kets, and provide and keep on exhibition a sample of 
the standard of such markets. It shall keep on 
exhibition standards of this market, and supply them 
sealed to the members of the Cotton Exchange. 

It shall further be the duty of this committee to 
furnish daily quotations of the different grade of cot¬ 
ton, based on the standards of this market adopted by 
this Exchange, which are to be posted prominently in 
the Exchange rooms. 

In order to protect members from the tricks and 
tricksters of the trade, there is also a Committee on 
Credits, whose duty it is to take cognizance of all 
violations of commercial integrity, honor and good 
faith, represented to them by members of the Exchange 
whether such charges are made against cotton factors, 
cotton buyers or brokers of the city ot New Orleans, 
or against merchants and planters in the country. 






































THE NEW OKLEANS COTTON EXCHANGE. 


509 


This Committee keeps in a book prepared for that 
purpose a record of all such charges as may be made, 
alphabetically arranged, which book shall at all times 
be open to the members of this Exchange. 

It will thus be seen that this Cotton Exchange is an 


institution, where in a great measure, what is for the 
good of any is made the good of all, and thereby the 
old unsystematic way of doing business is superseded, 
false information absolutely a thing of the past, and 
fair, honest dealing, made a requisite even for the 



THE NEW ORLEANS COTTON EXCHANGE. 


dealings of outsiders with members of this Exchange. 

“Mr. Hester, who are entitled to membership in 
this Cotton Exchange ?” 

“ Let me answer that by directing your attention to 
our Constitution. 


CONDITIONS OF MEMBERSHIP. 

Section I—All persons who are principals are permanently engaged 
and of good standing in the cotton trade of New Orleans, and also any 
person who has the exclusive management and control of the cotton 
business of any house of good standing in the cotton trade of New 
Orleans, may he elected members of this Association. 

Section 2—A card of admission as visiting members to the Exchange 



























































































































































510 


THE NEW ORLEANS COTTON EXCHANGE. 


room* may be issued to any person not engaged in the cotton trade, on 
the recommendation of the Committee on Membership and the approval 
of the Board of Directors, upon the payment by such person of the 
regular dues of the Exchange. 

ADMISSION OF MEMBERS. 

Applicants for membership shall be balloted for, after beimg recom¬ 
mended by the maiority of the Board of Directors. 

“ Now if you will please turn to 

APPLICATIONS FOR MEMBERSHIP, 
you will find the requirements before balloting, viz: 

All applications for membership must be made to the Committee on 
Membership, and such as are recommended by the committee shall be 
submitted to the Board of Directors, and such as are recommended by 
the Board of Directors shall be posted at the general meeting room of 
the Exchange for ten days before being balloted for, with notice of the 
time at wliicn 6uch balloting shall take place. 

The balloting shall be at the general Exchange rooms, and election 
day shall be every Wednesday. 

Each elector shall cast one ballot—if in favor of the candidate, the 
word “ Yes,” if against, the word ‘‘No ” written or printed thereon. 

Three-fourths (XI of the whole number of votes cast shall be required 
in favor of applicants, to entitle them to membership. 

No name after being rejected, shall be again proposed within six 
months after such rejection, except upon the written application of fifty 
members in good standing, and in case of a second rejection, said name 
cannot be proposed within twelve months of such rejection. 

Each member shall, within ten days after receiving notice of his 
election, sign the constitution, and pay to the Treasurer the initiation 
fee and the annual dues as provided by the Constitution. 

INITIATION FEE AND ANNUAL SUBSCRIPTION. 

The initiation fee shall be one hundred (100) dollars, and the annual 
dues one hundred (100) dollars, payable between the first and twenty- 
fifth days of November; and no member whose dues are not paid by the 
latter date shall be entitled to admission to the Exchange rooms until 
same shall have been paid in full, and any member who shall have 
failed t* pay his dues for the space of one year, shall forfeit his 
membership, and can only regain admission by going through the 
same course, and paying the same initiation fees and dues as are 
now or may hereafter be prescribed in cases of new members; provided 
further, that any person elected a member of the Exchange after the 
first of March shall pay his subscription at the rate of ten (10) dollars per 
month for the unexpired portion of the year. 

DUTIES OF MEMBERS. 

Every member upon signing the constitution pledges himself to 
abide by the same, and also by the by-laws, rules and regulations of the 
Exchange. 

“Mr. Hester, your provisions as to admissions seem 
very stringent in guarding against improper members, 
but suppose an unruly member is within your fold, 
what means have you of discipline ?” 

“As long as a member conforms to the rules and 
requirements of the Exchange, there is, of course, no 
difficulty, but should he violate the constitution, 
by-laws, or rules, be guilty of fraudulent breach of 
contract or any proceeding inconsistent with the rules 
of trade, or of any other misconduct, on complaint, he 
is summoned before the Committee on Membership 
and heard in his own defense. If, in the opinion of 
the Committee the complaint is substantiated, it is 
then laid before the full Board of Directors, and by a 
vote of not less than two-thirds of the members 


present, he is suspended or expelled, as the case may 
demand. 

“ So you perceive, we deal strenuously with any evil¬ 
doer, while giving him the advantage of two defenses.” 

Finding that the secretary was becoming pressed 
with the day’s business, we left him, after having been 
granted the full freedom of the Exchange, promising 
to call on him again. Rejoining our friend who had 
strolled to another part of the hall, and who was 
watching the movements of a group of men who were 
gesticulating and vociferating at times, as though for 
their lives, we said to him: 

“ That, I suppose is your cotton gambling.” 

“No sir,” said our friend, rather decidedly. “We 
do not gamble in cotton on this Exchange.” 

“But those men are buying and selling for future 
delivery, are they not ?” 

“ Certainly,” said he of the Cresent City, “ they are 
dealing in futures, and this is our future department.” 

We answered that we should judge so, from the 
noise, and then requested our friend to explain in 
detail the operations of the ‘future department,’ and to 
show us that a ‘ future ’ contract was not gambling, 
but a legitimate and honest business transaction. 

“ Well,” rejoined our friend, “I am a firm believer 
in the legitimacy of our futures, and will gladly come 
to their defense, but in the outset, you must not con¬ 
found our ‘future’ with the ‘puts,’ ‘calls’ or 
‘straddles’ of the New York Stock Exchange, or your 
Chicago grain market. We utterly reject those terms 
and all they imply. Now if you will turn in the 
pamphlet Mr. Hester gave you, to Rule 18, you will 
see it reads: 

All contracts for the future delivery of cotton shall be binding upon 
members, and of full force and effect until the quantity and qualities of 
cotton specified in such contracts shall have been delivered, and the 
price specified in said contracts shall have been paid. 

Nor shall any contract be entered into with any stipulation or under¬ 
standing between parties at the time of making such contracts, as speci¬ 
fied in Rule 1 are not to be fulfiUed.'and the cotton received and delivered 
in accordance with said Rule. 

“ Now is that plain English ?” 

We were obliged to admit that it was, and that the 
meaning of Rule 18 could hardly be mistaken or mis¬ 
construed. 

“ Now,” said our friend, “ let us look at Rule I, and 
there you have our form of contract.” 

FORM OF CONTRACT. 

The contract for the future delivery of cotton shall 
be in the form as appears on the following page of 
reading matter. 





























INTERIOR VIEW OF THE NEW ORLEANS COTTON EXCHANGE 


if 



































































































































































































































































































































512 


THE NEW ORLEANS COTTON EXCHANGE. 




“Now look here,” continued the wide-awake man 
of the Futures, “you see this form of contract is 
obligatory, and no deals will be noticed or enforced, 
or in any manner recognized by the Exchange which 
are not in this form. Then again, all contracts are 
for 50 bales, and such large lot transactions in cotton 
in bales, precludes irresponsible persons without any 
capital from dabbling in the speculation. This contract 
is subject to all the rules and conditions of the Ex¬ 
change, one of which as you have seen, makes delivery 


of the cotton obligatory on the seller, and absolutely 
prohibits any stipulation or even understanding that 
the cotton is not to be received, accepted and 
delivered.” 

“Now,” said our friend, referring to the form of 
contract, “ is that strong enough ?” 

We answered that the contract seemed to be suffi¬ 
cient, but that we were still in doubt as to whether 
the cotton was actually delivered. 

“As to that,” said our guide, “let me explain to 


FORM OF CONTRACT. 


■ A A -A A A -A A ^A- A A A AAA 










New Orleans ,_ 188 . 

Bought for 21. . 

of 21 .:.. 45,000 lbs. in about One 

Hundred Square Bales Cotton, growth of the United States, deliverable from Press or Presses 

in the Port of Hew Orleans, between the first, and last day of. . 

next inclusive. The delivery within such time to be at the seller's option, in lots of not less than 
fifty bales, ujpon five days’ notice to buyers. 

The Cotton to be of any grade from Strict Ordinary to Fair, inclusive, and if Stained, 
not below good Ordinary, at the price of. ... cents per pound for Mid¬ 

dling, with additions or deductions for other grades, according to the quotation of the New 
Orleans Cotton Exchange, existing on the sixth (6 ) day previous to the day on which the delivery 
is due. 

Either party to have the right to call for a margin as the variations of the market for 
like deliveries may warrant. And which margin shall be kept good. 

This Contract is made in view of and in all respects subject to the rules and conditions established by the New Orleans 
Cotton Exchange. 


Signed. 


Per. 


> 




you that five days’ notice is usually given of delivery, 
and that where the cotton itself or a transferable 
notice, which Ave shall take up presently, is not 
delivered on or before 12 noon of the day before 
the cotton is due, the cotton shall be settled for 
at the average quotation for spot cotton for the 
day the cotton is due with the addition of i“c per 
pound against the defaulting party. But no defaulting 
party can claim settlement under the rule except upon 
evidence that the default was unintentional and not 
premeditated. 


“When no notice is given the party so delivering 
shall present a transferable notice before 10 A. M. of 
the business day next before that of delivery. All 
transfers must be provided for regular five day transfer¬ 
able notice, and the party with whom it may lodge at 
3 P. M. of that day must present it to the drawer 
thereof before 4 P. M. and receive a press order for the 
cotton.” 

TRANSFERABLE NOTICES. 

“When notice of delivery on part of seller (or 
demand of cotton by a buyer, when he has option so 


















































THE NEW ORLEANS COTTON EXCHANGE 


to do) is required by a contract, it shall be given by 
the party furnishing the cotton in the one case (and by 


subsequent party, and it may be given from 


|»V V w 


the buyer in the other case) to the party requiring 
said notice before 10 A. M. of the fifth day, prior to 
the delivery. 

“The party reciving the notice may transfer the same 


one transferrer to another. All notices must be for 
45,000 pounds of cotton.” 

If this notice is transferred, it is done in writing 
in accordance with the Form of Transfer as shown 
on this page. 


TRANSFERABLE NOTICE. 


..«z. cdrcd. Qfyut (fj'udcunAj ./d 5 cf r 

Sc- ^'cdrt ^dmHd $ 

(l/izdc -rbHcce idtzl e-'n . tue- Adizdd tdedd-el yuit 

fbut-brbdA crb tzdvzzl u-rbe dtbrbtdled Ayucble dcidsA Oddldrb urb ubccc-ldtzrbce tu eld idd 

'dlmiA 6^cziA cbunlfazcl Attd d ytru-j dizletd. . tzl. . c&nd fbeA fbcnz'Tbtd. 

(fddfdedyc «z ulAedLeA d de-duel uldel d ide- dzAl dcddel tf- idtA -rbbbdce tfizm 

fbi^Ae^nda-Iui'rb f Ida Acrntb d uA deltue&tb ide- d&uAA eyd . run d Qfy 

e- eded cjd dde, . v deer by /de e/eey fiAe-utc-uA d idctP ejd </e du e ly. 

(0de cullurb tA d de lecezved eetbd dedd dy /de druid tic-cfblaA dclec.yf eiA cuA-Iudbcurb 
ful uA; etoAuAed ful w-dtunt d may cc^rbceAm^ ebnzd 4-tedyec/ d eruA eldeA; tended tee etie 
yeddet/! dde letd . ee^nd fueA ybc-tertd. 

Q / {2snt'd' Hfld.) 

COIsHDITIOIsrS: 

In consideration of one (1) dollar paid to each of the acceptors, receipt of which is hereby acknowledged, it is agreed 

that the last acceptor hereof will between the hours of 11 A. M. and 12 M. o’clock on the day preceding the.present 

the within notice to John Jones & Co., receive the press order for the Cotton therein named, and on the following day receive 
the cotton and hold the same as custodian and agent for the said John Jones & Co., insured for whom it may concern and 

subject to their order, until they are paid the full amount of.cents per pound, and tt> settle with them on the basis 

of Middling, with allowance for variation of grade in accordance with quotations of the New Orleans Cotton Exchange, 
existing on the sixth day previous to the day on which the delivery is due. 

It is further agreed that each acceptor hereon shall continue his (or their) liability to each other for the fulfillment of 
the contracts until this notice shall have been returned to John Jones & Co., and a Press Order specifying the cotton to be 
delivered, received by the last acceptor hereof from John Jones & Co., at which time all responsibilities of intermediate 
parties shall cease. „ _ 

1 JOHN SMITH & CO. 


If tendered by the drawer before 10 A. M. on the fifth 
day before delivery of cotton is due, or if tendered by 


transfer at short notice before 11 A. M. of the dav before 

*/ 

the delivery of cotton is due, this transfer shall be ac- 


FORM OF TRANSFER. 


r wy w www 


New Orleans _ 


_ 188 


r 'V r ' 1 H 


o'clock. 

Messrs. J. SMITH & CO.: 

We accept the above with all its conditions a?id 
obligations, and you will please take notice, that in accordance therewith, 
we shall deliver you 45,000 pounds in about one hundred square bales Cot¬ 
ton on account of our contract sale to you, dated. . The Cotton 

to be paid for at the price of transferable notice. 

JOHN SMITH & CO. 

y 

1 Jh A A A A A -Jlr -A A A 1^ A A A: Ac Ar -A A A A A A- wy ^ 






























































514 


THE NEW ORLEANS COTTON EXCHANGE. 


cepted by any member of the Exchange to whom cotton 
is due under any contract. The next thing for consid¬ 
eration is the form of Press Order, shown below. 

This is the form of order observed in all cases where 
cotton is delivered on contract for future delivery. 

“ These,” said our friend, “are our forms for con¬ 
tracts, notices and press orders for transacting the 
‘ future’ business in cotton. 

“As the business of buying and selling cotton is 
largely done by brokers or commission merchants, the 
Exchange have, as a further precaution against fraud 
or deception, fixed the form of the order which the 


principal must give to the broker, and every order 
given to a member of the New Orleans Cotton Exchange 
to buy or sell a contract for the future delivery of cot¬ 
ton, as agent or broker of the party given the order, 

must contain the following words: 

© 

Subject to the Rules and Regulations of the New Orleans Cotton 
Exchange, make for my account, and as often as canceled replace a con¬ 
tract for the sale (or purchase) of one hundred bales of cotton deliverable 
(or receivable) in September. 

“ Every verbal or other order which does not in terms 
follow the foregoing form are presumed to have been 
given in that form, unless an express agreement to the 
contrary be proven.” 


PRESS ORDER. 



“Now,” said our friend, “ let us see how these rules 
work. Suppose you wish to buy 100 bales of cotton 
say for next September’s use, either to manufacture, 
export, fill an order, hold for a rise, or to sell again. 

“As you are not a member of the Exchange, you 
seek a factor or commission merchant, who is duly a 
member, and you give him your order for, say 100 
bales of cotton, deliverable in September, in the terms 
stated above. 

“ If he does not go upon the Board, he acts through a 
broker to whom he lias given a duly executed power 
of attorney, which is filed with the superintendent, 
which binds the principal for all acts of his broker. 


“The broker executes his errand and you are, by the 
act of your factor, the possessor of 100 bales of cotton, 
say at 9^ per pound, as per the contract form, (given 
on a previous page). 

“ For this service you pay your factor a commission 
(fixed by the Exchange) of 12J cents per bale or 
$12.50 on a contract for 100 bales. If you were a 
resident of New Orleans, or a visiting member of the 
Exchange, this commission would be 6J cents a bale, 
and if a full member of the Exchange, it is 4J cents per 
bale. 

“ The party who sold the cotton to your factor or 
broker has the right to call for a deposit of a ‘ margin’ 























































THE NEW ORLEANS COTTON EXCHANGE. 


515 


of from one to five dollars per bale when the contract 
is signed, and your broker has the same right, and also 
to demand that either the funds of such margin or a 
certified check for that amount be deposited with the 
superintendent of the Exchange. This margin is to 
be kept good, hence should the market go up or cot¬ 
ton become more valuable than when you purchased, 
you will naturally ask your seller to deposit a margin 
or security to protect you from loss in case he fails to 
fulfill his contract. 

“On the other hand, should cotton decline, the party 
of whom you bought may ask you to deposit a mar¬ 
gin, so as to be sure you will not attempt to avoid 
your purchase, and leave 45,000 pounds of cotton on 
his hands with a declining market. 

“For these margins, certified checks, must be drawn 
to the order of any one of the banks, selected by the 
Board of Directors, said bank to be designated by the 
party calling. 

“And yet some people would call you a gambler for 
this transaction. Do you see the element of a wager 
so far ? You have made a bargain, signed the contract 
binding that bargain and dictating its provisions and 
terms. To make it ‘ more binding,’ as the dealers say, 
both parties to that bargain have deposited an original 
margin, as a pledge of future performance. As the 
market has moved up or down, each party has been 
called upon for another or additional margin so as to 
prevent any tendency to break the contract. 

“On the principle that prevention is better than 
cure, this deposit of margins is good, sound, healthy 
public policy, and I don’t see where so far the gam¬ 
bling element puts in an appearance.” 

“ But, my dear sir,” said a gentlemanly bystander, 
“ don’t you see that it is all gambling, from beginning 
to end ? Our friend who has just bought this cotton, 
believes he knows better than the other man, what 
spot cotton will sell for next September, hence he buys. 
The seller thinks cotton will not be worth the price, 
and hence he sells. It is a question of judgment of 
the future, and backing that judgment by money, and 
that is said to be the essence of gambling.” 

“So, then,” said our guide, “a man who backs his 
judgment of the future value of a commodity is a 
gambler, is he ? Why, then, do you buy your win¬ 
ter's supply of coal in August, and why make any 
provision for the future ? Why, that reduces the 
world to a simple question of to-day alone. Do your 
words mean that any dealing of any sort or kind where 
the element of uncertainty enters, is gambling, a wager 
upon future values, future demands, future supply, 


growth of city, state, or nation; change of fashion, 
style or idea, that forecasting all these, and investing 
accordingly, is gambling, forsooth ? Why, such a 
doctrine lacks every element of common sense, let alone 
business ken, and yet I am aware that that is why we 
men of ‘ Futures ’ are styled gamblers. We do have 
opinions—we do try to forecast future events, study 
future supplies and demands and all the questions that 
enter into that problem of future supply and demand; 
and when we have made up our minds, we act accord¬ 
ingly, and buy or sell cotton as we believe the market 
will go up or down.” 

Our mutual friend twinkled an eye at us, as lie 
replied. “ But my dear Cotton Future, you do not 
deal in actual cotton; why, look at your last annual 
report, and see how many times the future business 
exceeded that of spot cotton ? Look at this, 15,70(1,- 
400 bales sold for future delivery, and that on receipts 
at this point of only 1,373,175 bales, or over ten bales 
of futures to one bale of cotton actually here. Explain 
that, my worthy friend of the ‘Future,’ and tell us 
how dealing in such unsubstantial fancies is not 
wagering ?” 

Our cotton factor did not seem staggered by this at all. 
On the contrary, he smiled as he rejoined, “ Well, my 
worthy handler of the scalpel, when you graduated 
from the medical college, and hung out your shingle 
as a practitioner of the healing art, what did you 
calculate on ? Why, just this. Out of so many people 
a certain number are sure to be ill each year. Some 
years more and some less, but the average holds pretty 
true. Now, I will take my chance right here, when 
one doctor is getting old, and another unpopular, and 
so you wagered what—why, your whole life’s success 
on your skill in reading the future, and a future of 
long years at that, and now you decry me as a gambler 
for reading a future two, three or six months long, and 
ask me why our ‘ future business ’ is greater than our 
spot business. Have you ever seen our transferable 
notices, and have you never seen them transferred ? 
Our friend from the north is excusable, but I am 
ashamed of you. When you received a check as a fee, 
did you always go to the bank to cash it ? Not a bit 
of it. You paid it over to your long suffering grocer, 
or your wife’s milliner, with your indorsement. Your 
grocer probably paid it out to a wholesaler or 
jobber, and that $75 check represented just that 
amount of money multiplied several times over. It 
was not money, but it was a good enough substitute 
to buy sugar, meat, clothes, coal or anything else. 
So our ‘transferable notices’ are not cotton, but they 






































516 


THE NEW ORLEANS COTTON EXCHANGE. 


do represent cotton, and as the currency of this city is 
less by several hundred times than the business trans¬ 
acted, yet is the basis on which business commerce 
and manufacturing all rests by which it is done, so 
these transferable notices are the checks upon the Cot¬ 
ton Press bank, representing cotton there actually 
stored. That they pass from hand to hand in 
settlement of transactions is no more evidence of 
gambling than your check from your patient, paying 
as it did his, your and a dozen other debts, was a proof 
that all physicians are gamblers and their business 
wagering as to the fatality of disease.” 

To this our medical friend made no reply, except a 
wink of intelligence as he proceeded to wake up his 
Cotton Future friend on another tack. “ I grant you 
that all that is a nonsensical hue and cry, but do these 
transferable notices and press orders really mean 
actual cotton ?” 

“ Just as assuredly as that your prescription means 
an order for certain medicines at the drug store, do 
these notices and orders mean cotton at the cotton 
press.” 

“ Well, granting that, but suppose all those afloat 
here were presented to-day, would they be honored ? 
In other words, is there cotton enough in the city to 
fill them all ?” 

“More in proportion than of actual money in any 
bank in the city in the ratio of its deposits, and you 
know that were all the depositors in any bank to 
demand all their deposits in an hour, they could not 
get them. Besides some of our contracts are not due 
for a year. 

“I tell you the doctrine of futures enters into all 
business, colors all transactions, comes into our daily 
life and hourly talk. Why gentlemen, do you know 
how the ‘future’ trade originated?” 

"W e both expressed our deplorable ignorance, where¬ 
upon our friend proceeded: 

“In the great European wars, when England was 
the paymaster of all Europe as against France, and 
immense stores of provisions had to be provided for, 
the great contractors devised buying for future delivery. 
Storage room could not be found for their supplies 
for six months. Money could not be obtained in the 
sums necessary for supplies by the year. If it could 
have been obtained, the interest would have eaten 
their profits, and so grain, flour, clothing, etc., was 
bought on future delivery, to be paid for when 
delivered. At least this is as far back as I have traced 
it. And now think for a moment what an economy 
‘contracts for future delivery’ was in time, brain 


power, price of food, interest, storage, etc. 

“As manufacturing both cotton and woolen grew and 
developed in England, contract for future delivery was 
found to be essentially necessary. The manufacturer 
needs, say 6,000 bales of cotton a year. To buy that 
to-day would cost him about $275,000. Six months’ 
interest on that will be $11,000. Storage for six 
months will cost him several thousands more. Insur¬ 
ance for a year will add to its percentage, and watch¬ 
men, etc., all add to the cost, until about 16| per cent 
will be added to the present cost. Our manufacturer 
wants, say 500 bales per month, and he goes to his 
broker and places his orders for that amount each 
month at prices varying from 9.66c to 10.32c per 
pound. Now he is ready to sit down and tell the cost 
of his goods manufactured, and be ready to quote 
prices for the merchant who don’t want a year’s 
supply, but does want to know the chances of an 
upward or declining market. To have bought his 
year’s supply would have been ruinous to the manu¬ 
facturer and cost the consumer more for each yard of 
cotton, while to have depended upon buying 500 bales 
each month of spot cotton would have rendered life a 
burden from its uncertainties, and the impossibility of 
making prices or knowing cost of production of manu¬ 
factured goods, so as to answer the inquiry of a friendly 
retailer six parishes away. Or take the case of the 
English importer. What could he do without future 
delivery sales and contracts ? He has orders from a 
dozen large customers, some of them large manufact¬ 
urers. They depend on him to keep them supplied 
with cotton of good staple, in first rate condition and 
as cheaply as possible. Now, if the single manufact¬ 
urer was at a loss for storage, and found not an ample 
supply of money, and hence a dearer rate of interest, etc., 
how these hills swell into mountains before the 
great importer. His warehouses may be large, but 
not ample for even a month of his sales, his bank 
account may take six figures of £, and his credit be 
large in proportion, but it dwarfs besides a year’s 
requisition of his business. But here comes the future 
contract for delivery, and helps him out of his dilemma. 
In fact, I may say,gentlemen, that the cotton business 
could not be conducted without this branch of the 
trade.” 

“But,” said our mutual friend, “Does not the 
‘future business injure the business in spot cotton ?” 

“ Not at all, said our positive friend of the ‘ future.’ 

“ That result was predicted when we were starting the 
‘ future ’ department, but instead of that we have 
found that it really increased our spot business. At 



























THE NEW ORLEANS COTTON EXCHANGE. 


517 


that time New York had all our business in Futures, 
and not a little of our spot cotton followed the corre¬ 
spondence and acquaintance formed in the former busi¬ 
ness in that city. New York had prestige, the power 
and ability to handle promptly and skillfully contract 
orders of any magnitude. New Orleans had much to 
gain and not a few things to learn, as well as some to 
unlearn. Hence the first two years the work of 
inaugurating and building up this important branch 
of the New Orleans Cotton Exchange was exceedingly 
difficult. But the Future Market of New Orleans has 
ceased to be an experiment and is a verity. We have 
demonstrated our ability, not only to conduct 
the business promptly and satisfactorily as in any 
other market of the world, but we have facilities for 
the receipt and delivery of cotton on contract which 
no other city can supply. Our very system of Trans¬ 
ferable Orders augments the facilities with which 
trade may be conducted, as it saves large expenses in 
hauling. If you have looked at our rules at all care¬ 
fully, you have seen that the rules of this Exchange 
forbid false and fictitious sales, and renders the parties 
concerned in such deals liable to suspension and expul¬ 
sion. Our ‘future’ contracts bear precisely the same 
relation to the cotton trade, which bills of lading, 
warehouse orders, and warehouse receipts bear to 
ordinary mercantile transactions. Each contract repre¬ 
sents the right to actual delivery of the cotton; each 
transfer transmits the title and right of ownership in 
just so many bales of cotton. In the hands of the last 
holder, it is good for that amount of cotton, just as 
much as a warehouse receipt covers property stored. 

“You have a right to sell it just as much as a 
warehouse receipt covering 5,000 bushels of wheat. In 
the bargain which I supposed our Chicago friend had 
made, his 100 bales of September cotton had cost him 
a commission of $12.50 and an original margin of $5 
per bale or $500. At present $512.50 is the outlay at 
which he is under his contract entitled some day next 
September to a Transferable Notice and a Press Order 
or 100 bales middling cotton, at 9.85c a pound. 

“ The notice and press order will procure you the 
cotton as certainly as you present them. 

“ If you have bought for a raise and find in Septem¬ 
ber that cotton (middling) is worth 10.50 cents per 
pound, you can sell your 100 bales at that price, trans¬ 
fer your notice and press order, and your profits will be 
$292.50 less your commission of 12b cents per bale, or 
$12.50, leaving you $280 as net profit. Twice handling 
of the cotton have thus been saved, and yet both your 
purchase and sale of cotton actually in existence have 


been as complete as though you handled the cotton 
with your own hands.” 

FAILURES. 

“ In case a member of the Exchange fails to carry out 
his contract from inability to meet financial obligations, 
or becomes insolvent, it is his duty to immediately 
notify the secretary of the Exchange by letter of the 
fact. This letter is then posted up on a bulletin in 
the Exchange Hall, where it may be seen by all mem¬ 
bers, and remains for five days, this being considered 
sufficient notice to the members of the Exchange of 
the fact of the failure, and operates to close all out¬ 
standing contracts with the insolvent member at once. 
No receipt or delivery, or transfer of contracts can be 
made by the failing member with any other member 
of the Exchange after the notice has been posted, until 
a full and satisfactory settlement has been made 
between the insolvent and his creditors. All contracts 
which the insolvent may be a party to at the time of 
his failure, shall be liquidated and settled at the 
average quotations of like contracts on the day the 
notice of failure was posted, unless the letter was near 
the time of closing the Exchange (within one hour from 
closing), in which case the settlements shall be made 
on the basis of the average settlements for the next 
day. 

‘ ‘ Any member of the Exchange who may hold a 
claim or contract against a member who has given 
notice of his failure, has the right to demand an inves¬ 
tigation of the affairs of the alleged failing member by 
the Supervisory Committee; and if the committee 
shall be of opinion and shall report to the Board of 
Directors that the member is able to meet and pay all 
his contracts and liabilities at maturity, he shall be 
debarred from the privilege of settlement under the 
provisions of the rules for settlement. 

“In case a member who is really insolvent and inca¬ 
pable of fulfilling his contracts and performing his 
obligations with other members of the Exchange fails 
to give due notice to the secretary of the Exchange by 
letter as before explained, then on his failure to meet 
any contract or obligation, the party to whom such 
contract or obligation is due, and who is injured by 
such default, is expected to give the necessary notice 
to the secretary, who records it in a book called 
‘Record of Failures,’ which is at all times open to the 
inspection of members, and this record is considered 
notice to them of the failure. If the member as affiove 
explained, does not give the secretary prompt notice 
of the default of a failing member, he is himself subject 





























THE NEW ORLEANS COTTON EXCHANGE. 


to the discipline of the Exchange, lie forfeits all 
rights under the contract to enforce the sale of the 
shares of stock in the Exchange, held by the default¬ 
ing member, and besides is liable to be suspended from 
the rights of membership in the Exchange for one 
year. And no claim or contract is considered settled 
with the failed member except by cash payment or 
actual delivery of the property. 

“This arrangement makes it absolutely necessary, as 
well as for the party of the second part, to promptly 
report all failures to fulfill contracts. As soon as 
such failure is reported to the secretary, and the 
record made in his ‘Record of Failures,’ he delivers a 
copy to the SupervisoryCommittee,who examine into the 
truth or fallacy of the charge, and if a failure is clearly 
proven, they instruct the secretary to post the usual 
notice on the bulletin. 

SETTLEMENTS. 

Within three days after a notice of failure has been 
posted, the secretary of the Exchange must notify the 
member who has failed as to all claims against him in 
the ‘ Record of Failures.’ 

If the failed member, or any of his creditors, disputes 
the correctness of any of the claims so recorded, the 
objecting member must within three days, file with 
the secretary written specifications of the grounds of 
his objections, and within three days more, the secre¬ 
tary must deliver the same with a copy of the disputed 
claim to the Arbitration Committee, who proceed to 
consider the same and hear testimony offered by both 
parties, and within ten days thereafter the committee 
must make, sign and file with the secretary an award 
or decision. 

The secretary then immediately records such ward in 
the ‘ Book of Decisions of the Arbitration Committee,’ 
and also at the same time sends by a special messenger 
a notice of such record to each interested party, speci¬ 
fying date and time of such recording, and in case no 
appeal is taken therefrom, the award is considered 
final and binding upon all the parties interested. 

If within five days after an award becomes final the 
failed member fails to pay the awarded claims, the 
Board of Directors declare his membership at an end, 
and orders his shares of stock to be sold. 

When the failure of any member of the Exchange has been posted by 
his own act or by direction of the Supervisory Committee, the said 
member shall within ten days send to the Supervisory Committee a 
statement of his affairs. It shall then he the duty of said committee to 
examine each statement, and they may in their discretion procure the 
services of an expert accountant and charge the expense attending his 
services to the estate of said member. 

If any member who has been posted shall omit to send to the Super¬ 
visory Committee within said ten days, the statement required by this 
Section, or if said committee on an Examination shall be of opinion that 



the said member has conducted his business in a reckless and unbusiness 
like manner, they shall report to the Board of Directors, who may by a 
two-third vote declare such failed member disqualified for reinstate- 
ment. 

But in case a member so failing has complied with the rules of the 
Exchange, and made honorable settlement with his creditors, or offered 
to pay them pro rata to the extent of his ability including the market 
value of his share of stock, he may within one year apply for reinstate¬ 
ment and by a two-third vote of the Directors be so reinstated. 

Failures on the Cotton Exchange, the same as fail¬ 
ures in any other speculative enterprise, come unex¬ 
pectedly, and to the most worthy members. Being 
on the wrong side of the market, is the only explanation 
for many failures, while others are clearly due to a 
reckless disregard of rules and precedents in trade, 
and trying to cover a larger deal than the capital of 
the speculator will warrant and justify. In case 
of a failure, the failing member is seldom able to settle 
at one hundred cents on the dollar, as the shrinkage 
and unavailability of his assets, and the embarrassments 
which are thrown around one who is announced as a 
failed member, are such as to make almost any dividend 
acceptable to creditors. As to honorable settlements 
the New Orleans Cotton Exchange boasts of the 
integrity of its membership, and seldom resorts to 
deception, chicanery or fraud, either in the routine 
of business or the settlement and adjustment of the 
estates of insolvents. 

WEATHER SUITABLE FOR DELIVERIES. 


If the weather is deemed unsuitable for the delivery 
of cotton by any party interested in a delivery on any 
day, the secretary of the Exchange, at his or their 
request obtains the opinion thereon of three mem¬ 
bers of the Exchange (not interested in deliveries on 
that day) and if a majority decide that the weather is 
unsuitable for the delivery of cotton, the secretary then 
posts their certificates on the bulletin of the Exchange, 
dating the time of posting, which shall remain posted 
until a majority of the three members shall decide the 
weather to be suitable, when it is then taken from the 
bulletin and filed away, noting the time of removal. 
During the time this certificate is posted on the bul¬ 
letin all deliveries of cotton may be suspended at the 
option of either party to any delivery, and any delivery 
suspended under this rule, shall be entitled to an exten¬ 
sion of time—two hours more than the time the 
certificate was posted. 

The secretary also gives a certified copy of the cer¬ 
tificate to any member requiring it, and this copy is 
considered a sufficient authority for the suspension 
and resumption of delivery of any lot of cotton by the 
parties to the delivery. 

































THE NEW ORLEANS COTTON EXCHANGE. 


519 


PRESS SUPERVISION AND LEVEE INSPECTION. 

Upon this important department of cotton com¬ 
merce, the New Orleans Cotton Exchange claims a 
record of which they feel justly proud. Press super¬ 
vision and levee inspection of cotton coming into New 
Orleans has been reduced to a system by the Cotton 
Exchange, which is considered as nearly perfect as 
it is possible for any system to be, and while it may 
not have accomplished all in levee inspection, and more 
especially levee protection outside the city of New 
Orleans, which it was hoped, or that it probably will 
accomplish, in the way of saving to owners of the cotton, 
yet it is such a great advance over the old system, or 
rather lack of system, with its annoyances and attend¬ 
ing pecuniary loss, that the Cotton Exchange is highly 
gratified, and proud of it. 

Said the assistant secretary of the Cotton Exchange : 

“What we propose to do, is to see that the planter 
or country dealer sending cotton to the market shall 
Jcnow ; that his cotton will be so taken care of that he 
shall suffer no loss beyond the necessary sampling. 
In other words, we propose to protect that cotton and 
every bale of it, from storm, mud, moisture and depre¬ 
dation. 

RULES FOR LEVEE INSPECTION. 

The Board of Directors shall elect annually a chief levee inspector 
and such number of assistants as they may deem necessary, who shall 
be employed by the month, and who shall hold their respective offices 
at the pleasure of the Board. 

The chief levee inspector shall be paid a salary of two hundred dol¬ 
lars per month, and shall be required to keep a horse at his own expense 
that he may be the better able to discharge his duties, and each levee 
assistant inspector shall receive a salary not exceeding one hundred 
dollars per month. 

The duties of the chief levee inspector and his assistants shall be to 
protect from theft all cotton on the levee, whether landed from steamers 
or railroads, in process of shipment, or in transit through the city, to see 
that cotton whilst being landed or in process of shipment, is properly 
cared for, protected from the weather and kept out of the mud, and they 
shaU perform such other duties as are imposed upon them, for the more 
effective protection of the cotton trade of this city. 

The chief levee inspector and his assistants shall keep a record of the 
weather, also of the condition in which cotton is delivered to the various 
vessels; they shall also keep a record of the condition in which cotton 
is taken on board, specifying whether the same was taken on board in a 
wet or in a dry condition, and if wet they shall specify whether the same 
was received wet or became so by being exposed to rain on the levee or 
being rolled through the mud. They shall make daily reports embody¬ 
ing all particulars, which reports shall be placed on tile, and shall be 
entered up in a book to be kept for that purpose by the Superintendent 
of the Exchange. 

They shall in all cases, where cotton is being taken on board in such 
condition as to render it liable to become damaged upon the voyage, or 
to damage other cotton by contact, notify the master of the vessel of 
impropriety and risk of taking cotton on board in such condition. 
They shall also report all cotton carried on deck by any vessel leaving 
the port. 

Steamers landing cotton on the levee beyond the wooden wharves, 
shall be required to place the same upon skids, so as to prevent its com¬ 
ing in contact with mud or water, and it shall be the duty of the chief 
levee inspector and of his assistants to report all violations of this rule. 

It shall be the duty of the chief levee inspector when a vessel clears 
at the custom-house to draw up a certificate setting forth the condition 
in which her cargo was taken on board, and it shall be the duty of the 
secretary of the Exchange to countersign such report, and to affix 


thereto the seal of the Exchange. 

The secretary shall forward such certificate to such person or asso¬ 
ciation at the port of destination, as the President or Board of Directors 
may direct. 

It shall also be the duty of the chief levee inspector to report all 
vessels whose masters refuse to furnish daily reports of cotton received, 
or who may refuse proper facilities to the levee inspectors for the per¬ 
formance of their duties, and the secretary of the Exchange shall post 
upon the Exchange boards the names of all vessels so reported; he shall 
also note all such cases upon the reports forwarded to the ports of desti¬ 
nation of such vessels. 

Any one forcibly interfering with the levee inspectors while in 
the discharge of their duties, shall be prosecuted according to law. 

In any case where cotton has been taken on board of a vessel, in 
a condition unfit for shipment, any shipper by said vessel shall receive, 
if he so requires, a special certificate from the Exchange setting forth 
the facts in the case, said certificate to be verified by oath or affirmation 
of the inspector in charge of said vessel. Shippers requiring special cer¬ 
tificates shall pay all expenses incurred under this rule. 

Each shipper of cotton shall on the first of each month pay to the 
treasurer of this Exchange one cent for each and every bale of cotton 
shipped by him during the preceding month. The amount so paid shall 
be kept by the treasurer as a fund out of which to defray all expenses 
incurred under the regulations for the protection of cotton upon the 
levee. 

Each shipper shall report monthly the number of bales of cotton 
received by him and shipped without being sent to presses, all such cot¬ 
ton being liable to the levee inspection assessment of one (1) cent per 
bale,” 


continued the assistant secretary of the Exchange : 

“ These are our rules as to levee inspection, and you 
Avill see how we rigidly guard the planter and ship¬ 
pers’ interest as to cotton on the levee or while being 
shipped, and even in foreign ports, assessing only one 
cent per bale in return. Now let me show you how our 
press supervision works, but prior to that, it will be 
well for you to understand fully the rules governing the 

SALE AND DELIVERY OF COTTON. 

All cotton shall be received within seven working- 
days from and after the day of sale, and if not received 
within that time, the seller shall have the right to 
demand payment of the approximate value of the cot¬ 
ton, and may, after giving due notice in writing to the 
buyer, proceed to have the cotton weighed, and to 
demand payment in accordance with such weights. 
In default of prompt payment, the seller shall then 
have the right to resell the cotton for account of the 
buyer. 

AS TO PAYMENT. 

All cotton shall be paid for upon presentation of the 
broker’s invoice, and the broker shall deliver the same 
upon the day the delivery is completed, if practicable; 
at farthest by two o’clock P. M. on the day following. 

REJECTIONS. 

The buyer shall have the right to reject all seedy or 
falsely packed or mixed packed or re-baled cotton, 
unless it has been sold as such; also any cotton lower 





































520 


THE NEW ORLEANS COTTON EXCHANGE. 


in grade than the lowest grade represented in the 
seller’s samples. 

No other cotton shall be rejected when equal in 
quality to the sample by which it has been sold, it the 
sample has been fairly exhibited. 

Since September 1, 1879, all flax bagging filled 
with shives, and all other bagging, which when wet 
stains cotton, are considered unmerchantable, and all 
cotton covered therewith must be re-covered with mer¬ 
chantable bagging at the expense of the seller. 

When cotton of various grades has been sold at a 
uniform price, and the rejections are above the average 
grade of the list, the factor shall make good to the 
buyer the difference in value between the rejected 
bales and the average of the list, and where rejections 
are below the average of the list, the buyer shall, in 
like manner, make good the difference in value to the 
seller. All such differences to be determined by the 
original samples of the seller. 

Any bale of cotton weighing less than three hundred 
pounds is deemed unmerchantable, and may be rejected 
by the buyer. 

BANDING, AND CONDITION. 

Six iron bands or ropes, not exceeding in weight 
twelve pounds in the aggregate, are allowed and con¬ 
sidered sufficient for each bale of cotton. Any excess, 
must, at the option of the buyer, be removed from the 
bale and deducted from the gross weight. If a bale has 
less than six bands, allowance must be made to the 
seller, the bands to be put on by the press at the 
expense of the seller. 

All sales of cotton unless otherwise provided for at 
the time of sale, shall be deemed to have been made un¬ 
der a guaranty of its being in a merchantable condition, 
and in good order for immediate shipment. Buyers 
shall have the right to reject any cotton delivered in 
bad order or in a damaged condition, unless it can be 
put-in order upon the day the delivery of the list shall 
be completed, provided the vessel to which it is 
ordered is to sail that day; in other cases it maybe 
delivered within the two following days. 

DELIVERY, AND PRESS ROOM INSPECTION. 

The delivery of cotton shall be considered as com¬ 
pleted when it passes the scales, but the seller still has 
an insurable interest in it until paid for. 

In like manner where payments on account are made 
by the buyer prior to actual delivery, he is deemed 
to have an insurable interest in the cotton, and may 
require from the seller an assignment of his policy 


of insurance to the extent of such payments. 

When cotton is to be inspected in the press room, it 
shall be the duty of the inspectors to be present at the 
time of compressing, provided he or the buyer’s classer 
shall have been notified of the time at which the cot¬ 
ton would be compressed. In case of his absence, the 
owner or manager of the press shall be authorized to 
employ an inspector at a cost not exceeding five cents 
per bale, to be paid by the buyer. 

INFRINGEMENT CASES. 

Members of the Exchange when purchasing cotton 
from or selling cotton to parties who arc not members 
must stipulate that such purchase or sale shall be 
governed by the rules of the Exchange, including those 
relating to supervision and inspection. 

Brokers when purchasing for parties who are not mem¬ 
bers of the Exchange, must in each instance inform the 
seller of that fact, and also give the name of the buyer. 
In event of this rule not being observed the broker 
shall be held responsible under the rules, for any 
infringment thereof that may occur. 

It is the duty of the chief supervisor to report all 
infringements of this rule to the committee on super¬ 
vision, who refers such cases to the committee on 
membership. 

GOVERNING WEIGHERS. 

The seller’s weigher is not allowed to weigh any cot¬ 
ton for delivery without the presence of the buyers’ 
re-weigher, unless he shall first have given notice to 
the buyer’s re-weigher, or to the buyer’s classer of his 
readiness to weigh the same at a time which he shall 
specify; should the buyer’s re-weigher fail to be 
present at the time specified in said notice, a further 
delay of two hours shall be allowed, at the expiration 
of which time the seller’s weigher may proceed with 
the weighing of the cotton without the presence of 

the buyer’s re-weigher. 

' —- 

In all cases where wet or damp cotton is tend¬ 
ered for delivery and the weigher and re-weigher 
agree as to the proper allowance to be made for the 
same, the buyer’s re-weigher shall have the right to 
demand that such cotton shall not be weighed until it 
becomes dry. 

The chief supervisor shall test the weigher’s scales, 
whenever in his own opinion it shall be necessary to 
do so. 

All bacrrino- not absolutelv necessary to cover and 
protect the contents of the bales in a proper manner, 

shall be deemed unnecessary, and shall be removed 

*/ ' 


d 




































THE NEW ORLEANS COTTON EXCHANGE. 


521 


from the bales before they are weighed, or a fair and 
equitable deduction shall be made tor the weight of 
such bagging; and all such unnecessary bagging when 
removed to be the property of the seller. The usual 
side pieces, which should each consist of no more than 
a single half width of bagging, running the length of 
the bale, will not be considered unnecessary bagging. 

Two pounds per bale tare shall be allowed for sal¬ 
vage. 

FRAUDULENT PACKS, AND CLAIMS. 

After cotton has been examined, received and passed 
upon by the broker or other agent or the buyer, no 
claim shall be made upon the seller except for fraudu¬ 
lent or false packing, and the allowance provided for 
in Rule 28. 

Falsely or fraudently packed cotton shall be defined 
as follows—such bales as may contain any foreign sub¬ 
stances, water packed bales, or bales containing damaged 
cotton in the interior without any indication of such 
damage on the exterior of the bale; also such bales 
as are plated, i. e., composed of good cotton upon the 
exterior and decidedly inferior cotton in the interior of 
the bales in such manner as not to be detected with¬ 
out opening the same. 

When claims are made, they shall be in writing, 
giving the shipping marks or numbers, also the plant¬ 
er’s and all other legible marks, and a separate certifi¬ 
cate shall be given for each bale, except where two or 
more bales bear the same planter’s marks. The certifi¬ 
cate shall also state the particulars of the fraudulent 
or false packing, and shall be verified by oath or affir¬ 
mation. 

All claims made out in conformity with the forego¬ 
ing regulations shall be deemed jprima facia valid in 
favor of the claimant, and can only be defeated by a 
decision of the committee on arbitration or of the 
Board of Appeals of this Exchange. 

Cotton bought and held here, if found to be falsely 
or fraudulently packed, shall be returned within 100 
days from date of sale to the seller, who shall pay for 
the same by the weight, and at the market value of 
cotton of the grade shown by the original sample hole, 
at the time it shall be so returned. 

“You see by these rules how closely and stringently 
this Exchange guards all transactions of its members, 
and the care taken to make this market, one of abso¬ 
lutely square, honest dealing. You also see a little 
of the labor imposed upon the assistant superintendent 
and chief supervisor. But this you will sec more 
clearly from the rules concerning press supervision. 


You have doubtless noticed the large yards occupied 
by our compress companies for storage of baled and 
and loose cotton, and also for facilitating the handling 
of cotton in the amounts sold in this market. We are 
now ready to take up the subject of 

PRESS SUPERVISION. 

The Board of Directors elect annually during the 
month of October, a chief supervisor and such number 
of assistants as they may deem necessary, to be 
employed by the month, and who hold their respective 
offices at the pleasure of the Board. 

The president of the Exchange is also allowed to 
make temporary appointments and suspensions. 

It is the duty of the chief supervisor to visit all the 
presses, to overlook his assistants, and exercise such 
supervision over matters relating to the cotton trade 
as may be necessary; he must report all infractions of 
the rules and regulations of the Exchange to the presi¬ 
dent, and perform such other duties as may be required 
of him by these regulations or by a resolution of the 
Board. He is required to keep a horse, that he may 
be the better able to discharge the duties assigned to 
him. 

Under the direction of the committee on supervision 
he makes all assignments of the assistant supervisors 
for duty at the various presses, and transfers such assist¬ 
ants from place to place whenever the committee 
deem such changes are necessary. He reports at each 
monthly meeting of the board the quantity of loose 
cotton made in and the numbers of bales received and 
delivered by each press. 

The assistant supervisors must see that all loose cotton 
is gathered up and weighed and must then make a daily 
report to the chief supervisor of the quantity weighed 
and stored at each press. They must also weigh all 
samples carried away by the factors’, samplers’ and 
brokers’ classers, giving a certificate in each case, if 
required, and keeping a record of the same, showing 
all details. They are to see that all regulations 
established by the Exchange are properly enforced, 
and must report all infractions of the same to the 
chief supervisor. 

SALARIES AND WEIGHT OF SAMPLES. 

The chief supervisor is paid a salary of four hundred 
dollars per month, which includes the expense attend¬ 
ing the keeping of his horse. Each assistant supervisor 
is paid a salary not exceeding one hundred dollars per 
month. 

The weight of samples taken out by the factor’s 


\ 


































522 


THE NEW ORLEANS COTTON EXCHANGE. 


sampler must not exceed six ounces per bale, and such 
samples must not be removed from the press until 
weighed by the assistant supervisor, who shall keep a 
record of the weight of same, and if required by the 
factor, shall furnish a certificate of this weight to the 
sampler. 

The weight of samples taken out by the broker’s 
classer must not exceed six ounces per bale, and such 
samples must not be removed from the press until 
weighed by the assistant supervisor, who shall keep a 
record of the weight of same, and if required, shall 
furnish the classer with a certificate stating the weight. 
Cutting of bands on bales for the purpose of sam¬ 
pling is prohibited, and the six ounces allowed for a 
sample from each bale, must be drawn in one sample. 

The buyer’s inspector must exhibit a certificate show¬ 
ing his authority to inspect the cotton, and must also 
replace all cotton taken from the bales in boring and 
inspecting. Should he fail to do so, it is gathered up, 
weighed and stored with the other loose cotton, but 
in no event shall it be removed from the press. 

LOOSE COTTON. 

All top samples and other loose cotton necessarily 
taken from the bales by the seller’s sampler or 
the broker’s classer, and all other loose cotton 
gathered up in the presses, shall be weighed and 
stored in the press, and the supervisor shall report any 
sampler, classer or any other person who may make 
more loose cotton than is necessary. 

It is also the duty of the chief or assistant super¬ 
visors to report to the buyer or broker any classer 
who takes his samples to a junk shop, or any other 
shop or store, before taking them to the office of the 
buyer or broker. 

The chief and assistant supervisors shall have sole 
charge of all loose cotton of whatever description, 
made in the presses, to be kept by them until there is 
a sufficient quantity to make one or more bales, when 
they shall have it baled up at such place as the owner 
or owners thereof may designate. 

After being baled up, it shall be returned to the 
press and stored, subject to the order of the owner or 
owners thereof. 

All such cotton shall be weighed before leaving the 
press to be baled up, and shall be re-weighed when 
returned to the press. 

Any buyer requiring loose cotton for the purpose 
of making up types, shall deliver to the supervisor an 
order signed by himself or his regularly constituted 
attorney. He will then be allowed to take from the 


bales after they shall have been weighed, the quantity 
required. The supervisor shall weigh the cotton so 
taken and report the same to the buyer. 

SUPERVISION FEE. 

Each party storing cotton, shall, on the first of each 
month, pay four cents per bale on all cotton received 
and stored by him during the preceding month, the 
amounts so paid to be kept by the treasurer as a fund 
out of which to pay all expenses of supervision, includ¬ 
ing the cost of labor forgathering up the loose cotton. 
All ship marked, small numbered, or other cotton 
sampled for resale in the market, shall, upon resale, 
pay the regular supervision fee of four cents per bale. 
All forwarding cotton sampled in presses shall be sub¬ 
ject to this rule. When cotton delivered in a press by 
planter’s marks is hauled to another press and there 
sampled, it shall, on supervision, be subject to an 
additional charge of two cents per bale, or one-half of 
the regular supervision fee, provided that should the 
owner or owners thereof turn over to the Exchange 
the loose made from such cotton, no such additional 
charge for supervision shall be made. 

The chief of the supervision department shall report 
direct to the chairman of the committee on supervision, 
upon all matters connected with his department out¬ 
side of his regular duties. 

In all cases of deliveries of cotton on Sunday, factors 
shall be required to pay the extra expenses for super¬ 
vision and gathering loose, occasioned thereby. 

The presses shall furnish free of charge suitable 
storage room for loose cotton, and shall render such 
aid and assistance as may be necessary to enable the 
supervisors to perform the duties assigned them. 

It shall be the duty of the owners and managers of 
presses to report to the President of the Exchange all 
such violations of these rules and regulations as shall 
come under their personal observation. 

COMMISSIONS AND BROKERAGE 

The following is established as the regular tariff of 
commissions and brokerage for buying and selling in 
the New Orleans Cotton Exchange, in the absence of 
any specific contract: 

Commission for buying, - 2| per cent. 

Commission for selling, - 2} per cent. 

The above rates apply to all purchases or sales of 
cotton on the spar or to arrive. 

“You now have,” said the assistant secretary, “the 
rules we have found it necessary to adopt. For their 
practical working let me refer you to the report of the 


d 
































THE NEW ORLEANS COTTON EXCHANGE. 


supervision committee, which reads as follows: 

“ The annual report of the Chief Supervisor shows that the loose cot¬ 
ton made from samples, trimmings, waste and by cotton pickeries from 
damaged bales, and from all sources except the re-ginning the seed by 
the oil mills, is less than seven-tenths of one per cent, the average of 
factor’s and buyer’s samples being five ounces per bale.” 

“ These are significant facts, indicating as they do, 
that while not stinting in the requirements necessary 
to a fair and proper exhibition of cotton for sale or the 
examination thereof when purchased, it is the custom 
of the trade of this port to give to cotton a more care¬ 
ful handling compared with its character and bulk 
than is afforded in many markets to other articles of 
merchandise. 

The organization of the two systems of supervision 
and levee inspection is such that New Orleans can 
warrant full protection to cotton received here in 
good order from the time of its arrival until it is finally 
shipped abroad, and it now needs but the co-operation 
of those most interested, the planters and country mer¬ 
chants, to see that their merchandise is properly pro¬ 
tected and cared for until it is placed in the hands of 
the factors. 

Our presses handle during the year over one million 
bales in the way of receipts, and a like amount in 
deliveries. As the supervision covers both receipt and 
delivery, the work of the department equals a single 



supervision of over two and a quarter million bales. The 
business of the inspection department embraces in a 
single year the inspection of nearly one million and a 
half bales, including the cargoes of nearly five hundred 
vessels to foreign and coastwise ports. One of the 
most gratifying, as well as prominent results of levee 
inspection, is the almost total absence of complaints 
from abroad, of country damage to cotton shipped 
from and via New Orleans. Few masters of vessels 
will now allow shipments to be taken abroad concern¬ 
ing which there is the slighest doubt. 

Furthermore, it has grown almost into a custom for 
any dispute or difference relative to the condition of 
such cotton, especially when it is for account of our 
local shippers, to refer the matter to the chief of the 
levee inspection department.” 

Such, in brief, is the method of handling the great 

cotton interests of the south, at the central market of 

¥ 

the cotton fields, located in the city, which has been 
long the acknowledged metropolis of the southern 
states—New Orleans. For the characteristic courtesy 
of New Orleans business men the authors acknowledge 
their indebtedness to the extent of a large portion of 
the facts contained in this chapter, on that great and 
growing institution, the New Orleans Cotton Exchange. 



































THE UNION STOCK YARDS OF CHICAGO. 




Situated as the capital of the rich empire 
VS of the great west, and being the natural 
U receiving and shipping point for the pro¬ 
ducts of this vast domain, Chicago can not 
only, in her Board of Trade, boast of the 
greatest grain market on this continent, but 
in the Union Stock Yards, she may also 


boast of the greatest live stock market in 
the world. Considering the millions of cap¬ 
ital involved in the enormous live stock 
interests in this country, from the fields of 
northern Dakota to the plains of 
Texas, including the states such as 
Iowa, Illinois and Missouri, where 
the farmer divides his attention 
between the production of the 
cereals and the raising of stock 
for the market; and considering 
that all this vast country 
with its “cattle 
upon a thousand 
hills” and plains, 
is tributary to a 
large extent to the 
Chicago market, and 
naturally flows thither 


as it changes hands from the raiser, and we may 
imagine, in an imperfect way, the enormity of the live 
stock trade at this great center. 

Situated just beyond the corporate limits of the city 
of Chicago, and covering a space of 350 acres with 
pens, sheds and buildings for the receipt, handling and 
shipment of the vast hordes of each day; giving 
employment, directly and indirectly to over thirty 
thousand persons, and being the center of a city of its 
own creation and support, with stores, hotel, bank, and 
daily newspaper, the Union Stock Yards is a place of 
no small interest to even the most indifferent or casual 
observer. 

During the year 1882, the aggregate value of the 
live stock received at this great market, approached 
very nearly two hundred millions of dollars, averag¬ 
ing over six hundred thousand dollars per day. 
Almost all the states and territories, west, southwest 
and northwest contribute their quota to make up this 
vast aggregate. The corn fed stock comes principally 
from Illinois, Iowa, Missouri, Kansas, Nebraska, Min¬ 
nesota and Wisconsin; the grass cattle, from Texas, 
Kansas, Colorado, Montana, Wyoming, Utah, Oregon, 
and even the British possessions send in their quota to 
swell the great volume of business. 

All of the numerous railroads centering into Chicago 
have branch tracks provided, connecting with the 
Union Stock Yards, for delivering or receiving of live 
stock to or from the market. 


... 



—®; l1r 

l t*l_ 

eT 


AND THE LIVE 


STOCK TRADE. 







































































































THE UNION STOCK YARDS OF CHICAGO. 


525 


ORGANIZATION AND GROWTH. 

The “Union Stock Yards and Transit Company” is 
the name of the incorporated company which owns 
and controls this vast property and business. The 
charter was granted the company by the legislature of 
Illinois on February 13, 1865, and the original capital 
stock of the company was placed at $1,000,000, divided 
into shares of $100 each. Previous to the establish¬ 
ment of the Union Stock Yards, the live stock trade 
of Chicago had been carried on at various places, in 
yards located at different points about the city, thus 
scattering the trade and causing great inconvenience to 
shippers and buyers, as well as to the railroads in 
receiving and delivering stock. The object in consoli¬ 
dating the yards and cen¬ 
tralizing the live stock 
business, Avas to give the 
railroads greater facilities 
for unloading their cars of 
cattle, hogs and sheep, 
brought from the various 
points of the interior, and 
to those lines shipping 
east, better advantages for 
handling their trade, and 
by having the live stock 
all in one location, own¬ 
ers and buyers would be 
brought nearer together 
and the benefits of a large 
market accrue to all alike. 

At the head of the cor¬ 
poration of the Union 


Stock Yards, stands the 
president, John B. Sher¬ 
man, a man of great exec¬ 
utive ability and enterprise, and it is due largely to his 
powerful mind, that the Union Stock Yards has grown 
to be the great and busy mart that it now is. Offi¬ 
cered with a complete and competent corps of men, 
from president, vice-president, secretary and treasurer, 
down to the yard men and feeders, the organization of 
the company is as perfect as that of a regiment of 
soldiers, each man having duties to perform and being 
held to a strict accountability for their performance. 
The company assumes the payment of the freight due 
to the various railroads as they bring in their consign¬ 
ments of stock; attends to the care, feeding and count¬ 
ing of the stock from the time it is unloaded from the 
cars, and does the weighing when sold. For all this 
a large force of men is required, and a thorough 


system and organization is necessary, and these are not 
found wanting. 

The growth of the Union Stock Yards from its 
establishment in 1865 until the present time, has been 
marvelous and almost beyond comprehension. In 
1866, the first year after the establishment of the 
yards, the receipts of cattle amounted to 393,007 head, 
while in the year 1882 the receipts of cattle alone 
aggregated 1,582,530 head, an excess over the receipts 
of 1866 by 1,189,523. The number of hogs received 
in 1866 were 1,696,738, but in 1882 the number had 
grown to the enormous figure of 5,817,504, in the 
short space of seventeen years. The value of the live 
stock received in 1882 amounted to nearly five times 

that of 1866. 

Making due allowance 
for the growth and devel¬ 
opment of the western 
country tributary to this 
market, and for the conse¬ 
quent increased production 
of live stock, it is still 
true that the Chicago live 
stock market has been a 
great drawing and central¬ 
izing force, building up 
its enormous business from 
year to year by attracting 
to it, the products which 
in times past flowed into 
other channels. As the 
attention of capitalists has 
been drawn toward in¬ 
vesting money in live 
stock raising on the great 
plains and prairies of the 
west, for the past few years as never before, we may 
confidently predict that this great market has not yet 
reached its culminating point of magnitude. 

THE YARDS. 

The construction of the great Union Stock Yards 
was begun in June, 1865, and they were thrown open 
for the transaction of business on the 25th of the fol¬ 
lowing December. The capacity of the yards is suffi¬ 
cient to receive and dispose of 25,000 head of cattle 
daily, besides 100,000 head of hogs, 25,000 sheep, and 
stabling for 1,500 horses, making a total capacity for 
over 150,000 head. In addition to this there are about 
300 shutes and pens for the transferring of stock to 
and from the cars, with numerous barns for the storage 



GRAND ENTRANCE TO THE YARDS. 



































































































526 


THE UNION STOCK YARDS OF CHICAGO. 


of hay and corn. There are, in the yards, thirty-two 
miles of under drainage, eight miles of streets and 
alleys, four miles of water troughs in the various pens, 
ten miles of feed troughs, 2,300 gates, 1,500 open stock 
pens for cattle, and 800 covered pens for hogs and 
sheep. Many of the principal streets and thorough¬ 
fares through the yards are paved with stone or 
Macadam, and the other streets and alleys with cinders 
and gravel, while the pens and yards are bottomed with 
three-inch plank, rendering them clean and dry from 
the under sewerage. There are fifty miles of switch 
and side tracks in and about the yards for the accom¬ 
modation of the different railroad lines in bringing in 
the stock, and transferring it to the various packing 
houses, or loading and shipping it to the eastern sea¬ 
board. Fifteen 
hundred cars of 
live stock can be 
unloaded and ta¬ 
ken care of daily 
at the yards. 

There are five 
artesian wells on 
the premises, 
which supply an 
abundance of good 
water, and this is 
carried by means 
of underground 
pipes throughout 
the yards, into 
every pen. There 
are hydrants scat¬ 
tered all over the 
yards, for use in 
case of fire, there being thousands of feet of hose pipe 
constantly on hand for any emergency. A police force 
is constantly on duty throughout the premises to pre¬ 
serve order and protect property. The yards are 
opened at six o’clock in the morning and the gates are 
closed at six o’clock in the evening, after which time 
no one, except the regular watchman and those having 
passes, are allowed to enter. 

The yards are divided into sections or divisions, and 
these are designated by letters of the alphabet , such as 
“ Div. A,” “ Div. C,” or “ Div. D.” These divisions 
are divided into blocks numbered from 1 to 30, more 
or less; these blocks embrace all the pens in the 
division, whether for yarding cattle, hogs or sheep, and 
the pens in each block are numbered from 1 to 30 or 
40, as the case may be, so that any pen in the whole 


area of hundreds of acres can be located at once, first 
by the division, then by the number of the block, and 
then the number of the pen. Over each division is a 
superintendent and yard master, under whom is placed 
the necessary working force for yarding, feeding, 
weighing, etc. This force of men numbers about seven 
hundred in all, and the monthly pay-roll of the com¬ 
pany foots up to about $36,000. 

In addition to the divisions before explained, there 
are several shipping departments for the accommodation 
of the through railway lines that ship live stock of all 
kinds from the Union Stock Yards to the different 
Atlantic seaboard markets. Eight roads have shutes 
in these departments for loading cattle, hogs and 
sheep for shipment east, and a sufficient number of 

blocks and pens 
are provided in 
near proximity to 
the shutes to ac¬ 
commodate all the 
stock that may be 
delayed tempora- 
rily for want of 
cars, or for other 
reason. Outside of 
the Stock Yards 
proper there is 
the department 
for dead animals, 
a large number of 
these being hand¬ 
led in the course 
of each year. 
These are all 
promptly loaded 
on cars, and are taken to the Union Rendering estab¬ 
lishment, which is situated well out in the country, a 
number of miles east of the stock yards. 

A large proportion of the cattle arrivals during the 
season of warm weather are Texan—rough, flat-ribbed, 
long-legged, Spanish-looking subjects, narrow in the 
back, open in the loin, often of a yellow color, with 
immense horns, weighing alive or “on the hoof,” 900 
to 1200 ibs. each. These cattle are all branded perma¬ 
nently and deeply, the brand being made with a hot 
iron, when the animal is a calf, and sometimes repeated 
annually. This mode of branding is a system adopted 
years ago, as a means of identifying animals straying 
widely over the prairies. The bulk of these cattle are 
reared on the great plains and ranches of western 
Texas, and driven thence up through Arkansas and 



A STAMPEDE CF TEXAS CATTLE. 




















































THE UNION STOCK YARDS OF CHICAGO. 


527 


the Indian Nation to Colorado, where after months of 
good feeding, they are forwarded to Chicago, for a 
market, by the Union or Southern Pacific railroads. 

THE COMPANY. 

Standing as a supervising and regulating head over 
the immense establishment is the company, or corpora¬ 
tion of W? Union Stock Yards. This company, own¬ 
ing as it does the vast property, prescribes the rules, 
and is the executive and directing force in the market. 
Should stock be shipped into the market which is not 
consigned 'v any commission firm, the Stock Yards 
company assumes control of it upon its arrival, sees 
that it is properly sold, and remits the proceeds to the 
shipper, wherever he may be. The Union Stock 
Yards company assumes and promptly pays all freight 
charges to the different railroads that bring stock, pro¬ 
vided that the same is in good fair condition when it 
reaches the stock yards. The live stock commission 
men, who now sell about all the stock that arrives at 
the stock yards, never expect to settle these charges 
until after the stock is finally disposed of, and it often 
happens that pretty large lots of stock may have to 
remain in the stock yards several days before it can be 
sold, so that the Union Stock Yards company is all the 
time heavily in advance to the country shippers for 
freight and other charges against the live stock brought 
in. It takes from $200,000 to $300,000 a week to pay 
charges of this kind to all the different railways that 
bring stock from the country to the Union Stock 
Yards. As much as $100,000 has been paid to the 
Chicago, Burlington and Quincy railroad company in 
a single week for freight, etc., on stock that this single 
road has brought in. 

The company keeps complete and extensive records of 
the receipts and shipments of stock, and is thus able 
to furnish any statistical lhformation which shippers 
and dealers, or others interested, may desire. 

THE EXCHANGE BUILDING. 

As one approaches the Union Stock Yards, he sees 
first, the large five-story brick hotel, known as the 
Transit House, built and owned by the Stock Yards 
company, and patronized chiefly by those interested in 
tie business at the yards, and by drovers and shippers. 
Further on, and just after passing the grand entrance 
to the yards, situated near the center of the vast field 
of pens and yards, looms up the Exchange Building. 
This is a brick structure 60 feet wide and 240 feet long, 
two stories high, and is located within the yards in 
order to be convenient and easy of access by those who 


transact business thereabout. The Exchange building 
was constructed with all possible care to accommodate 
stock men and the live stock interests. Here the ship¬ 
pers, packers, commission men and buyers meet, and 
within this building a vast volume of business is trans¬ 
acted every day. In this building, the raiser or ship¬ 
per of stock from Dakota, Kansas or Texas, meets, 
through the medium of the commission merchant, the 
buyer representing the eastern cities or Europe. In this 
building the checks and drafts are drawn which transfer 
the title of almost a million dollars of live stock, from 
one party to the other every day. Telegraph offices 
located in the building furnish reports of the condition 
of the grain and live stock markets at various points 
of the country, together with any other information 
which would tend to modify or fluctuate the market. 
Bulletins are posted up, furnishing the hourly market 
reports and daily receipts and shipments, and tele¬ 
grams from the Board of Trade in the city are posted 
here shewing the conditions of the grain market. 

In the Exchange building the commission men and also 
the buyers all have their offices. Here are also the offices 
of the superintendent, secretary and treasurer of the 
company, and its general business office for clerks and 
book-keepers, about a dozen men being employed con¬ 
stantly in the latter capacity, to record all the transac¬ 
tions of the vast business centering here, which the 
company exercises an oversight and supervision 
throughout, and is responsible for. The eastern and 
western live stock freight collections for all the rail¬ 
roads, are settled here, as well as the yard and feed 
charges, which annually foot up into the millions. 
There is also in the building, a restaurant and a barber 
shop. In a wing or annex to the building is the 
National bank, which supplies the funds to carry on 
this gigantic enterprise. 

THE COMMISSION MEN. 

A necessary element in the machine work of the live 
stock trade is the commission man. He is to the ship¬ 
per what the attorney is to his client—a counsel, advo¬ 
cate, and experienced and skillful agent. Without the 
commission man, the shipper would be at the mercy of 
sharks and sharpers who would take every advantage 
of his inexperience and ignorance in the market, and 
would impose upon him by all manner of tricks and 
devices, so that he would verily believe that he had 
fallen into the hands of the Philistines. The result of 
this would be the destruction of the market, and it 
may then be said that the commission man is essential 
to the live stock trade. To him all live stock is con- 
































THE UNION STOCK YARDS OF CHICAGO. 


signed by the shipper, and the disposition of it is a 
matter of his judgment, skill and honor. It is essen¬ 
tial to the shipper that he place his property thus in 
the hands of only an honorable and trustworthy com¬ 
mission firm, who will secure him every advantage in 
the market, and make prompt and reliable returns. It 
is also essential in many cases that the commission 
merchant have ample capital at his command, and is 
prepared to make advances to the shipper of perhaps 
one-half or two-thirds the value of the cattle before 
they are sold. The buyer in the country market, after 
having shipped a consignment of stock to his commis¬ 
sion merchant in Chicago, may thus, by getting an 
advance of a portion of the value of his shipment, be 
enabled to continue his purchases without interruption. 
Considering that 


the large commis¬ 
sion firms who 
have numerous 
buyers in various 
parts of the coun¬ 
try, may be ad¬ 
vancing money to 
many of them at 
the same time, 
the amount of 
floating capital or 
actual cash re¬ 
quired to conduct 
a large commis¬ 
sion business is 
considerable, and 
easily runs into 
the hundreds of 
thousands. 


intrude their hydra heads into this live stock market. 

The “bulls” and “bears” are there, however, as 
they are and must be in every market, although not 
always denominated by those names. The commission 
man is always the “ bull,” for it is his business to toss 
the market, stiffen prices, and get the best figure for 
the stock of his consignor that is possible. On the 
other hand, the buyers are always “bears,” and are 
always aiming to depress values and buy at the lowest 
price possible, for the packers or eastern markets 
which they represent. These two opposing forces 
meet daily, and although not in excited or violent 
combat or vociferation, as on the Board of Trade, yet 



the 


bargainings 


and bickerings are all gone through 


with, which finally result in a trade. 



THE EXCHANGE BUILDING. 



There are over seventy-five commission firms in the 
Chicago live stock market, all having their offices in 
the Exchange building. These firms are each under 
bonds to the Union Stock Yards company in large 
amounts, something like $25,000, for the safe and 
proper performance of all obligations and the settle¬ 
ment of all items, such as freight, yardage and feed 
bills, to the Stock Yards company. Each commission 
firm employs one or more helpers for duty about the 
yards in handling stock, and these added to the force of 
700 yard men employed by the company, make nearly 
1,000 men scattered throughout pens, streets and alleys. 

There is, among the legitimate commission men, no 
such thing as speculation. No “ longs,” “ shorts” or 
straddles,” and no buying or selling for future deliv¬ 
ery. No “margins,” no “puts” or “calls” ever 


gard to what the stock brings. 


The receipts or 
arrivals of stock 
are disposed of 
each day, unless 
for sufficient rea¬ 
son an} r portion 
may be held over 
until the next 
morning, in an¬ 
ticipation of a 
more favorable 
market. The 
stock is sold on 
its merits, at the 
market price for 
the day, and the 
commission man 
receives his com¬ 
pensation for sell¬ 
ing without re- 


among 


There is, consequently, 
the careful and well established commission 
firms, no such thing as the “gigantic failures,” which 
characterize speculation. The commission man per¬ 
forms his service and receives his compensation, 
together with any advances, freight, etc., which he 
may have made, and is thus always on the safe side. 

THE BUYERS. 

There are a large number of live stock buyers em¬ 
ployed regularly at the stock yards. All the heavy 
packing establishments employ buyers to purchase 
their hogs for them, and all the shippers of hogs do 
the same; all the heavy cattle dealers have their buyers / 
employed to make their purchases, the parties that uA 
slaughter cattle and ship beef in the carcass, and the 























































































THE UNION STOCK YARDS OF CHICAGO. 


529 


canners have their buyers. Some heavy eastern estab¬ 
lishments have sheep buyers employed to purchase 
sheep for them through a large portion of each year. 
These buyers all make a specialty of buying one par- 
tibular class of stock, especially in the cattle depart¬ 
ment. The cattle bought for shipment in carcass, for 
export, or for canning, are each entirely different, one 
from the other, in grade and quality. As a common 
rule, the city butchers buy their own stock, cattle, 
hogs and sheep, and there are a large number of them 
in daily attendance for the purpose. There are all the 
time a large number of transient buyers at the stock 
yards generally for the purpose of purchasing stock 
cattle or feeders. The great bulk of those engaged as 
buyers are resident, and these buyers, taken all 
together, bear a most important part in the daily 
working of the whole general business of the Union 
Stock Yards. The commission men sometimes receive 
orders to buy for persons or firms at a distance, but 
this is not common. There is also in the market a 
class of speculators who buy and sell for the purpose 
of profiting by the rise in the market. These specu¬ 
lators have their offices in the Exchange building, pay 
cash for what they buy, and sell when and where they 
can obtain the best price. They buy largely, crippled 
animals, which they sell “ on the street,” or to the 
resident butchers to be slaughtered at once. In case 
they see a bargain in Texas steers or fat cattle, or are 
inclined to believe the market to-morrow will be better 
than to-day, they seize the opportunity, buy the lot, 
and hold it until the next day, when the animals are 
sold and slaughtered or shipped eastward. 

The demands in the east usually control the Chicago 
market, and cause its fluctuations. The buyers receive 
their instructions from the establishments for which 
they buy, as to what they shall pay for stock, each day, 
and it is the business of the commission merchant and 
sellers to obtain the best price they can. 

THE BANK. 

Where so much business is transacted, and so much 
value passing constantly from buyers to sellers, it 
became necessary at the first to establish a banking 
institution for the safe depositing of capital within 
easy and ready access when wanted. The business at 
the stock yards is largely done by checks, compara¬ 
tively little actual money being used. This is a great 
convenience to the dealers, besides being much safer. 
The freight, yardage and feed bills are paid by the 
commission firm’s check; the buyer gives his check for 
the stock, and the commission man draws his check to 


the shipper for the proceeds after deducting his com¬ 
mission, and advances, or if the shipper is not in attend¬ 
ance with the stock in the market, the commission man 
draws his check for the proceeds of the sale and with 
it buys a draft at the bank, which he remits to the 
shipper wherever he may be. 

The aggregate operations of the Union Stock Yards 
National Bank average about $800,000 daily, but under 
certain conditions the business of the bank has 
amounted to $1,000,000 in a day. This bank was 
brought into existence as a necessity for facilitating 
the general live stock business of the Union Stock 
Yards, and it constantly keeps a large amount of money 
employed in doing this. To give an instance which 
will illustrate the matter, a drover reaches the stock 
yards on a given day with ten or twenty car loads of 
hogs, consigned to some commission firm, who sells 
them upon arrival to one of the large packing firms. 
A ticket is obtained from the office of the Union Stock 
Yards company showing that all freight and other 
charges have been settled upon such hogs, and the bank 
promptly advances the amount due from the packer for 
such stock, and the drover receives his pay at once and 
leaves for home, while the bank gets its check for the 
advance made from the city office of the packer, in one 
or two days, as the case may be, and the same kind of 
rule holds with some of the heavier kind of transac¬ 
tions in the cattle trade. The bank also facilitates the 
shipment of live stock from the Union Stock Yards to 
the different eastern markets by discounting drafts 
drawn against it, for which interest and discount is 
charged. The Union Stock Yards company keeps 
about $250,000 regularly employed in paying to the 
different railroads freight and other charges on stock 
that is constantly arriving at the stock yards, and this 
amount lies in the Union Stock Yards National Bank 
on deposit, subject to check. 

The bank also proves a great and valuable agent for 
collecting drafts drawn by country buyers against their 
commission merchant. Thus, for instance, a buyer in 
Indiana, Iowa, or the far west, having purchased a cer¬ 
tain number of car loads of cattle, or hogs, loads them 
on board the cars, and consigns them to the commission 
firm of Jones & Brown, for sale at the Union Stock 
Yards of Chicago. The shipper then receives a Railroad 
Receipt or Bill of Lading from the station agent at the 
place of shipment, stating that so many cars of cattle 
or hogs have been received by him, and consigned to 
the commission firm of Jones & Brown, for account of 
the shipper, and to his order. The shipper now draws 
a sight draft on Jones & Brown for one-half to three- 






























530 


THE UNION STOCK YARDS OF CHICAGO. 


fourths the value of the stock shipped, and attaches to 
this his Bill of Lading, properly indorsed over to his 
country bank. The bank readily advances the money 
on the draft, taking the Bill of Lading as security. 
This arrangement gives the bank or holder of the Bill 
of Lading, when consigned to the order of the shipper, 
and by him properly indorsed, absolute control of the 
property until the draft is paid. The draft, with its 
Bill of Lading attached, is forwarded to Chicago, and 
reaches the Union Stock Yards National Bank, which 
collects it from Jones & Brown, and charges a certain 
fee for doing the business. 

DAILY ROUTINE. 

Each railroad has its particular place and track from 
which to unload or load the live stock it brings or 
receives, and beside the track is provided a platform 
long enough to accommodate the longest stock train, 
while numerous schutes open to receive the pent-up 
animals from the cars. Arrived at its platform the 
yard master of the division takes the shipping bills 
from the conductor, and with his helpers unloads the 
train and yards the stock, keeping in record a strict 
official account of all the stock taken from each car, 
the number of the car, the number of the schutes into 
which it was unloaded, and the number of block and 
pen in which it was yarded, the name of the owner and 
of the consignee. 

When the commission man is ready to put a con¬ 
signment of stock on the market he looks for the kind 
of a buyer that deals regularly in the kind and quality 
of stock he has to offer; if he has export cattle—the 
best quality the market ever affords—he looks up the 
buyers of export cattle and works among them until 
he effects a sale; if he has cattle suitable for slaughter¬ 
ing and shipping in the carcass, he works among the 
buyers who make a specialty of buying this kind of 
cattle, and the same as to canning, common butcher¬ 
ing, or stock cattle. The same is true in regard to the 
selling of hogs and sheep; there are shipping hogs, 
packing hogs and bacon hogs, each being a separate 
grade. Sheep are generally of two grades, shipping 
and common butchering. 

As soon as a sale of stock has been effected by the 
commission merchant, it is driven on the scales and 
counted and weighed to the purchaser, by the weigh- 
master employed for the purpose by the Stock Yards 
company. The weighman then issues a ticket to the 
commisssion firm selling the stock. This ticket fixes 
the quantity as an element in the sale, and upon it are 
based the calculations which eventually result in draw¬ 


ing the checks. This ticket is really the only written 
contract, or evidence of a contract, between seller and 
buyer, and on the back of the ticket is written down 
the price, by the commission man, and a computation 
is made of the total transaction. The following is a 
form of the ticket: 

All Stock is held subject to Freight and Charges. 

DIVISIOW C. 

Marlin pros. 

John Smith. 

. 76 .Cattle,.Lbs. 

.Hogs, . “ 

..._..Sheep, “ 

Late,. 9-13, 188.L 

.. J.m.m, Weigh Master. 

Meager as the written evidences of the transaction 
are, they are usually sufficient for all purposes among 
the commission merchants and the buyers, who are 
personally known to each other. It is regarded as 
damaging to the reputation of a buyer or seller to 
“ back out’’ of a trade that has been once fairly made, 
although verbal. 

“ What do you ask for these cattle?” 

“ Five and a quarter.” 

“ All right, I’ll take them.” 

This constitutes the only language necessary to a sale 
of thousands of dollars worth of stock. But if, after 
looking the pen over again with only a few moments 
intervening, the buyer should say, “ I won’t take 
them,” he has damaged his standing and reputation 
throughout the yards, and this course persisted in, 
finally ends in routing him from the market. 

After the seller receives the weighman’s ticket, he 
sends it to the office of the Stock Yards company, and 
from them receives a duplicate, in the following form: 

Union Stock Yard and Transit Co. 

. 9-13, 188 3. 

. Marti To John Smith. 

76 Cattle, 85,210 

Hogs, 

Sheep, 

No Charges. GEO. T. WILLIAMS, Secretary. 

tper Roath. 








































THE UNION STOCK YARDS OF CHICAGO. 


531 


On the back of this duplicate scale ticket he figures 
up the amount of the sale, and then delivers the ticket 
to the other party to the contract—the buyer—who in 
turn draws his check for the amount of the deal. 

Upon receiving the check of the buyer, the commis¬ 
sion firm which sells the stock, issues an order on the 
Union Stock Yards company for its delivery, and by 
this, it passes out of the possession of the seller into 
that of the purchaser. The following is the form of 
the order: 


GO 

O 

DC 

CD 


I— 
DC 
< 


Chicago, . 9 - 13 , / 880 - 

To Union Stock Yard and Transit Co. 

Please deliver to . 

. 70 . Callle , . Hogs, . Sheep, 

Block . 1 7. ., Pen, J () Division 4._, Scale . 

MARTIN BROS. 

Per Jas. Henery. 


The commission merchant then proceeds to make up 
his accounts. He sends to the office of the Stock 
Yards company and ascertains the freight, yardage and 
feed bill incurred on the stock just sold, and with these 
items, he makes out for his country shipper, an Account 
Sales, giving all the particulars of the transaction, as 
in the form below. 

In case any advances have been made to the shipper 
on account of the stock before it was received, the 
amount will appear on the Account Sales opposite 
“ Cash advances,” and this, together with the charges 
for freight, yardage, etc., will be deducted from the 
total sale, leaving the balance due the shipper. On 
the books of the commission merchant, some of his 
shippers keep an open account, and draw drafts against 
the shipment before it reaches the market. These 
drafts usually come in one or two days in advance of 
the stock, and are paid and charged up to the account 
of the shipper. When the stock has been sold, the 


FORM OF AN ACCOUNT SALES. 



JOHN H. MARTIN, 
L. T. MARTIN. 


Union Stock Yards. 

.. J S’t? S ~. 


* t 


MARTIN 

Live Stock Commission Brokers, 


EXCHANGE BUILDING. 




CAR NOS. 


12876 

2472 

4873 

15261 


NO. 


76 


STOCK. 


Cattle. 


WEIGHT. 


85210 


OFF. 


PRICE. 


5.00 


AMOUNT. 


4260 


50 


CHARGES: 

Cash Advances. 

Freight, (including feed on road), 

Yardage,. 

Hay,. 

Commission,.. 


E. &. 0. E. 


Net Proceeds, 


260 

19 

6 

38 


50 


4260 


323 


3937 


50 


50 


00 































































































BIRD’S-EYE VIEW OF THE UNION STOCK YARDS OF CHICAGO. 























































































































































































































































































































































































THE UNION STOCK YARDS OF CHICAGO. 


533 


residue, after deducting the “ cash advances,” charges, 
etc., is carried to the credit of the shipper, subject to 
his future drafts. Shippers having an open account 
usually keep a balance with their commission mer¬ 
chants to their credit, to cover any loss which may 
occur from a decline in the market, and an unfortu¬ 
nate sale. 

In case no advances are made, or no account is kept, 
and the shipper is not in the market himself, he usually 
instructs his commission merchant how to remit the 
net proceeds of the sale. This may be by mailing a 
check, by forwarding New York exchange, or by send¬ 
ing the currency by express, at the risk and expense 
of the shipper. 

The commission merchants settle usually twice a 
week with the Union Stock Yards company for all 
dues, such as freight advanced, yardage, feed, etc., by 
passing over a check for the amount. 

CHARGES. 

The charges by the commission men for selling, are 
fifty cents per head for cattle, and six dollars per car 
for hogs and sheep. There are from forty to sixty head 
of hogs in a car load, and eighteen to twenty head of 
cattle. All cattle, sheep and hogs are sold by live 
weight; from one to a score or more are driven on to 
the scales. The seller usually tries to get his stock fed 
and watered first. Officers of the Society for the Pre¬ 
vention of Cruelty to Animals are constantly in attend¬ 
ance to report upon and prevent cases of cruelty or 
neglect. 

The stock yards charges are twenty-five cents per 
head for cattle, and eight cents for hogs and sheep as 
yardage, and this is always the same, no matter 
whether the stock is sold in an hour after its arrival or 
remains in the yards a month. This includes the 
watering of the stock. The feed is an extra charge, 
and from the famine prices demanded, one would think 
we lived in the Egypt of olden times. The price for 
hay is fixed at twenty-five dollars per ton, and for ear 
corn one dollar per bushel. During the short crop 
years of 1881 and 1882, the price of ear corn at these 
yards was one dollar and twenty-five cents per bushel. 
The Stock Yards company supplies all the feed to the 
stock at all times, and, in fact, has a monopoly on it, 
and allows no feed used except such as is supplied from 
the barns and cribs of the corporation. No wonder 
the shares of stock of this soulless corporation have 
sold at enormous premiums, and doubtful if they can 
be had in the market even then. 


ABOUT CATTLE. 

The quality of the stock cattle, hogs and sheep that 
reaches the stock yards varies, of course, from the 
highest to the lowest grades, and there is a considera¬ 
ble amount of stock all the time arriving that ought 
to be prohibited from sale in any consuming market for 
sanitary reasons alone; there is also a large amount of 
stock of all kinds received as good in quality as could 
be found in the world. 

Adjacent to these stock yards there are four large 
establishments where, in each, upward of a thousand 
cattle are killed and dressed daily. Carcasses, sides or 
quarters, are distributed to the retail butchers of the 
city and vicinity. The canning and packing establish¬ 
ments take 700 to 1,000 carcasses, and several refrig¬ 
erator car loads are despatched daily to New York, 
Boston and intermediate places. Every week, about 
1,000 carcasses are forwarded to England by steamers 
from Boston and New York, being sent in cloths in the 
winter season, and in refrigerator cars and chambers 
on board ship in the summer; and so carefully cooled 
and managed is this Chicago slaughtered meat, that it 
is eaten in Liverpool, Manchester and London a fort¬ 
night later in as good condition as that killed only a 
day or two previously in those cities. For the different 
departments of the trade, various animals are used; 
only the superior grades, weighing, when hung up, 700 
to 750 lbs., are sent to the seaboard and across the 
ocean. For the canning business, four-year-old Texan 
and Colorado bullocks, weighing net 450 to 500 ft>s., 
are chiefly used. The price per lb. of the dressed car¬ 
casses is about double that given for the live animal. 

Communicating with a large yard, where the cattle 
are herded, is a series of ten pens, into each of which 
a couple of bullocks are driven. From a platform 
overhead, the operator dextrously drops his pole, 
armed with a steel blade, which severs the spinal cord 
just between the first and second vertebra; the first 
thrust almost invariably takes effect; the animal drops 
dead instantly. The quivering movements seen have 
been ignorantly supposed to evidence suffering, but are 
purely involuntary muscular movements. So soon as 
flie victim drops, he is fixed by the horns to a revolv¬ 
ing chain passing along the floor, worked by an engine, 
set in motion by the movement of a lever, and dragging 
the carcass out of the slaughtering pen some twenty 
feet to the great shed, where he is dressed. The large 
vessels of the neck are cut to allow thorough bleeding; 
the horns are promptly removed by a circular saw, 
worked by the engine and set in motion as required by 
a spring on the floor; the hide is taken off; the trees 




























534 


THE UNION STOCK YARDS OF CHICAGO. 


are applied in the usual manner and the carcass strung 
up. Eighteen cattle are killed and dressed in fifteen 
minutes. Seventy-five are sometimes turned into the 
cooling chambers in an hour. Without laborious lift- 
ing or any heavy manual labor, the carcasses from the 
sheds where they are dressed, are swung along on 
wheels running on stout iron rods overhead, and ranged 
in the cooling chamber. 

The tongues are forwarded to the packing houses for 
preserving; the internal organs, carefully cleaned, are 
converted into sausage casings; the tallow is assorted, 
the best of it goes for oleomargarine, the second quali¬ 
ties are rendered into barrels for soap and candle 
making; in several large vats, heads, bones and offal 
are digested and made into fertilizers; the blood is 
preserved for the same purpose; the hides find buyers 
close by, who are ready to take them green from the 
block, doing the curing and trimming themselves; the 
discount claimed for all branded hides is about ten per 
cent. So promptly is everything done, so handy are 
the arrangements, so systematic the supervision, that 
the killing and dressing is profitably done at less than 
fifty cents per head. 

The beef canning business has grown to large dimen¬ 
sions in this market within the last ten years, and great 
amounts of meat are shipped to Europe in this manner. 
In some of these immense establishments from 90,000 
to 100,000 lbs. of cooked beef are turned out daily, the 
sizes of the cans being uniform—two, four, six and 
fourteen lbs each, nearly one-half being of the smallest 
size. About fifteen machines are at work, cutting and 
blocking the tins, which are nearly square in form. 

All bone and gristle are removed; two lbs. of beef 
cut from the carcass are required to yield one lb. of 
canned meat; a large quantity is also put up for mar¬ 
ket as corned beef. It is partially cooked in baths, of 
which about 100 are usually in operation, each holding 
six barrels of beef. In suitable pieces it is transferred 
to the tin cans, which are wheeled to another set of 
baths, in which they remain from three to seven hours, 
and are gradually cooked without any loss of the 
natural juices or aroma. Air escapes through a punct¬ 
ure in the lid. Removed from the baths, a dozen men 
are constantly occupied soldering this aperture in the 
tin. A cleaning machine and several alkaline baths 
effectually cleans the cans from grease and economize 
the labor of about 500 girls, by whom the cans are 
labeled and packed. Samples are taken daily into the 
test room, and examination made for leakage, or for 
evidences of imperfect keeping. 

The canned corned beef is in large demand. The 


fourteen lb. packages are chiefly taken by retail gro¬ 
cers, restaurants and hotels. The hams are pickled for 
thirty days, and are packed in barrels, containing 220 
lbs. The rounds, generally boned, are salted, some¬ 
times smoked, and besides a liberal home consumption, 
are largely used in the lumbering and mining regions. 
The tallow is carefully rendered, and finds a ready 
market at home and on the seaboard. The marrow 
from the bones is canned, much of it going to Eng¬ 
land, where it is used as a substitute for butter. 

HOGS, AND WHERE THEY GO. 

The regular winter packing season begins November 
1st, and closes on the last day of February following. 
The arrivals of live hogs at the yards are the largest 
through November and December. The receipts as 
reported every week day morning vary from 25,000 to 
60,000 bead, except on Saturday, when they fall off to 
from 8,000 to 10,000—the last day of the week being 
the lightest “ run ” of any. Values fluctuate, being 
governed by prices of product on the Board of Trade, 
by the weather, by the receipts, and oftentimes by 
combinations among the buyers. The packers and 
shippers have their agents at work, soon as business 
opens, at six o’clock in the morning, and as a rule, the 
desirable lots have all been bought by twelve m. , 
though there are days when the market is much de¬ 
pressed, and prices very weak, when drovers refuse to 
meet buyers, and many lots are carried over to next 
day’s market, but very generally to the disadvantage 
of the holder. To sell on the day of arrival, is the 
most successful way for the drover, take the year 
through, as the experience of many will confirm. 

The best grades of live hogs received are heavy, fat, 
smooth, small boned, and averaging from 300 to 400 
ft>s. gross. These are called “ Philadelphias,” and are 
bought by shippers to the market of the same name. 
The Boston buyers have their pick, and fancy a style 
of animal fully equal to the above, though they will 
take coarser grades, if obliged to. The largest buyer 
for Massachusetts owns 300 double-decked stock cars of 
his own, enough for ten trains, and the hogs purchased 
and shipped nearly every day by his resident agent go 
directly through to Brighton, Mass., stopping off once 
en route, in Canada, to rest and feed. 

A lighter class of hogs will satisfy the buyers for the 
largest city in the United States; they weigh from 125 
to 225 lbs. gross, and are called “Yorkers.” 

Then we have buyers for the English houses, who 
manufacture principally bacon, and cuts adapted to the 
export trade. They want a light-weight, small-boned 



































THE UNION STOCK YARDS OF CHICAGO. 


535 


animal. This is shown from the average net weight 
of hogs packed by firms who offer very little product 
for sale in this market, but do an export trade almost 
exclusively. The weight of the hogs packed by ten 
such establishments, varied from 163 to 192 lbs. each, 
or an average of 173J tbs. net. 

The Chicago packers get their supply, along with 
others, and buy mixed packing hogs, and sometimes 
animals of all grades. Even the hog buyers can some¬ 
times say “ Finally, my brethren,” for the last grades 
he knows anything about are the skips and culls. Our 
only competitor for this class is Cleveland, Ohio. The 
range in price of live hogs on the same kind of a mar¬ 
ket, is about one cent per lb. gross, from the lowest in 
grade to the best. 

The shipments of live hogs east by rail vary from 
24,000 to 30,000 per week, from the 1st of March to 
about the 15th of September, but not so many in 
winter. 

During the season of 1880-81, or from November 1, 
1880, to November 1, 1881, which included summer 
and winter killing for those twelve months, the total 
number of hogs slaughtered at the Union Stock Yards 
and vicinity footed up 5,693,569 head. And such are 
the complete facilities for doing the work at the large 
packing houses, an abundance of ice and the most 
thorough refrigerator system known, that of this vast 
number of hogs, 150,000 more were slaughtered in the 
summer months than during the regular winter pack¬ 
ing season, and the product fully cured and preserved, 
and made ready for shipment to any part of the world. 
The net weight of hogs packed in this market, from 
November 1, 1870, to March 1, 1882, for the winter 
packing, averaged 221 lbs. The summer packing 
begins March 1st, and ends November 1st, being a 
period of eight months, or twice the length of the 
winter season. The average net weight of hogs 
packed during the summer for the past eight years, 
was 189 tbs. To pack live hogs the year through 
on a large scale is a modern science. It would have 
been regarded as an impossibility a quarter of a 
century ago. 


The following table shows the average of prices in 
the Chicago market for articles named during the 
winter packing season for six years: 


ARTICLES. 

Season 

1882-83. 

Season 

1881-82. 

Season 

1880-SI. 

Season 

1879-80. 

Season 

1878-79. 

Season 

1877-78. 

Mess Pork. 

P. S. Lard. 

D. S. Shoulders... 

Short Ribs . 

Short Clear. 

$17.52 

10.94 

6 60 
9.33 
9.58 
10.56 

6 52 

$16.95 

11.02 

6.02 

8.79# 

9.00 

9.75 

6.40 

$13.32# 

8.80 

4.30 

6.95 

7.13 

8.15 

5.05# 

$11.86 

7.16 

4.03# 

6.20 

6.37 
7.97 # 

4.37 

$ 8.06# 
5.92 
2.91 
4.02 
4.13# 
6.25 
3.06# 

$11.40 

7.58 

4.16 

5.80 

5.94 

7.75 

4.14 


Live Hogs.. 


HIGHEST AND LOWEST PRICES FOR SIXTEEN YEARS. 

The following table shows the highest and lowest 
prices reached on articles named for sixteen years past: 


ARTICLES. 

Date—Highest. 

Price. 


Date—Lowest. 

Price. 

Live Hogs... 
Mess Pork.... 

Lard. 

Short Ribs.... 

Shoulders. 

S. P. Hams_ 

Sept. 1875, March 1876. 
June and Aug., 1879... 

February, 1869. 

October, 1869. 

October, 1875. 

October, 1875. 

$10.00 

34.00 

20.75 

17.75 
9.25 

14.50 

December, 1878. 

December, 1878. 

December, 1878. 

December, 1878. 

January, 1879. 

Dec. 1878, Jan.,1879... 

$2.45# 

6.02# 

5.32# 

3.35 

2.37# 

5.00 


CHRONOLOGICAL. 

The following chronological record is taken from the 
17th annual report of the secretary of the Union Stock 
Yards and Transit Company: 

The largest receipts of stock in a day were : 


Cattle, November 15,1882. 12,076 

Calves, September 28,1881. 1,428 

Hogs, November 25,1879. 64.643 

Sheep, February 8,1882 . 6,701 

Horses, October 5,1874. 460 

Cars, January 11,1882. 1,490 

The largest receipts of stock in one week were: 

Cattle, week ending October 21,1882. 45,286 

Calves, week ending August 27,1881. 3,366 

Hogs, week ending November 20,1880 . 300,488 

Sheep, week ending January 21,1882 . 22,639 

Horses, week ending March 26,1881. 1.125 

Cars, week ending December 16,1882 . 6,089 

The largest receipts of stock in one month were: 

Cattle, October, 18S2. 175,549 

Calves, August, 1881. 11,604 

Hoge, November, 1880. 1,111,997 

Sheep, March, 1882 . 69,303 

Horses, March, 1873 . 4,253 

Cars, December, 1882. 21,653 

The largest receipts of stock in one year were: 

Cattle, 1882. 1,582,538 

Calves, 1881. 48,948 

Hogs, 1880 . 7,059,355 

Sheep, 1882. 528.887 

Horses. 1873. 20,289 

Cars, 1881. 187,191 

































































































t is within the memory of men still living to 
recall the periods of excitement and enthusiasm 
occasioned by the discovery of gold or silver, 
and the sudden opening of a mining region in the 
United States. Memorable among such periods was 
the year 1849, when the gold mines of California were 
first discovered. Exaggerated reports of the extent 
and richness of the fields were circu¬ 
lated all over the states, and men left 
the shop, the counter and the plow to 
join in the great rush for the mining 
regions. Collecting together a little 
money, bidding good-by to family and 
friends, and hastening away to embark 
on an Atlantic steamer that should 
bear the eager aspirant for wealth 
around by way of Panama, to the 
Golden Gate were common experi¬ 
ences. Or journeying by land, in 
covered wagons, behind ox teams, 
amid dangers and privations, 
through the Great Ameri- 



bound 

Peak 


regions 


.for Pike’s 
the gold 
beyond, 


eager treasure seekers, their vision filled with gold and 

O 7 O 

wealth, rolled on. 

There is, to the mind, a fascination in gathering the 
precious metals from the earth, enhanced, perhaps, by 
the uncertainty of the quantity, and now and then 
sudden realization of rich returns. It shall be the 
purpose in the few pages following to give some prac¬ 
tical hints and information for the benefit of those who 
purpose entering the mining fields, and who would 
otherwise be compelled to spend, perhaps, years of 
experience and considerable sums of money in attain¬ 
ing to that knowledge of the business which would 
render it profitable. By the man of means, or wealth, 
the services of an experienced miner or prospector may 
be secured, who, having made a study and occupation 
of locating mines and distinguishing ores, will assume, 
for a compensation, all that responsibility; but with 
the man of limited means, entering the minino- regions, 
the case is altogether different, and he must rely on 
himself; and his best capital will be knowledge. Hun¬ 
dreds and thousands of ignorant men, ill-advised and 
with no capital, are constantly going to the mines, as 
if they expected to pick up nuggets of gold in the 
streets and roadways, only to be disappointed, and 
return home, sadder and poorer, if not wiser, than 
when they first set out. Nature has been so liberal in 
the distribution of valuable minerals, that there is no 
country in the world, no state in this great republic, 
where they cannot be found if the seeker has the 
knowledge to search intelligently—and the knowledge 
required is not profound—it can be acquired and 
applied by any one. Some of the most 
valuable mines in the world have been 
discovered by persons who would rank as 
utterly wanting in what is considered edu¬ 
cation, but they had learned the signs 
with which nature has stamped her 


SB> 


— treasures, and when accident 



brought 





















































MINING. 


537 


them to their attention, they were able to take posses¬ 
sion of them with knowledge of their value. 

ORES AND METALS. 

There are some two hundred and fifty mineral species 
known in the United States, but less than a third of 
this number are of value to the business world. It is 
very rarely that nature gives us a metal in pure form, 
but fortunately she has given them certain character¬ 
istics by which they may be recognized, and by know¬ 
ing them, a farmer may be led to a valuable ore deposit 
on his farm, or a traveler may find a hint in an insig¬ 
nificant stone that will lead him to the means of adding 
to his own fortune and enriching a locality that was 
ignorant of its own resources. 

Among the substances classed as elementary by 
chemists, there are at present about fifty that are 
known as metals. New discoveries, however, are fre¬ 
quently making changes in this list of elements. In 
this list of metals there are only fourteen considered of 
importance in the business world, viz: Aluminum, 
antimony, bismuth, cobalt, copper, gold, iron, lead, 
mercury, nickel, platinum, silver, tin and zinc. Of 
these the ones that ever exist in the pure metallic state 
in any considerable quantity are gold, copper and tin. 
Silver is also sometimes found in a very pure state, but 
not frequently in paying quantities—it is looked upon 
as a curiosity. All of these and all the others are 
generally found combined with other substances to 
form ores. Often several metals will be combined in 
the same ore with one metal giving the principal char¬ 
acteristic. The taking of these ores from the earth by 
digging is known as mining; the separation of the 
metal from the other components of the ore, is the art 
of metallurgy. 

PROSPECTING. 

In places where ores are known to exist, as in “ the 
back-bone of the continent” (the Rocky mountains in 
North America and the Cordillera of South America), 
there is a class of men who make a business of hunting 
for valuable minerals. In this country they are known 
as prospectors, in South America they are called mine- 
ros. These men spend their whole time in wandering 
about the mountains in search of signs of ore. If suc¬ 
cessful, they have something to sell, and endeavor to 
find capital to open up their new mine. They carry 
with them provisions, and camp out, changing their 
quarters with their success. If good specimens of free 
gold in placer or pocket is found, they stay as long as 
the supplies hold out, or if unsuccessful they keep mov¬ 


ing, wandering into the most remote recesses of the 
mountains, searching the water courses and the hidden 
crevices of the rocks. The ores of the precious metals 
are found in veins of varying size and form—sometimes 
in thin horizontal sheets between strata of rock, but 
generally in veins that make an angle with the horizon, 
as if the crust of the earth had been cracked by some 
mighty force thrusting upward, and while standing 
open, the fissures thus formed had been filled by the 
metallic deposit. 

When they are well defined the ore-bearing veins are 
inclosed in rock to which is given the name of hanging 
wall and foot wall. Between the ore and the walls is 
generally a thin layer of clay to which is given the 
name of gouge, or selvage. Wherever a vein shows 
itself on the surface of the earth it is called the out¬ 
crop, and the ore deposit is generally made prominent 
from the fact that the rock is harder than the ore, or 
vice versa , and the elements acting on the softer one 
brings the other into prominence by a sharp line of 
outcropping ore if the rock has been worn away, or a 
marked depression if the reverse. These outcroppings 
or surface indications, tell the experienced prospector 
at a glance that they are ore deposits. 

It often happens that a stream, in cutting a ravine, 
will carry down pieces of an ore vein that crops out in 
its bed; these pieces, picked up by the prospector, will 
give him the hint that the stream, in its rushing flood¬ 
time, has brought them from some point higher up, 
and he will climb the ravine, carefully examining every 
foot of the bed of the stream, and the sides of the 
ravine for the vein of ore. This plan should always be 
adopted in the mountains, the bed of every streamlet 
examined with care for specimens, and occasionally the 
sand and mud washed for free metals. The prospector 
carries with him a pan or basin for the purpose of test¬ 
ing the mud from the bottom of the stream for free 
metals. The method of doing this is extremely simple. 
He selects a place where the stream, in its turning, 
makes an eddy, with a little stretch of backwater; here, 
if the water had carried anything heavy in its current, 
there would have been a check to its momentum in the 
short level, and the heavy substance would sink to the 
bottom. He scoops into his basin some of the sand 
and mud, and then fills it up with water; then he stirs 
up the mud and pours out a portion of the muddy 
water, careful not to disturb the heavier particles that 
sink again to the bottom; then he refills the pan with 
clear water and repeats the operation. This he does 
again and again, until the water is no longer made 
muddy, and there is left in the bottom a spoonful or 
































538 


MINING. 


two of something that he must examine very carefully 
for gold or platinum or precious stones. If he finds 
gold he will be certain that the stream has brought it 
from some point higher up, and there he must seek the 
parent vein. 

It often happens that a prospector will find in the 
pan a collection of shiny particles that will make his 
heart beat faster for a minute, until close inspection 
shows him that it is only glittering and worthless 
mica. The particles of mica are so attractive, so bright 
and golden, that the novice will hardly be convinced 
that they are not gold in fact. The prospector, if 
experienced, will take a particle of the substance on 
the blade of his knife, and, pressing it Avith the thumb 
nail, its character will be shown. Iron pyrites will 
also deceive. When acquaintance is first made with 
them they have the appearance of noble metal, but are 
only a combination of iron and sulphur. We suppose 
one prospector to be searching only for gold and silver, 
and in his rambles he has discovered something that he 
thinks is an ore of the precious metals. How is he to 
know whether it is or not? How can he prove that it 
holds in combination one or both of these metals? 
How can he tell what percentage of metal it holds, 
and whether it will pay to work it, or is only of value 
to sell to some “ tenderfoot?” 

HOW TO EXAMINE A MINERAL. 

Every prospector should acquaint himself with the 
use of the blow-pipe. This little instrument is a small 
tube bent at right angles and with a fine nozzle at the 
end of the shorter arm. It is used to inject a current 
of air into the center of the flame of a lamp or candle. 



can perform all the operations necessary to determine 
the character of a mineral. In order to change a clay 
pipe into a blow-pipe, a piece of the stem about an 
inch long is broken off to make the jet; a cork of the 
right size, or piece of wood shaped to fit the opening 
of the bowl of the pipe is then taken and a hole bored 
through it of a size to admit the piece of stem broken 
from the pipe. The cork or plug of wood thus fitted 
is then put in the pipe and we have a combination like 
the accompanying drawing. 

With this instrument there are produced two differ¬ 
ent results, oxidation and reduction, according as the 
end of the jet is held against the side of the flame of 
the candle or lamp, or in the center of it. By one a 
metal is changed to an oxide; by the other, with the 
aid of a proper flux, an ore is changed into a metal, or 
rather, the metal is separated from the other substances 
mixed with it, and is made visible by taking its proper 
metallic form. 

A small vial of carbonate of soda mixed with a 
minute quantity of the cyanide of potassium, will be 
the only flux absolutely necessary. The pure carbon¬ 
ate of soda will do quite well alone if it is found incon¬ 
venient to procure the mixture, but the cyanide with 
the carbonate of soda is found to give quicker results. 
The prospector must remember, however, that the 
cyanide is a deadly poison, and if he carries it must be 
extremely careful not to produce on himself the bad 
effects of the poison by swallowing a portion, or inhal¬ 
ing very freely the fumes arising from it. 

The next requisite will be a piece of charcoal to 
make the test on, and this will not be difficult to pro¬ 
cure unless the prospector finds himself in a woodless 
country, destitute not only of trees, but of shrubs or 
grass enough to make a fire. 

We have said that two results could be produced by 
the blow-pipe, and the accompanying drawings will 
illustrate clearly just how it must be applied to the 
flame to produce the right effect. In the first illustra¬ 
tion (shown on following page) it will be seen that the 
mouth of the jet is placed just at the side of the flame, 
the result is a long yellow flame giving a high degree of 
heat. A substance placed just within the point of this 
flame is subjected to this great heat, while, at the same 
time, the air has access to it, and under these conditions 


The flame is instantly changed into a miniature blast 
furnace, and all the phenomena of the furnace can be 
reproduced with this tiny instrument. With an ordi¬ 
nary clay pipe for material, the prospector can provide 
himself with a serviceable instrument with Avhich he 



the oxygen of the air Avill greedily seize upon any 
metallic compound, and change its constitution into 
Avhat is known as an oxide. 

In the second illustration it Avill be seen that the 
mouth of the jet is placed in the center of the flame 
and gives a different appearance to the blast produced; 































MINING. 


539 


within the long yellow envelope there is a well-defined 
blue flame, cone-shaped and sharp-pointed. This is 
called the reducing flame. The substance to be sub¬ 
mitted to its action is so held that it will be covered 
by this inner cone of blue flame; the heat is more 
intense, and the outer envelope protects it from the 
air, and under these conditions its character is changed, 
the flux with which the ore is mixed seizes upon the 
bases and carries them away into the pores of the char¬ 
coal, leaving the metal as a smooth globule on the sur¬ 
face of the charcoal. 




In order to test a mineral it is finely powdered, a 
small portion is taken and mixed with an equal quan- 
;ity of the scda flux, the mixture to form a mass about 
is large as a small pea; a shallow depression is scooped 
n the surface of a piece of charcoal and the mixture 
ilaced in it; then it is carefully subjected to the action 
if the reducing flame of the blow-pipe. In most of 
lie ores with which we are to deal, when thus treated, 
die mass will fuse, effervesce, and the most of it disap- 
lear in the pores of the charcoal, and there will be 
eft only the metal on the surface. There are other 
netals besides gold and silver that will give this reac- 
:ion; very often these metals will be found in combina- 
;ion with each other and with others, as, copper, lead, 
lickel, iron, etc., but it will not be necessary for the 
orospector to go into the mysteries of metallurgy; he 



can determine the percentage of noble metal in his 
specimen, and thus, its value as an ore of silver or 
gold. 

The mineralogist has observed another curious thing 
about minerals and has named it streak. If we take 
an ore and scratch a line on its surface with a nail or 
knife, the line thus made or the powder formed in 
making it will be of a different color from the ore; this 
is streak, and is so characteristic that in works on min¬ 
eralogy the streak is always given among the other 
qualities that distinguish the different minerals, and by 
which they are recognized. 

SILVER MINERALS. 

The principal silver minerals are known to science 
by the following names. We will give their familiar 
titles as they are particularly described. The composi¬ 
tion of each mineral is given with the scientific name: 

1. Native Silver. 

2. Amalgam: Silver and mercury. 

3. Argentite: Silver and sulphur. 

4. Prou9tite: Silver, sulphur and arsenic. 

5. Pyrargyrite: Silver, sulphur and antimony. 

6. Stephanite: Silver, sulphur and antimony. 

7. Polybasite: Silver, copper, sulphur, antimony and arsenic. 

8 Cerargyrite: Silver and chlorine. 

9. Bromyrite: Silver and bromine. 

10. Embolite: Silver, bromine and chlorine. 

1L Iodyrite: Silver and iodine. 

12. Carbonates. 

These are the minerals richest in silver, and that 
compose silver ores. There are other minerals that 
contain silver in company with other metals, but in 
which the other metals are in the largest proportion, 
and the silver is extracted as a by product, as in the 
familiar Galena, and in several ores of copper, etc. 

These minerals are all known to exist in the United 
States, but some of them are rare, or are found in veins 
composed mostly of another ore; but as specimens of 
any of them are liable to be found on the surface, the 
prospector should know Avhat he is handling, and we 
will describe them in their order as written above. 

Native silver exhibits all the properties of the 
reduced metal, and is often alloyed with gold or copper. 

Amalgam is a rare mineral. Its color is silvery- 
white and its streak the same. If rubbed on a piece 
of copper it leaves a silvery luster. If a piece of the 
mineral is laid on charcoal and subjected to the reduc¬ 
ing flame, the mercury will be volatilized or driven off* 
in vapor, and the silver left as a globule smaller than 
the original piece put on the charcoal. 

Agentite is called, also, silver glance, or vitreous 
silver. This is a very valuable ore; it is found in 
lumps, plates and threads. Its color is a blackish lead 
gray, sometimes deep iron black, with very little luster 



















































540 


MINING 


on the natural surface, but if broken, the fracture has 
bright luster. The streak is the same as the color and 
shining. It can be cut like lead, and if held in the 
flame of a candle will melt without the aid of the blow¬ 
pipe, giving off a smell of sulphur. In the oxidizing 
flame it is roasted, and in the reducing flame gives a 
metallic globule. This ore yields eighty-seven per cent 
of metal and ranks as the most important in the list. 

Proustite is a light red silver ore. This ore is of a 
cochineal red, streak the same as color; a splinter of it 
held up to the light will show that it is almost, but 
not quite translu¬ 
cent, that it allows 
light to pass 
through it like 
smoked glass; 
heated in the oxi- 
dizing flame it 

oaves off arsenical 
© 

fumes that smell 
like garlic. 

Pyrargyrite is 
known by the dif¬ 
ferent names of 
ruby silver, black 
silver, and dark 
red silver ore. Its 
color is black or 
very dark red, 
streak is cochineal 
red. This is a well 
known and valua¬ 
ble ore, yielding 
sixty per cent of 
silver. Heated on 
charcoal it gives 
olf white fumes of 
antimony; in the 
reducing flame with soda it gives a bead of metal. The 
ore is found in crystals and masses. It has metallic 
luster, is brittle, and easily cut with a knife. This 
is one of the most desirable and sought-for minerals. 

Steplianite is known as brittle silver ore, black silver 
ore, brittle silver glance. It is a combination of silver, 
sulphur and antimony, similar to the preceding, but 
containing a larger percentage of silver, and, in conse¬ 
quence, is a still more valuable ore. Its color is black 
and its streak the same. It has a metallic luster; 
heated on charcoal, it gives off fumes of antimony and 
sulphur, and ivith soda, in the reducing flame, gives a 
bead of metal. This rich ore has been the source of 


most of the wealth of the noted Comstock lode. It is 
abundant in Nevada and Idaho, in Mexico and Peru, 
and will probably be found in other localities in this 
country. 

Polybasite is not a common ore, but contains a large 
percentage of silver in combination with copper, anti¬ 
mony, sulphur and arsenic. It is a modified form of 
the preceding ore. Its color and streak are iron black. 

Cerargyrite, called horn silver, or chloride of silver, 
is a valuable ore. Its name describes its consistency, 
which is that of horn, or rather more like wax. When 

perfectly pure it is 
colorless, but is 
generally white, 
gray, or grayish 
green. Its streak 
is colorless and 
shining. A pure 
specimen will turn 
brown after ex¬ 
posure to the light. 
It has a resinous 
luster, is quite soft, 
and cuts like wax. 
It will fuse in the 
flame of a candle, 
giving off at the 
same time acrid 
fumes that pro¬ 
voke coughing if 
inhaled. On char¬ 
coal it is easily re¬ 
duced. If rubbed 
with a piece of 
moistened iron, 
the iron becomes 
coated with a thin 
film of metallic sil¬ 
ver. This ore yields over seventy per cent of metal; it 
is found in various places in the west and in South 
America. 

Bromyrite, or bromite, is known also as plata verde; 
its color varies from bright yellow to grass green. It 
is a rare mineral, occasionally found in mines, generally 
with the chloride just described. 

Embolite is a mineral composed of the chloride and 
bromide, sometimes found in large masses. Its color is 
olive and grayish green. A valuable ore in South 
America. 

Iodyrite is a rare mineral. Its color is yellow or 
yellowish green, streak yellow. Heated on charcoal 



THE MINING CAMP. 















































































MINING. 


541 


with the blow-pipe it fuses into a globule of silver, 
while the iodine is driven off in vapor that tinges the 
flame a beautiful violet color. 

Selbite, carbonate of silver. The Spaniards called 
this plata azue (blue silver). It was not known, 
except in the mines of Mexico, until a few years ago. 
The discovery of it in Colorado, in great quantities, 
caused much excitement among miners and capitalists, 
and led to the building of the city of Leadville. Its 
color varies from blue gray to black, it is very soft and 
easily reduces before the blow-pipe. It is a very 
valuable ore. 

These are the ores of silver mineral, and the princi¬ 
pal sources of the metal. As we have already said, the 
metal is found combined with others and may contain 
a paying amount of silver without being a silver ore. 
To test an ore for silver that will not yield a globule 
of metal, the mineral must be finely powdered and 
placed in some receptacle, as a cup or bottle, where it 
can be covered with nitric acid. After the acid has 
acted upon the substance for an hour or so, pour it 
carefully into another bottle without disturbing the 
substance left undissolved by the acid, if there is any 
left. Then add some water to the acid—about as much 
water as there is acid—and you will have a clear liquid. 
Now add to this liquid a solution of common salt, and 
if there is any silver dissolved in the acid, it will- 
appear as a white, curdy precipitate, that will turn 
brown after exposure to the light. If, instead of a 
solution of salt, we add a few drops of hydrochloric 
acid, we will detect the faintest trace of silver. To 
test whether the precipitate is silver or lead, pour over 
it boiliu£f water which will dissolve the lead, but not 
the silver. Ammonia will dissolve the silver. 

GOLD AND SILVER MINERALS. 

Gold is the most precious commodity in the world 
of business. As a metal it is widely distributed over 
the globe. Although so widely distributed that there 
is no country in which it cannot be found in some 
form, yet nature has so cunningly covered it up, and 
combined it with other things in order to hide it, that 
it requires the most skillful and the most laborious 
exertions of man to acquire it and prepare it for the 
uses of commerce. The principal gold minerals are : 

1. Native gold: Pure metal. 

2. Gold amalgam: Gold and mercury. 

3. Sylvanite: Gold, silver and tellurium. 

4. Nagyagite: Gold, silver, copper, tellurium, sulphur, lead 

5. Petzite: Gold, silver, lead, tellurium, iron, sulphur. 

6. Calaverite: Gold and tellurium. 

7. Porpezite: Gold, silver and palladium. 

8. Rhodium: Gold and rhodium. 


These minerals, with varying proportions of gold, 
are worked in different parts of the world, but the 
greater quantity is found as native gold—the pure 
metal—and requires no chemical transformation to fit 
it for use. If it exists in the soil, the prospector, by 
using the pan, and washing carefully, will find it in 
small scales, or plates. Its color of gold yelloAv is 
closely imitated by mica, but the plates of gold are 
malleable, that is, can be pounded and flattened, and 
mica is not. It can be fused on charcoal at a high heat 
without the use of a flux. If its presence is suspected 
in quartz, the piece of quartz to be examined should 
be broken, and the fresh face thus exposed, looked 
over carefully with a lens. If it is in large quantity, 
the magnifying glass will show the grains of gold 
embedded in the quartz. This is not a final test, how¬ 
ever, as gold is found in paying quantities in rock that 
does not give an outward sign of it, and in this case it 
can be taken out by a process of which nature gives a 
hint in the list of gold-bearing minerals given above, 
viz.: gold amalgam. The metal, mercury, has the 
singular property of seizing on gold and silver when¬ 
ever it finds them, and as it can be separated readily 
from them again by the action of heat, it is made use 
of in determining their presence in ‘certain minerals 
after they have bee-n properly prepared for the action 
of the mercury. In order to test for gold, the quartz 
in which it cannot be seen but is suspected, the rock is 
first pounded up fine and sifted; a certain quantity of 
the sand thus obtained is washed in the pan, allowing 
the heavier particles to sink, and the rest to float away; 
this is repeated until a manageable quantity is secured 
in which we may be certain that the gold will be found 
if the quartz held it. This is then amalgamated by 
mixing with it about half the quantity of clean mer¬ 
cury as the bulk of the substance left in the pan. The 
mercury will take up gold and form amalgam; this is 
strained to separate any excess of mercury, and is 
finally heated over the fire in a crucible or iron pot; 
the heat drives off the mercury in vapor, leaving the 
gold, which can be fused into a globule. 

The detection of gold in combination with other 
metals is more difficult, and the prospector would not, 
probably, have the means to make a satisfactory exam¬ 
ination of them while in the field. It is very common 
to find it alloyed with copper or silver and other baser 
metals. It is a curious fact, also, that the specific 
gravity of pure gold varies, as also its shade of color, 
but these peculiarities will not lead one astray in 
detecting it. When found existing in lumps or pieces 
of irregular shape they are called nuggets, and there 































542 


MINING. 


are records of some magnificent specimens; one from 
Australia weighed one hundred and eighty-five pounds. 

The substances most frequently mistaken for gold 
are iron pyrites, copper pyrites, and mica. The 
precious metal is, however, easily distinguished from 
these by its malleability (flattening under the hammer), 
and its great weight, sinking rapidly in water. It is 
the heaviest of all metals excepting platinum. 

ASSAYING THE GOLD ORE. 

The prospector has discovered a vein of ore that he 
finds is rich in silver or gold, and wishes to know how 
much of the precious metal the ore will yield to the 
ton, which determines its value as the basis of a paying 
mine. Whether an ore is profitable depends not only 
upon the relative value of the metal, but also upon the 
labor required to get it out and to separate it from the 
rock or gangue (pronounced gang), as it is called. In 
the relative values of metals there is a wonderful dif¬ 
ference in the percentage demanded of an ore to class 
it as a paying one. While an iron ore that would not 
yield over twenty-five per cent would be discarded as 
worthless, only two per cent is demanded of copper 
ore, one per cent of mercury, while the ores of the 
precious metals are paying if they will give one two- 
thousandth per cent of silver, one ten-thousandth per 
cent of platinum, or one one-hundred-thousandth per 
cent of gold. 

If we are testing for gold and the specimen is quartz, 
the operation just described will not only show the 
presence of the metal, but also the quantity, if it is 
carried on with more method, and we have at hand 
some means of accurately weighing the products of our 
experiment. A weighed portion of the quartz is 
reduced to powder, and amalgamated; the gold taken 
up carefully, is weighed after the mercury is volatil¬ 
ized; this will give us the parts of an ounce contained 
in the quartz operated on, and from this we get, by 
proportion, the probable amount contained in a ton 
of the rock. 

This experiment will have to be repeated a number 
of times, and an average of the different results taken 
for our final determination, as, of course, there will be 
some pieces richer than others, and the individual 
results will vary in a way they would not if we could 
operate upon a large quantity at a time. If the gold 
is found in pyrites we weigh out a portion, reduce it 
to powder and wash as before; then the residue is care¬ 
fully roasted at a read heat to drive off sulphur and any 
volatile components. After roasting it is amalgamated 
and manipulated the same as just described for quartz. 


Pyrites should yield at least one dollar’s worth of gold 
to the bushel of ore to be profitable; quartz should 
give about six dollars worth to the ton in order to pay. 
Gold is found in native silver, and as one metal is acted 
on by nitric acid while the other is not, we have an 
easy method of separating them. The silver is made 
as thin as possible by carefully flattening the specimen 
with a hammer; it is then weighed and put into a ves¬ 
sel of boiling nitric acid, and in about ten minutes the 
silver will be perfectly dissolved, leaving the fine gold 
as an undissolved powder. The acid is poured off care¬ 
fully, and the powder washed, dried and weighed. 
Although none of the mineral acids will dissolve gold, 
yet a mixture of two of them will, viz.: nitric and 
muriatic. This mixture is called aqua regia , in conse¬ 
quence of this power on the noblest of metals. If one 
has aqua regia at command, any substance can be tested 
for gold by its use. Submit the substance in a pow¬ 
dered or finely divided state to the action of the aqua 
regia; if the substance is not all dissolved, pour the 
liquid off into another receptacle, separating it from 
the undissolved portion, then add to the liquid a solu¬ 
tion of copperas, and if there is any gold present, it 
will make its appearance as a reddish-brown precipi¬ 
tate. This must be dried w r hen, if it is rubbed, it will 
assume a bright metallic luster. 

To test the purity of gold, rub it on a piece of hard 
black slate and there will be left on the stone a yellow 
streak; touch this streak with a drop of nitric acid, 
and if the gold is pure, it will remain unchanged; if 
alloyed with some other metal it will partly disappear, 
while if it is only an imitation of gold it will disap¬ 
pear entirely. In washing for gold in the sands of a 
river, it is generally considered paying if it will yield 
twenty-four grains of gold for each hundred weight of 
sand to be handled and washed. By far the greater 

amount of gold in the w'orld is obtained in this wav, 

%/ ' 

and where the same plan is carried on, on a gigantic 
scale, with the aid of powerful machinery, it is known 
as hydraulic mining. 

THE LAWS OF MINING REGIONS. 

Having discovered a deposit of rich ore, the pros¬ 
pector wishes to secure himself in the title of it; and 
this is done by properly staking it off and posting a 
notice. In most of the mining regions in the United 
States the law allows the claim owner a space of ground 
extending 1,500 feet in length in the direction of the 
vein, and 300 feet wide, so that a claim, when laid 
out and staked off, will be like the diagram on the 
following page. 


























MINING. 


543 


Post. 

8 - 


1,500 feet. 


Location Stake. 

« 

. □ . 

Discovery 

Shaft. 


Post. 
— » — 


Post. 

— • 


Vein- 


Post. 


Post. 


Post. 


The prospector should see well to it that the land is 
laid oft' in the direction in which the vein extends, 
otherwise the 1,500 feet in length of the claim will be 
comparatively valueless to him. The boundaries of 
the claim must be marked by stakes driven in the 
ground, or stood up with stones piled around, or by 
other permanent mark or monument, and a plain sign 
or notice must be posted up at the place of discovery, 
bearing the name of the lode, the name of the locator, 
and the date of the discovery, something as follows : 

TRUMPET LODE. 

The undersigned claims sixty days in which to sink discovery 
shaft, and three months to record claim on this vein. 

OGDEN WHITLOCK. 

September 10, 1883. 

The miner must now go to work and sink his dis¬ 
covery shaft to the depth of ten feet at least, within 
the sixty days. Having done this, he should, if possi¬ 
ble, have a survey of the claim made by a competent 
surveyor, but this maybe dispensed with, and the loca¬ 
tion certificate may be made out describing the claim 
sufficiently well from the boundaries set up by the 
prospector. This location certificate must be drawn 
up and filed in the recorder’s office of the county where 
the claim is situated, and will be in the following form: 



such lines extended downward vertically, with such 
parts of all lodes or ledges as continue by dip beyond 
the side lines of the claim, but shall not include any 
portion of such lodes or ledges beyond the end lines of 
the claim, or the end lines continued, whether by dip 
or otherwise, or beyond the side lines in any other 
manner than by the dip of the lode. If the top or 
apex of a lode in its longitudinal course, extends 
beyond the exterior lines of the claim at any point on 
the surface, or as extended vertically downward, such 
lode may not be followed in its longitudinal course 
beyond the point where it is intersected by the ex¬ 
terior lines. 

The law requires that there shall be at least one 
hundred dollars’ worth of labor performed on the 
claim each year for five years, before the government 
will issue a patent for the land. Within six months 
after any set time or annual period allowed for the 
performance of labor, or making any improvements 
upon a lode claim, the person on whose behalf such 
outlay was made, or some person for him, shall make 
and record an affidavit in substance as follows: 

State of Colorado, ) aa 
.County. f ss " 

Before me, the subscriber, personally appeared.who, 

being duly sworn, saith, that at least.dollars’ worth of 

work or improvements Avere performed or made upon ( here 
describe claim or part of claim), situate in.mining dis¬ 
trict, county of., state of Colorado. Such expenditure 

was made by or at the expense of.owner of said claim, 

for the purpose of holding said claim. 

(Signature.) 

(Jurat.; 


LOCATION CERTIFICATE. 

Know all men by these Presents, That I, Ogden Whit¬ 
lock, of the county of Boulder, state of Colorado, claim, by right 
of discovery and location, fifteen hundred feet, linear and hori¬ 
zontal measurement, on the Trumpet Lode, along the A'ein thereof, 
with all its dips, variations and angles; together with one hundred 
and fifty feet in width on each side of the middle of said A r ein at 
the surface; and all veins, lodes, ledges, deposits and surface ground 
within the lines of said claim, twelve hundred feet on said lode 
running east ten degrees north from the center of the discovery 
shaft and three hundred feet running Avest ten degrees south from 
the center of the said discovery shaft. 

Said claim is in the valley of Spring Creek, in Boulder county, 
state of Colorado, and is bounded and described as folloAVS {Here 
describe the claim by its boundaries). 

Said lode Avas discovered on the 10th day of September, 1884, 
and located on September 21,18S4. Date of this certificate, Octo¬ 
ber 4, 1884. 

OGDEN WHITLOCK. 

Attest: John Doe. 

The location of any lode claim shall be construed to 
include all surface ground within the surface lines 
thereof, and all lodes and ledges throughout their 
entire depth, the top or apex of which lie inside of 


This affidavit is regarded as prima facia evidence of 
the performance of the required labor. 

In order to relocate an abandoned mine it is neces¬ 
sary to sink a new discovery shaft, and fix new bound¬ 
aries, the same as if it Avere the location of a neiv 
claim; or the relocator may sink the original discovery 
shaft ten feet deeper than it was at the time of aban¬ 
donment, and erect new, or adopt the old boundaries, 
reneiving the posts, if removed or destroyed. In 
either case, a neiv location stake must be erected. In 
any case, Avhether the whole or part of an abandoned 
claim is taken, the location certificate may state that 
the Avhole or any part of the new r location is located as 
abandoned property. But it is always safe to sink a 
new discovery shaft and fix new boundaries. Whether 
the shaft is an abandoned one or not, is determined 
practically by the annual labor, as prescribed by laiv, 
being performed or not. 

Mining claims are conveyed and. mortgaged the same 
as real estate. 










































MINING 



Wmmgt 

warn 


IIHH 

mum 

warn 

vmMw. 


HYDRAULIC MINING 


..Miiuilriiiij : ii;iiiiiMih;i l 




























































































































































































































MINING. 


545 


WORKING A MINE. 

As we have already remarked, miners have classified 
ore veins into three species: the dip, or rake vein, the 
pipe vein, and the feather vein; and the kind of vein to 
be worked has a great deal to do with the manner of 
operating. The most desirable are the dip veins, as 
they can he more systematically worked, and the quan¬ 
tity of ore contained in them more certainly guessed at. 
The pipe vein is so-called from its small size and round 
shape. In working the dip vein, an excavation is first 
made to learn the angle of dip. Then a point is 
chosen, far enough from the outcrop, so that a shaft if 
sunk perpendicularly will strike the vein at the depth 
that is proposed to commence the working—from thirty 
to one hundred feet—generally limited by the capital 
at command of the miners. The shaft is a hole large 
enough to allow the buckets of ore to be drawn up, 
and the miners and material to be sent down. When 
the shaft reaches the ore, tunnels are started in oppo¬ 
site directions in the body of it, and as fast as exca¬ 
vated it is sent up to be reduced. The bottom of the 
shaft is carried down several feet below the level, and 
into this pit the water from the level is drained and 
forms a reservoir from which the drainage can be 
pumped to the surface. All the ore in the vein is now 
taken out from between the walls, and is replaced by 
heavy timbering or waste rock material. 

It sometimes happens that dip veins are so inclined 
that they meet and form those wonderful deposits of 
rich ore that have been given the name of bonanzas, 
and are the greatest prizes in the mining business. 

The pipe vein generally follows a crooked course and 
often disappears entirely, works out completely, or 
will diminish from a width of eight or ten feet to as 
many inches, after it has been worked for a long dis¬ 
tance, and will in a few feet more begin to widen out 
again to its first dimensions; or, a pocket will be stum¬ 
bled on, a mass of rich ore corresponding to the 
bonanza, but on a much smaller scale. 

Sometimes while a vein is being worked successfully, 
and there is every prospect of plenty of ore, the vein 
showing no sign of diminution, it will all at once give 
out entirely against a solid wall of porphyry. This is 
known as a fault, and has been caused by some geologic 
convulsion of the earth; the vein has been broken and 
the ends separated from each other. The miner must 
explore, up, down, in every direction until he strikes 
the thread again; or, if it is a pipe vein, he is some¬ 
times obliged to give up the search in despair. 

In hydraulic mining a powerful stream of water is 
thrown against a bluff by the use of machinery until 


torn down and washed away by the furious action. 
The debris is then handled on a large scale similar to 
the manner of a gold washer with his pan or cradle. 
It is led through a series of shallow flumes with many 
cross pieces that cause riffles in the water as it runs 
through them. In these riffles the gold sinks to the 
bottom and remains there. Mercury is put in others, 
and it catches the lightest particles of gold and holds 
them as amalgam. 

When ore has been extracted from a mine it must 
first be freed as much as possible from the adhering 
rock or gangue, after which it is finely pulverized. 
The modern method of pulverizing is to pass the ore 
through a rock breaker first, which crushes the rock 
into pieces about as large as walnuts; it is then carried 
under massive stamps that change it into fine powder. 
While being powdered, water is brought to it, so that 
it comes from the stamp in the form of soft paste. 

The impalpable paste from the mill is now placed in 
suitable vats, and there is added to it, what is called 
magistral, a name given to roasted iron and copper 
pyrites. A certain percentage of the magistral is 
thoroughly mixed with the finely divided ore; mercury 
is then added in quantity equivalent to about six times 
the amount of silver contained in the ore as determined 
by assay, and the mass thoroughly kneaded. The 
kneading operation is repeated until the different sub¬ 
stances are thoroughly incorporated, then the mass is 
washed to separate the heavy amalgam from the light 
gangue. The amalgam is pressed in a canvas bag to 
separate any excess of mercury, then put in iron 
retorts, heated enough to volatilize the mercury; the 
vapor of mercury is led into cold water and condensed 
to be used again; the silver, left in the retort, is melted 
and run into bars, and is afterward refined. 

Another and more common method is, after the ore 
has been finely pulverized, to mix with it a portion of 
salt and pyrites, and roast the mixture, during which 
the ore loses ten per cent of its weight and is changed 
to a brown color. It is then ground very find and 
passed through a sieve and is then conveyed to the 
amalgamating pans or barrels. This method with dif¬ 
ferent modifications is the one generally employed in 
this country. 

MINING SHARK. 

A familiar personage in cities away from the mining 
regions, is the “ mining shark.” He may be described 
as a smooth and fluent talker, well dressed, and appar¬ 
ently provided with ample means at command. His 
conversation is grandiloquent; if one listens to him, 




































546 


MINING. 


he makes the road to fortune seem very smooth and 
straight. He carries numerous samples of ores, and 
can tell their composition to the very smallest fraction 
of a per cent. He has .a handsomely colored map, 
showing the location of his mines, and a printed pros¬ 
pectus telling the geological formation of the country 
in the vicinity of his location, with a scientific descrip¬ 
tion of the outcrop, with the dip and strike of veins, 
and the results of deep borings; all going to prove 
that it is a true fissure vein. Hearing these men talk, 
one is led to wonder why they have come so far away 
from their rich possessions, for the assistance of other 
men. If their ores were so rich and so easily worked 
as they claim, a man would soon make himself rich by 
his own labor. But labor is not what they are looking 
for; they want money without work, and they get it in 
plenty from credulous people who believe their fasci¬ 
nating stories of gold and silver to be had in great 
chunks, almost for the mere picking up. It often hap¬ 
pens that these men will take their victims to the pro¬ 
posed mine and show them a hole in the mountain, and 
although the victim cannot see the wonderful things 
promised by the prospectus, yet his ignorance will 
betray him, for he does not know how to judge of the 
new business. It all seems so easy; merely getting 
this soft rock, tons at a blast, and so many dollars 
counted in every ton. 

A man should be slow to invest his money in a min¬ 
ing company without acquainting himself with the 
business character of the men he is to be associated 
with. He should be certain that a thorough prospect 
has been made, by means of borings under the direc¬ 
tion of a man capable of judging of the results, and if 
the outlook favors the opening up of the mine, let it 
be done in an economical manner, every detail looked 
after as carefully as in any other business, with 
proper adjustment of outgo to income, looking upon 
the enterprise rather in the light of a manufactur¬ 
ing business, than as a search for the philosopher’s 
stone. 

The mining shark of the mountains is a prospector 
with a whole museum of specimens. If he can catch 
a “ tenderfoot,” as they call an ignorant newcomer in 
the mountains, he will fill his mind as full of visionary 
schemes of easily acquired wealth, as his brother who 
travels with maps and pamphlets among the cities in 


the states. If his victim is too shrewd to buy from 
small specimens, he takes him to a claim that he has 
“salted,” or that has been prepared in such a way that 
a quantity of fresh ore taken from the hole will show 
a large percentage of gold or silver, or both, to a ton. 
There are several ways of accomplishing this end of 
making an ore seem more desirable than it is, and very 
ingenious schemes have been invented for it. A gun 
charged with an ounce or two of gold dust is fired into 
the hole, with the result of leaving the rock and earth 
specked with the scattered grains of gold. The gold 
can be nearly all recovered again, and when the unsus¬ 
picious “tenderfoot” sees a quantity of rock taken 
out, apparently at random, and before his very eyes it 
yields up a quantity of pure gold in such proportion 
as would indicate an enormous quantity to the ton of 
rock, he is ready to empty his pockets without parley, 
for the partial ownership of this nature’s treasure- 
trove. 

If molten silver is dropped into water slowly from a 
height of two or three feet, it will be found in a finely 
divided state in the bottom of the pail. This puts it 
into a good shape for the use of the mine swindler. 
He partially oxidizes the silver by the use of a weak 
acid and then carefully conceals it in the interstices of 
the rock, where it may be found when an examination 
is being made of his claim. A little silver may be 
made to go a long way for this purpose, and like bread 
cast upon the water, it will be found again. It will 
have, too, an exaggerated value, as it is to be estimated 
in the ton of rock, as in the case of gold, and the pur¬ 
chaser congratulates himself as he thinks of the bar¬ 
gain he is securing. He cannot doubt the truth of the 
presence of the metal, as claimed, for the whole opera¬ 
tion has been performed under his eye, without the 
slightest apparent endeavor to deceive, and he is 
deluded into believing that he is being taken into a 
secret—the prospector discovered the mine, secured the 
claim, and is only waiting to find a good and honest 
partner to help him get the ore out. Flattery and 
avarice win, and the greenhorn thinks he sees a chance 
to get a bonanza for almost nothing, only to find him¬ 
self mistaken when it is too late to correct the error. 
These are only specimen ways of “fixing” a mine. 
Chemical means are also employed, and made to give 
the same high character to a worthless mine. 

























WALL STREET AND THE NEW YORK STOCK EXCHANGE 


547 





of all the centers of busi¬ 
ness and financial transactions on 
this continent, is Wall Street, 
New York. So sensitive as to be 
properly denominated ‘ ‘ the pulse 
of the country,” it feels every 
throb and movement of the great body. As 
the financial center of the country, and the 
great speculative center of the world, the 
street is 
quickest 
to respond to 
changed conditions 
or prospects in the 
material affairs of 
nations and indi¬ 
viduals. A war in 
Europe, a fire in 
Boston, a failure 
in Chicago, a storm 
in the West, the 
appearance of cot¬ 
ton worms in the 
South, or weevils 
in the wheat fields, 
and an infinite va¬ 
riety of facts of 
the most diversi¬ 
fied character, cal¬ 
culated to affect 
real and specula¬ 
tive values, how¬ 
ever slight, are 
first manifest in 

the New York WALL STREET with Treasury Building at the R 
Stock Exchange. 

The transactions upon that Board are frequently 
700,000 to 800,000 shares of Stock daily. This, at par 
value, would be $80,000,000. And this statement does 


not include the bond or investment transactions, but 
simply the stock speculations. The influence of Wall 
street is potent the world over, and the magnitude of 
its transactions the subject of marvel among men. 

Wall street derives its name from the fact that it was 
originally the location of a wall bounding the north 
end of the little settlement, which has since grown to 
be a great city. This wall extended across Manhattan 
island, from the east to the Hudson river, and was 

built as a defense 
against India ns 
and wild animals. 
One of the first 
buildings of any 
consequence erect¬ 
ed on Wall street, 
was the City Hall, 
at the head of 
Broad street, and 
this brought prom¬ 
inence at once to 
the locality. At 
one time the street 
which is now the 
scenes daily, of 
great financial 
transactions, was 
a fashionable resi¬ 
dence neighbor¬ 
hood, occupied by 
what was,in those 
days, palatial resi¬ 
dences. In Revo- 
1 u t i o n a r y w a r 
times, Wall street 
was the center of 
the most active demonstrations, and all the meetings 
were held in the City Hall. 

The Continental Congress was conceived, and its 


ight, and Trinity Church at the Head of the Street. 


tj 

















































































































































































WALL STREET AND THE NEW YORK STOCK EXCHANGE. 



convention persistently advocated by the leading busi¬ 
ness men and other prominent citizens of New York, 
who found Wall Street the natural place for meeting 
and discussion. In the old City Hall, which stood on 
the site of the present treasury building, the first Con¬ 
gress of the United States, after the adoption of the 
Constitution, assembled, and on its balcony George 
Washington was inaugurated first President. Since 
that day, in every crisis, political or financial, Wall 
Street has been first to respond to the realization of 
every emergency. In the dark days of our nation’s 


peril the sensitive street indexed perfectly the public 
state of mind, and few who were there will ever forget 
the feeling on the street when the news was received 
of the assassination of Abraham Lincoln. 

At the present time Wall Street extends only from 
the East river to Broadway, where stands Trinity 
church, looking down the famous street, and uplifting 
its graceful spire, as if a perpetual reminder of more 
solemn things; but the busy money-getters, who swarm 
like flies under the shadow of its venerable walls, find 
no time or taste to linger over such reflections. 


THE BULLS AND BEARS OF THE NEW YORK STOCK EXCHANGE. 


A GREAT FINANCIAL CENTER. 

About a century ago an old button-wood tree stood 
in front of what is now No. 60 Wall street, just below 
where the Custom House stands, and its wide-spreading 
branches and thick foliage afforded ample shelter from 
either the rain, or the heat of the mid-day sun. Its 
trunk was several feet in diameter, and by common 
consent the space within the shadow of its branches 
became a “ place where merchants most do congre¬ 
gate, ’ and a few of the more active and enterprising 


men of the young city were in the habit of meeting 
there for the purpose of bartering in the few securities 
which the country offered. It was under this ancient 
button-wood that the nucleus of what is now the 
greatest institution of its kind in the world—the New 
York Stock Exchange—was formed. Not, however, 
until the year 1817, was a formal organization of the 
Stock Exchange effected and a constitution adopted, 
and this underwent a thorough revision in 1820, when 
some of the most prominent capitalists in the city 


o 




































































































































WALL STREET AND THE NEW YORK STOCK EXCHANGE. 


549 



erage 


on 


houses 
Wall street. 

The meetings of 
the Exchange were 
originally secret 


joined the organization, and from which time may be 
said to date the real history of the present New York 
Stock Exchange. The war of 1812 had given the first 
genuine impulse to speculation, the government plac¬ 
ing loans upon the market which amounted in the 
aggregate to $190,- 
000,000, and in 
which there were 
wide fluctuations 
in the market quo- 
tations. Bank 
stocks also became 
a favorite class of 
investments, and 
in 1816 there were 
over 200 banks in 
the country with a 
combined capital 
of $82,000,000. 

An idea as to the 
character of some 
of the business of 
the brokers of that 
day may be gained 
from the statement 
that the govern¬ 
ment G’s of 1814 
were worth 50 in 
specie and 70 in 
New York bank 
currency. The 
lucky speculations 
in the “ shin-plas¬ 
ters” of the period 
formed the basis 
upon which was 
built up in subse¬ 
quent years one of 
the leading brok- 


and not recognized 
by law. The total 

transactions of a day seldom equaled 1,000 shares 
of stock, most of the purchases and sales being 
made in small lots of 10 to 25 shares each. Sales 
were generally made on a credit of ten, thirty, or 
sixty days, and sometimes six and even twelve 


EXTERIOR VIEW OF THE NEW YORK STOCK EXCHANGE. 


months’ time was allowed, the security meanwhile 
remaining with the seller, and the buyer paying inter¬ 
est. A list was kept of the various securities dealt in, 
and these were called up one at a time. Dealings 
were allowed in each only as it was reached in turn, 

and when the list 
was completed, 
business was closed 
for the day. The 
secretary of the 
board kept a record 
of all the transac¬ 
tions and the min¬ 
utes were read over 
at the conclusion 
of each day’s busi¬ 
ness, which then 
became final evi¬ 
dence of the condi¬ 
tions and terms of 
the contracts that 
had been made. 


THE PRESENT 
STOCK EX¬ 
CHANGE. 

After the great 
fire of 1835, the 
Stock Exchange 
was compelled to 
shift about for 
suitable accommo¬ 
dations, and for a 
time held its ses¬ 
sions in Jauncey 
Court; then, in 
1842, returned to 
a hall in the Mer¬ 
chants’ Exchange, 
which had been re¬ 
built, and in which 
it continued to ope¬ 
rate until its pres¬ 
ent building was 
erected, in 1865. 
During all these 
years of growth and prosperity on the part of the 
Stock Exchange, it has not been without rivals 
and competition from other similar organizations 
which have sprung up in its vicinity, which have 
aimed to draw olf the immense patronage or divide the 


























































































































































































































































































550 


WALL STREET AND THE NEW YORK STOCK EXCHANGE. 


profitable business of the great and constantly growing 
Exchange. In a lower room of the Merchants’ Ex- 

O 

change building, a rival organization known as the 
“ Bourse,” had been established, and among its mem¬ 
bers were a number of persons who had previously 
belonged to the Stock Exchange, but who had failed 
and obtained discharges in bankruptcy. They were 
not, however, under the rule of the Stock Exchange, 
entitled to readmission. For some time the Bourse, 
or “ Open Board,” as it was also called, made serious 
inroads into the business of the Stock Exchange, and 
it became evident that the two boards should be 
brought together in some way. This was done by the 
old Stock Exchange gradually absorbing the members 
of the Bourse, waiving restrictions that would other¬ 
wise interfere with their readmission, and in 1846 the 
sessions of the Bourse were discontinued. At about 
the same time, encouraged by the success thus secured, 
the initiation fee to the Stock Exchange was raised to 
$400, at which price many new members were received. 
In 1823 the initiation fee had been fixed at $25, from 
which it was raised, in 1827, to $100, and in 1833 it 
was further increased to $150. 

THE BUILDING. 

The present Stock Exchange building is an impos¬ 
ing edifice, and presents a striking appearance as it 
fronts on Broad street, just off from Wall street. It 
is faced with white marble, and the entrance is made 
through an elaborate portico of polished granite and 
marble, above which is carved the name, “ New York 
Stock Exchange.” An elaborate finish is displayed 
throughout the entire front of the building, and pilas¬ 
ters, friezes and cornices are combined in rich profu¬ 
sion. Above all a handsome slated mansard roof caps 
the palatial structure, from which, on public days, 
always floats on the breeze, the stars and stripes. 

Within, the floors of the building are richly tiled; 
the ceilings are elaborately frescoed, in which blue is 
the predominant color in the Board room, and the 
stairways are of easy ascent, with iron, granite and 
marble steps. 

THE ROOMS. 

In form, the building is a T, with the stem some¬ 
what shortened. It extends from Broad to New street , 
with an area running out to Wall street, and entrance 
is effected from all sides. Entering from Broad street 
at the first door below Wall street, the first room is 
occupied by telegraph and telephone offices, and seats 
for the members, next to which, and also reached by 


the second doorway, is the “long room,” which is 40 
by 68 feet. Persons who are not members of the Ex¬ 
change are admitted to these two rooms upon the pay¬ 
ment of a subscription fee of $100 per annum. The 
board room where the regular purchases and sales of 
stocks are made, fronts on New street, and is 140 feet 
long by 53 feet wide, the hight of the ceiling being 55 
feet. The ceiling is made entirely of iron in flat pan¬ 
els, frescoed in the renaissance style and with orna¬ 
mental lunettes in its center. The rostrum is situated 
against the inner wall, and about midway between the 
extreme ends of the room. In and out of the New 
street entrances to the board room, messengers carry¬ 
ing orders and returning from their delivery, go and 
come constantly throughout the time the Exchange is 
open, from 10 a. m. to 3 p. m. There is a gallery^ on a 
level with the second floor at each end of the board 
room for the accommodation of visitors who wish to 
witness the struggles of the bulls and bears on an 
active day, or watch the knockings off of hats which 
occurs at times when trading is dull. No persons 
except members of the Exchange in good standing are 
admitted to the floor of the Exchange. 

The room in which the dealings in government, rail¬ 
road and state bonds take place, and in which the gov¬ 
erning committee also meets, is on the second floor, 
next to which and looking out on Broad street is the 
secretary’s room. The third and fourth stories are 
devoted to committee rooms. 

The membership of the Stock Exchange is now 
about 1,100. Viewed from the gallery, the Stock 
Exchange, in session, would be regarded by the unini¬ 
tiated observer as a disorderly and confused mass of 
human beings without method or restraint, engaged in 
a medley of bargains and disputes which would surpass 
the ingenuity of any one to unravel or comprehend. 
The din and noise of thousands of voices mingle into a 
roar, and the operators vociferate and gesticulate as if 
they were an angry mob. But underneath all this 
surface of seeming confusion, there is a system, order 
and exactness, and the Stock Exchange is a model of 

METHOD AND GOVERNMENT. 

The entire government of the Stock Exchange is 
vested in a Governing Committee, composed of the 
president and treasurer of the Exchange and forty 
members, one-fourth of whom are elected each year. 
They have power to try all offenses under or against 
the laws of the Exchange, and all charges against 
members, and their decision is final. A majority of all 
the members of the governing committee, as well as 
























WALL STREET AND THE NEW YORK STOCK EXCHANGE. 


551 


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FLOOR DIAGRAM, NEW YORK STOCK EXCHANGE. 

A, Door connecting the floor of the Exchange with the hall; B, 
he entrance to the passages G, at the ends of the loom, through 
vhich persons having access only to the Long Room may pass, or 
top and converse with their brokers; C,the New Street entrance 
o the same passages, and also to the floor of the Exchange: D, the 
j e w Street entrance for clerks and messengers from brokers’ 


offices, who arrange themselves along the passageways I, and from 
a stand, M, the numbers of the brokers who are wanted at the door 
or railing are exposed in white figures upon a blackboard at each 
end of the room by electricity ;E, the entrance for the American Dis¬ 
trict Telegraph messengers, the passage way K being set apart for 
them; F, the central main entrance from New Street to the floor, 
for use only by members. The signboards arranged along the 
center of the floor, indicate the location in the room where the 
more active stocks are dealt in; they indicate, for instance, the 
location of the “ Erie crowd,” the “ Lake Shore crowd,” etc. 
Other parts of the room are by common consent set apart for 
specified stocks, where most of the dealings in them take place. 
H, the rostrum where the chairman's desk is situated, on an 
elevated platform. The floor of the Exchange is 145 feet long, 
and 55 feet wide, and the ceiling is 63 feet high. Directly over G, 
at either end of the room, and on a level with the second floor of 
the rest of the building, are the visitors’ galleries. It is directly 
under these galleries that the brokers’ numbers are displayed when 
they are called for by outsiders or messengers. Each member of 
the Exchange has a number, which goes with his seat. 


of each of the sub-committees, is necessary to consti¬ 
tute a quorum. The members of the governing 
committee, together with the vice-president and the 
secretary, constitute the officers of the Exchange, and 
no person is eligible to any office who is not, at the 
time of his election, a member in good standing. 

There are a number of standing committees, each 
having charge of its own special department, the prin¬ 
cipal ones of which are as follows: A Finance Com¬ 
mittee; a committee of Arrangements; a committee 
on Admissions; a committee on Securities, a commit¬ 
tee on Government Securities, a committee on Stock 
List, an Arbitration committee, a Law committee, a 
committee on Commissions, and a committee on 
Insolvencies. 

The committee on admissions consists of fifteen 
members, and to it are referred all new applications for 
membership and all applications of suspended members 
for readmission; two-thirds of the committee approv¬ 
ing, the candidate is declared elected or re-elected to a 
membership in the Exchange, whereupon the chair¬ 
man of the committee informs the presiding officer of 
the Exchange of the admission, and the announcement 
of the same is made to the Exchange. Every appli¬ 
cant for membership must be at least 21 years of age, 
and pay the required initiation fee of $10,000—this 
does not cover the price of a seat, but is the fee paya¬ 
ble to the Exchange for the original membership. 
Any member has the right to transfer his membership 
by submitting the name of the transferee to the com¬ 
mittee of admissions, providing that two-thirds of the 
committee approve the transfer and the member trans¬ 
ferring has no unsettled contracts. Within the past 
year or two seats have sold as high as $32,000; during 









































































552 


WALL STREET AND THE NEW YORK STOCK EXCHANGE. 


the dull period of 1876 and 1877 the price declined to 
$3,500. No transfer of membership is permitted until 
all dues to the Stock Exchange have been paid in full, 
such dues being treated as a prior lien upon the pro¬ 
ceeds of sale of membership certificate. 

When a member dies, his membership is disposed of 
by the committee on admissions, and after the claims 
of the members of the Stock Exchange have all 
been satisfied, the balance is paid to the legal repre¬ 
sentatives of the deceased member. 

Any member who fails to comply with his contracts, 
or who becomes insolvent, is immediately suspended 
until he has settled with his creditors. It is the duty 
of such member immediately to inform the president 
in writing that he is unable to meet his engagements, 
and the presiding officer gives notice at once from the 
chair, of the suspension of such member. If he fails 
to settle with his creditors within a year, his member¬ 
ship is disposed of by the committee on admissions and 
the proceeds paid pro rata to his creditors in the Stock 
Exchange, but the governing committee may extend 
the time for settlement beyond one year. No member 
is allowed to take as partner any suspended member, 
during the period of his suspension, or to form a part¬ 
nership with any insolvent person, and whenever the 
governing committee shall determine upon the report 
of the committee on insolvencies, that the failure of a 
member has been caused by his doing business in a 
reckless and unbusiness like manner, he may be 
declared ineligible for readmission, by a majority 
vote of the entire governing committee. 

The rules governing dishonest practices, are very 
stringent. It is provided that any member convicted 
of making fictitious sales shall be expelled, and the 
member making fictitious or trifling bids or offers shall, 
upon conviction, be subject to suspension or such other 
penalty as the governing committee may impose. All 
debts, without distinction, are binding upon the mem¬ 
bers of the Exchange, and “ should any member be 
guilty of obvious fraud, of which the governing com¬ 
mittee shall be the judge, he shall, upon conviction 
thereof by a vote of two-thirds of the members of said 
committee present, be declared by the president to be 
expelled, and his membership shall escheat to the 
Exchange.” Any member who shall himself, or whose 
partner shall apply for an injunction restraining any 
officer or committee of the Exchange from performing 
his or its duties under the constitution and by-laws, 
by that act ceases to be a member of the association; 
and any member uniting directly or by a partner with 
any other organization where stocks, bonds, etc., are 


dealt in—except the New York Mining Stock Ex¬ 
change, where there are no dealings in railroad and 
state stocks and bonds—ceases to be a member. 

It is the duty of the president to see that the several 
provisions of the constitution and by-laws are enforced, 
and to have a care of the general interests of the 
Exchange, but the position is chiefly an honorary one 
and is without salary. The officer who presides over 
the board from 10 a. m. to 3 p. m., when it is assem¬ 
bled for business, is the chairman, or in his absence, 
the vice-chairman. They generally alternate by each 
serving one-half of the day. Neither one is permitted 
to operate in stocks during the period that he is pre¬ 
siding. The “calls” in the board room and also in 
the government department are made by them, and 
they determine all questions of order, including the 
infliction of fines for minor offenses, such as indecorous 
language, disorderly conduct, etc. 

The duties of the secretary are onerous and the posi¬ 
tion is one commanding much respect—next to that of 
president—but while the presidents are changed fre¬ 
quently it is the custom of late years to elect a new man 
at the end of either the first or the second year—the 
secretary is retained for many years; the last change 
was made only upon the refusal of the occupant who had 
served for fourteen years, to remain longer in office. 

Upon the death of any member of the Exchange 
each surviving member is assessed $10, and the faith of 
the Exchange is pledged to pay to the widow and chil¬ 
dren, or the next of kin, out of the money so col¬ 
lected, $10,000, or as much as may have been collected, 
but it is specifically stipulated that this shall not be 
construed as constituting an estate in esse which can 
be mortgaged or pledged for the payment of any debts. 
It is made the special duty of the governing committee 
to increase the surplus revenues of the Exchange as 
far as possible for the purpose of accumulating a fund 
which is known as the “ gratuity fund,” which is under 
the charge of a board of trustees, composed of the 
president and treasurer of the Exchange, and of five 
other trustees who hold office for five years, and one of 
whom is elected annually. Each new member is 
required to pay $10 to the gratuity fund, and when the 
annual income of the Exchange exceeds its actual cur¬ 
rent expenses by $10,000, one-half of that sum is 
turned over to the trustees of the same fund, the other 
half being credited to the members in reduction of 
their annual dues. Whenever the number of deaths of 
members exceed fifteen in any one year, thus making 
the amount due from each member for death claims 
during the year more than $150, the excess is to be 

























WALL STREET AND THE NEW YORK STOCK EXCHxYNGE. 


553 









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paid from the gratuity fund, if there is sufficient money 
belonging to the fund for that purpose; but if not, the 
liability of members to pay in excess of the $150 is 
not impaired. The gratuity fund is not to exceed 
$1,000,000, and this fund attaches to the seat, and is 
transferable with it. 

THE LANGUAGE OF BROKERS. 

The technical terms common to the street have small 
meaning to outsiders, but are fruitful and descriptive 


to those familiar with the traffic of which they are 
emblematic. There is, probably, no other business in 
the world more aptly described in the phrases peculiar 
to it. Regular vocabularies have been formulated, but 
a few of the leading terms will serve the explanatory 
purpose of the present article. It is well known that 
the speculation in stocks is between to elements, the 
Bears and the Bulls. The bears are those who are 
endeavoring to depress prices, and who operate for 









































































































































































































































































554 


WALL STREET AND THE NEW YORK STOCK EXCHANGE. 


lower figures. The bulls, oil the contrary, are the 
operators for higher figures. The bears sell short — 
i. e., they sell stocks that they do not own, and trust 
to manipulation or future events to buy them back at 
a lower figure. The bulls buy stocks, and bid up 
prices and use all schemes to force values to a higher 
plane. As a rule, the “ outside,” or non-professional 
operator, is a bull. It has never yet been the fortune 
of a broker to sufficiently explain to a novice how it 
was possible to sell what he did not own, and what he 
did not want to possess. It is easy enough for a person 
wishing- to invest in stocks to understand that if he 
purchases 100 shares of Western Union at 82 and it 
advances to 83, that he has made one per cent minus the 
brokerage—$100 less -g- for buying and l for selling— 
or $75 net. Now if he had sold 100 shares at 82 and 
the stock had declined one per cent, to 81, the result 
would have been precisely the same. In all regular 
stock transactions the stock bought or sold must be 
delivered before 2: 15 r. M. the following day. If the 
transaction is for “ cash,” the delivery must be made 
the same day. So when a broker sells a stock “short” 
he must go into the loan market and borrow it for 
delivery. All of the leading stocks are bought and 
sold in their respective sections of the board room. 
Thus, there is the Erie crowd, the St. Paul crowd, the 
Western Union crowd, etc., each circle being denomi¬ 
nated a “ crowd.” In the same way there is the loan 
crowd, where stocks and money are loaned. And the 
more prominent houses have their brokers in each 
crowd who pay no attention to any other feature of the 
market. We will suppose A has sold 100 shares West¬ 
ern Union short at 82. He goes into the loan crowd and 
borrows of B at two per cent, i. e., he gives his check 
for the amount of the stock, $8,200, and receives inter¬ 
est at the rate of two per cent per annum for his money. 
The lender can “call” the stock (demandits return) at 
the same price unless there is a distinct understanding 
to the contrary. If a stock loans fiat, the borrower 
gets no interest for his money. It is frequently the 
case that the borrower is compelled to pay a premium 
for the use of a stock, i. e., he receives no interest for 
his money and pays more than the market price for the 
stock, in order that the delivery may be made. 

Short and long are terms descriptive of the relative 
positions of the sellers and the buyers of stocks. An 
operator is “ short ” when he has sold stock he does 
not possess, and “long” when he has accumulated 
stock. As a rule the professional speculators, and 
brokers are bears, and short of the market, while the 
outsiders, or non-professionals, are buyers. These 


“outsiders,” so-called, are the lambs, and the real 
source of profit to the brokers and strength to the 
stock market. As a class, their knowledge of values 
is solely derived from the brokers, and it is because of 
their innocence, and their reliance upon the judgment 
of others that they are dubbed lambs. But there are 
some exceptions, and men who have an intimate knowl¬ 
edge of the actual worth of the properties in*which 
they trade. 

A point is the term descriptive of special advice 
given respecting the future course of one or more 
stocks, and the person giving a point is supposed by 
reason of association or relations to be possessed of 
knowledge not obtainable by the general public. 

A pool is a combination of men who join their opera¬ 
tions in order to secure and maintain control of a cer¬ 
tain line of stocks and manipulate them for mutual 
profit. The usual plan after the formation of a pool 
is to place its management in the hands of one of the 
members. As an illustration, we will suppose a pool 
is formed to put up the price of St. Paul stock. Bro¬ 
kers are engaged to buy all that is offered. And when 
the pool has accumulated enough stock to control the 
deliveries, and a “ short” interest has been created, the 
price can be forced up to a point that will yield big 
profits to the pool. Of course the success of a pool 
depends entirely upon the secrecy with which it is con¬ 
ducted and the adherence of each individual member to 
the original plan. It frequently happens that one or 
more members of a pool will operate against it for 
individual account, and sell out through other brokers 
stock that had been previously accumulated. This is 
called “ unloading,” and is, of course, a violation of 
agreement, or sharp practice. 

“ Buyer’s option,” is descriptive of a transaction in 
which the purchaser has the choice of taking a stock 
within a specified time. Ordinary purchases and sales 
are termed “regular,” and are terminated by the regu¬ 
lar rule of the Exchange, at the specified hour for the 
delivery of the stock—as previously stated, 2: 15 r. m. 
the following day. But if the stock is purchased 
“ Buyer 3,” or 10, or 30, as the case may be, it need 
not be accepted by the purchaser until the expiration 
of the specified number of days. “ Seller’s option” is 
simply the reverse of this, the choice resting with the 
seller as to when the stock shall be delivered 

When an operator or a clique obtains control of all 
or nearly all the available stock of a company, and then 
suddenly advances the price far beyond its normal mar¬ 
ket value, he is said to have “cornered” the stock. 
Some of these “ corners ” have become famous in his- 





























WALL STREET AND THE NEW YORK STOCK EXCHANGE. 


555 


tory, notably the Northwest “corner,” the Harlem 
“ corner” and the Erie “corner,” of later date, which 
were conducted by Daniel Drew, Commodore Vander¬ 
bilt, Jay Gould and James Fisk, Jr., respectively. It 
was this latter operation that gave Fisk the title of 
“ Prince Erie.” 

To “ cover,” is to buy in stocks to close out a trans¬ 
action, and applies equally well to an operation that 
has proved profitable, or that nets a loss. 

A “ limited order” is one that fixes the price beyond 
which the customer will not go, and a “ stop order” is 
one given to sell out the stock held by a broker if it 
touches the point at which the stop is fixed, or to cover 
a short sale in case there is an advance. It is the 
method by which the customer prevents losses beyond 
a stipulated point. 

At times it is desirable for parties in interest to give 
the appearance of activity to a stock, i. e., to have, 
apparently, large transactions in it. This is done by 
two or more brokers operating together, and Jones 
buying all the stock that Smith offers. This private 
understanding is, in its nature, a fraud on outsiders, 
and if detected renders the offenders liable to expul¬ 
sion. It is termed “washing.” As there is no real 
transaction between Jones and Smith, the ostensible 
activity of the stock is deceptive. The purpose is, of 
course, to excite active purchases and sales by other 
parties, and prevent any decline that would naturally 
follow in case there was no market for the stock. 

A “ listed” stock is one which has been admitted to 
dealings on the Stock Exchange and the name placed 
on the list of such stocks. The active list is “ called ” 
daily. Stocks placed on the free list are only called 
upon the request of a member of the Exchange, which 
is done generally for the purpose of fixing the market 
value of the stock. 

A stock is said to be “ pegged” when the controlling 
clique prevent its goingbelow a certain price, and take 
all the stock offered at that figure. This is the plan 
resorted to when it is for the interest of operators to 
keep the market strong. 

DAILY ROUTINE. 

The Stock Exchange is open for the transaction of 
business from 10 a. m. to 3 p. m., except holidays and 
such other days as may be designated from time to 
time by the governing committee. Of late years the 
governing committee has also ordered that during the 
summer season, the business shall not begin until 11 
o’clock on Monday mornings. A fine of $50 is imposed 
upon any member who shall directly or indirectly make 


any transaction in stocks or bonds before or after the 
hours mentioned, in the Exchange or its vicinity. 

The business of the day begins upon the announce¬ 
ment from the rostrum by the chairman that the hour 
has arrived; the announcement is usually made with 
the chairman’s gavel. Every member who is taking an 
active interest in the market, at the time, is anxious to 
be present at the opening of the board, and it must be 
a dull time, indeed, when the first fall of the gavel is 
not immediately followed by shouts from different 
parts of the room and a rush to the points where the 
most active stocks are dealt in, the rapid bids and 
offerings being made with so much noise and in such 
quick succession as to confuse most thoroughly every 
one not familiar with the business. But every word 
and movement is comprehended instantly by the bro¬ 
kers. Posts are placed in different parts of the room 
on which are small sign-boards indicating the stock 
dealt in in that immediate vicinity. If the bears are 
making a raid on, we will suppose, Denver and Rio 
Grande (stock), the plans have all been matured before 
the opening of the board, orders have been judiciously 
distributed through some prominent house, to numer¬ 
ous brokers to sell a given number of shares of Denver 
at the opening, and a manifest desire to sell coming 
apparently from half a dozen sources at the same time, 
is sufficient to create the impression that something is 
wrong, and that a few persons are in possession of the 
facts respecting the unfavorable condition of affairs. 
Unless the bulls are prepared for the attack and are 
strong enough to take the stock offered promptly, a 
break in the price must follow. It may decline a frac¬ 
tion of one per cent, or even more, if the bulls are 
taken by surprise, and then rally; but, if the stock 
has few friends, and they not strong in their faith and 
bank accounts, there is nothing to prevent a heavy 
decline in the price of the stock. While this markino- 
down process is going on—it may last a whole day, or 
many days—the “ Denver crowd” is always a center of 
attraction on the board. A few of the leaders on both 
sides of the market are to be seen beating the air and 
shouting their bids and offers with such vehemence as 
to be heard for a considerable distance away from the 
Exchange building. A stranger would very naturally 
regard them as extremely angry and in the midst of a 
hand to hand fight. As a new recruit with fresh orders 
from either side enters the crowd, he is besieged almost 
to violence by the opposition, each one eager to be first 
in making the purchase or sale, and it requires a strong 
muscle as well as a strong nerve at times to resist the 
onslaught. To the experienced broker, however, it is 


o 



































556 


WALL STREET AND THE NEW YORK STOCK EXCHANGE. 


the very life of his business, and nothing is more dis¬ 
tasteful to him than the ennui which accompanies a 
dull day at the Stock Exchange. The business of the 
board thus continues uninterruptedly until 3 o’clock, 
when a check is put to further proceedings by the vigor¬ 
ous ringing of a gong on the floor of the Exchange. 

Until recently the chairman began the “ call” of all 
regular or active stocks in the board room at 10: 30 a. 
m., and again at 1: 30 p. m., but these calls have been 
transferred to a room up stairs known as the govern¬ 
ing committee’s room, the calls now being made at 11 
a. m. and 1:15 p. m. The stocks and bonds regularly 
listed include 136 railroad stocks, 60 bank stocks, 13 
coal and mining stocks, 13 miscellaneous stocks, five 
express stocks, 75 state securities, 20 city and county 
securities, the various issues of the United States gov¬ 
ernment, one foreign 
government security 
(Quebec), and 440rail¬ 
road bonds including 50 
income bonds. There 
are also 190 stocks and 
bonds on the free list 
which are called only 
upon the request of a 
member. 

The leading broker¬ 
age houses usually have 
someone member whose 
principal business is to 
execute the orders on 
the floor of the Ex¬ 
change, and it is seldom 
that he can be found elsewhere during board hours. 
The orders received at the office are usually sent in a 
small envelope by a messenger boy to the board, the 
place for such boys being on the New street side of the 
building. Until recently, whenever a broker was 
wanted, his name was called loudly three times by an 
employe of the exchange, five or six of whom were 
always in attendance, and frequently a messenger went 
in search of him. At present, however, each active 
member of the board is given a number, running from 
one to 680, and when any one is wanted, his number 
is displayed at one end of the board room by means of 
an electric apparatus, which is operated from the mes¬ 
senger boys’ corner. When the call is answered the 
number is covered again. The arrangement is giving 
much satisfaction, as a large percentage of the noise 
and confusion of the board room came formerly from 
the constant call for members. 


The only record kept by the broker who transacts 
the business on the Exchange, is made on a little slip 
of paper, a bundle of which may always be seen in his 
hand during: business hours. When the orders are 
executed these slips containing the briefest memoranda 
are sent again by messenger to the broker’s office, 
whence notice of the transaction is given to the cus¬ 
tomer and the proper entries are made on the books. 
This is the only evidence of transactions which amount 
daily in the aggregate to many millions of dollars, and 
yet disputes seldom arise, and they are always settled 
without recourse to law. Each party to the transac¬ 
tion sends a notice to his office and, if the sale has 
been made in the regular way, during the afternoon a 
comparison is made by the two offices of their record of 
the purchase and sale. When an active business has 

been done, this com¬ 
parison of figures with 
each house involves con¬ 
siderable time, and ef¬ 
forts have been made to 
establish a single clear¬ 
ing house, where all the 
comparisons of a day’s 
business on the Ex¬ 
change could be made. 
The stock purchased 
must be delivered be¬ 
fore 2: 15 p. m. of the 
following day, and 
when deliveries are not 
made by that time, the 
contract may be closed 
by an officer of the board, after due notice to the 
defaulting party, which must be given by 2: 30 p. m., 
otherwise the contract continues without interest until 
the following day. When minor differences arise, an 
appeal is often taken to the chairman, whose decision 
is accepted. More important differences are referred 
to the arbitration committee, which consists of nine 
members. The decision of this committee is final in 
all cases, unless an appeal is taken by a member of the 
committee, or unless the case involves as much as 
$2,500, when either party may appeal, within ten days, 
to the governing committee for a final adjudication. 

HOW TO SPECULATE. 

The number of persons who are not directly engaged 
in speculation as a means of earning a living, but who 
occasionally take a “flyer” in Wall street, is much 
larger than it is generally supposed to be. By out- 



A POOL. 







































WALL STREET AND THE NEW YORK STOCK EXCHANGE. 


557 


siders a great deal of secrecy is maintained when they 
try their luck in Wall street; but doctors, lawyers, 
clergymen, teachers, farmers, merchants, all speculate, 
and many of them without any definite idea, either in 
regard to the intrinsic value of the securities they buy, 
or the manner in which their orders are executed by 
their broker on the Stock Exchange. For the infor¬ 
mation of the uninformed the following- suggestions 
and statements are made: 

In the first place, do not fora moment think of risk¬ 
ing any money in the stock market which you cannot 
afford to lose. The shrewdest operators, whose whole 
attention, night and day, is devoted to watching the 
market, and who have hundreds of thousands, or even 
millions to assist them in supporting their best judg¬ 
ment, often find it necessary to pocket a loss. You 
cannot hope to be more fortunate than they. Having 
decided to take your chances, select an honest broker 
who is a member of the Stock Exchange, to whom to 
give your orders. Such a man will not be difficult to 
find, but when found it will be necessary to satisfy 
him by introduction and recommendation as to your 
honesty and good financial standing. It is very safe 
to assume that the broker who will accept your account 
without having first obtained information in regard to 
your standing in the community where you are known, 
is himself not to be trusted. The rules of the Stock 
Exchange are very strict regarding the commissions to 
be charged. The constitution provides that: 

“Commission shall be charged and paid under all cir¬ 
cumstances, both upon the purchase and sale of stocks, 
bonds, and other securities either for members of the 
Exchange or for other parties, and the minimum rates 
on all securities other than gold, government bonds 
and exchange, shall be upon the par value thereof, as 
follows : 

One-eighth of one per cent, when the transaction is 
made for any party not a member of this Exchange. 
No business shall be done at less than this rate for any 
persons or firms not members of this exchange, nor for 
any banking or other institution,” etc. 

The penalty for violation of this rule is laid down 
as follows: 

“ Any member violating this article, directly or indi¬ 
rectly, shall, upon conviction, cease to be a member of 
the Stock Exchange, and his membership shall escheat 
to the exchange. 

Any member who shall be convicted of offering to 
do business for less than the foregoing rates, shall be 
considered as having violated the commission law and 
shall be subject to the penalty for so doing.” 

As the income from a commission broker’s business 
depends very largely upon a strict observance by his 
associate members of the commission laws, a close 
watch is kept for any violation, and no other provis¬ 


ions of the constitution are enforced with as much 
severity as those relating to “obvious fraud,” referring 
especially to the treatment of non-members, and the 
article above quoted governing commissions. There is 
little doubt that the law is sometimes violated, but 
again comes the question : Will not the broker who 
cheats his fellow member in the board and lays himself 
liable to expulsion, also cheat you when the oppor¬ 
tunity offers? Rest assured that the opportunities for 
cheating you will be many times as great as those in 
which he can defraud his associates. 

So far as is known, Wall street brokers, both mem¬ 
bers and non-members of the Stock Exchange, are not 
engaged in the philanthropic work of doing business 
for outsiders for nothing. Certain Wall street bro¬ 
kers who are not members of the Exchange are in the 
habit of advertising for business in which they an¬ 
nounce that “orders will be executed on the Stock 
Exchange.” This is done to deceive, and the decep¬ 
tion usually consists either in not purchasing the stock 
at all, but reporting it as bought at some price at 
which the stock has sold during the day, or in buying 
the stock on the Exchange through a member of the 
board and reporting the transaction as having been 
made at a fraction above the figures actually paid. 

Commission houses that advertise almost invaria¬ 
bly announce, when such is the case, that one of the 
members of the firm is also a member of the Stock 
Exchange. 

Having selected a broker and the stock in which you 
wish to operate, nothing further remains than to 
deposit the money required by the broker as Margin , 
and give him your order to buy or sell. Before 1862 
the usual percentage required as Margin was five per 
cent of the par value of the stock; since the war the 
fluctuations have been so much more violent and rapid 
that first-class houses have exacted ten per cent where 
the trading is to be conducted in good dividend paying 
securities, and twenty per cent, or even more, where 
purchases and sales of fancy stocks are to be made. 

Suppose that the whole market, after a dull period 
during which prices decline materially, has begun to 
advance, and that you have particular reasons for think¬ 
ing that a certain stock is a good purchase. That 
stock may be Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul, com¬ 
mon, or, as it is generally spoken of, “ St. Paul,” the 
market quotation of which is 103J. If you wish to 
trade in as much as 1,000 shares, you will have already 
deposited with your broker $10,000 and taken his 
receipt for the same. You give him a written or ver¬ 
bal order to buy 1,000 shares St. Paul “ at the market,” 




























558 


WALL STREET AND THE NEW YORK STOCK EXCHANGE. 



and the order is executed as quickly as possible. The 
first lot which is offered is 200 shares at 1034 and your 
broker at once cries “sold,” and makes a note of the 
sale on a little slip of paper, a bundle of which lie 
keeps in his hand. Some one is anxious to break tlie 
price, and a lot of 300 shares is offered at 103£, which 
your broker takes at once, and he buys 500 shares more 
at 103f. The business is reported at once to the brok¬ 
erage office, and in a short time you receive a notice 
which reads somewhat as follows: 


We have purchased for your account and risk: 

300 shares St. Paul common at. 103£ 

500 “ “ “ . 103| 

200 “ “ “ . 103| 

Smith, Jones & Co. 


The advance in the price of the stock which you 
expected, takes place, and you order 500 shares sold at 
107, which is done. The remaining 500 shares you 
think you will hold for 108, but when the price touches 
107f there is a halt, and then a sudden decline, and 
finally, in just one month from the time of the pur¬ 
chase you order the rest of your stock sold “ at the 



market,” which is done, the price realized on the last 
500 shares being 104J. 

This has been a profitable transaction and your 
account stands as follows: 


Mr. A. B. in account with 

Smith, Jones & Co., 
Dr. 

To 300 shares St. Paul bought at 103|.. 

“ 500 “ “ “ 103f.. 

“ 200 “ “ “ 

“ Brokerage buying, 4 per cent 
“ “ selling, | “ 

“ Interest. 

Balance due. 


103J, 


$ 30,975.00 
51,687.50 
20,700.00 
125.00 
125.00 
427.30 
11,710.20 


Cr. 


$115,750.00 


By Cash (margin). $ 10,000.00 

“ 500 shares St. Paul sold at 107. 53,500.00 

“ 500 “ “ • “ 1044. 52,250.00 


$115,750.00 

You now have a balance with your broker of $11,- 
710.20, and as you advanced $10,000, the net profits 
from your purchase of 1,000 shares of St. Paul, was 


PUT.’ 


New York , January 4, 1883. 

the Bearer may DELIVER me Fire Hundred Shares of 
the Common Stock of the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railroad Company , ai One Hundred and 
Three per cent, any lime in Sixty days from dale. 

The undersigned is entitled to all dividends or extra dividends for which Transfer Books 
close during said lime. 


Expires, April 14, / 883, 
2 P. 31 


RUSSELL SB GE. 


$1,710.20. Had you sold the whole amount at 107, 
your profit would have been $1,250 greater. The 
details of the transaction in which you are charged 
with $427.30 interest do not appear in the above state¬ 
ment. The stock was bought “regular way,” and was 
therefore not delivered to your broker until the next 
day, when he hypothecated it for a loan of $83,000, to 
which he added the $10,000 advanced by you and $10,- 
362.50 which he contributed of his own money, thus 
making up the purchase price of $103,362.50. On the 
$83,000 borrowed, for which your stock was given as 
security, and on the $10,362.50 advanced by your bro¬ 


ker, you were charged six per cent per annum (this is 
the rule except when money cannot be obtained on call 
at that rate, when the customer is charged the market 
price). After the first five hundred shares were sold, 
the interest paid was only one-half the original sum. 

For illustration, we will suppose the next deal to 
be made on the other side of the market; that is, you 
sell short, suppose it to be 500 shares Western Union 
Telegraph stock at 79, regular way, and 500 shares 
Missouri Pacific at 104, seller 30. Both stocks, from 
information that you have received, you believe will 
decline, and you will therefore be able to buy them 




























































WALL STREET AND THE NEW YORK STOCK EXCHANGE. 


559 


cheaper. But meanwhile your broker must deliver the 
Western Union stock not later than 2: 15 r. m. on the 
day after he sells it, and for that purpose he borrows 
500 shares Western Union flat, that is, without inter¬ 
est. Interest is charged only when for some reason 
the stock is scarce, and is worth more at the time than 
the money. This may be the case shortly preceding 
the annual meeting of the company, when the stock is 
desired to control the election; or it is certain to occur 
when an effort is being made to corner the stock. The 


may unload a block of 30,000 shares at a good profit, 
which it has just bought. But to secure the greatest 
advance the whole market must appear strong. To 
accomplish this purpose, there is a great deal of talk 
about the increased earnings of the trunk lines, and on 
very light transactions New York Central and Lake 
Shore rise two or three per cent. At the same time a 


500 shares Missouri Pacific you do not have to deliver 
for thirty days. 

Nothing remains to be done but to await events. 
© 

But the market does not decline as you expected. The 
bulls have discovered that there is a large short interest 
in Western Union, that is, that a large amount of it 
has been sold short in anticipation of being able to buy 
it in at a lower figure. The ring controlling Wabash 
and Texas Pacific is also desirous of bringing about an 
advance in the price of those stocks, in order that it 


“squeeze” is given the timid “ shorts ” in Western 
Union, and their efforts to buy in before the advance 
is too great to be protected by their margins, only 
stimulates the market still more, and to your amaze¬ 
ment Western Union is selling at 84, Missouri Pacific 
is quoted at 106|. There is a break of one-half to one 
per cent in the whole market just when you are con- 


CALL.” 



New York, March 15, 1883. 

For Value Received, Vie 'Bearer may CALL CN us for Three Hundred Shares of the Slock 
of the Western Union Telegraph Company, at Eighty-One per cent, any lime in thirty days from 
dale. 

The hearer is entitled lo all dividends or extra dividends declared during the lime. 


Expires, April 14, 1883. 
2 P. M. 


W. E. CONN OB. & CO. 


STRADDLE.” 



New York, May 5, 1883. 

g^or ‘iOr&ttfjC ||t£CJeilJ£Cl, the Bearer may Deliver me, or Call on me, on one day's 
notice except last day, when notice is not required, One Thousand Shares of the Slock of the 
New York Central Railroad Company, at One Hundred and Twenty per cent, if But, or at One 
Hundred and Twenty-Eight per cent, if called, at any lime in forty-five days from dale. 
fiLll dividends for which Transfer Books close during said time, go with the slock. 
Expires, Two o'clock B. M. 

0. M. BOGfLRl. 























































560 


WALL STREET AND TIIE NEW YORK STOCK EXCHANGE. 


sidering the question of pocketing your loss of $2,500 
on Western Union, and encouraged by additional infor¬ 
mation contributed by the bears, you resolve to remain 
short. At the end of thirty days your broker borrows 
500 shares Missouri Pacific and makes the delivery in 
accordance with the terms of the sale, and as Western 
Union by that time is selling at 88, he calls for more 
margin. You send him a check for $2,000, determined 
to “ fio-ht it out, if it takes all summer.” Western 
Union touches 884 and you reflect that if you had given 
your order to buy instead of sell, you might have made 
$4,750, less the commissions, instead of being that 
much poorer besides the commissions. Missouri Pacific 
does not go above 108. It is then discovered that a 
prominent member of the ring who agreed not to sell any 
stock for ninety days under an advance of ten per cent, 
has, through other brokers, been supplying the street 
including his associates with most of the stock that 
has been bought, and there is a sudden rush on the part 
of the remaining members of the combination to sell. 
You leave an order with your broker to buy in your 
500 shares of Western Union at 81, and later he buys 
your Missouri Pacific at par. Your account stands as 
follows : 

Mr. A. B. in account with 

Smith, Jones & Co. 


Dr. 

To 500 shares Mo. Pac. bought at 100.$ 50,000.00 

“ 500 “ W. U. “ 81. 40,500.00 

“ Brokerage, buying, ^ per cent. 125.00 

“ “ selling, | “ . 125.00 

Balance due. 14,460.20 


$105,210.20 

Cr. 

By Cash (margin and profits).$ 11,710.20 

“ “ (additional margin. 2,000.00 

“ 500 shares Mo. Pac. sold at 104. 52,000.00 

“ 500 “ W. U. “ 79. 39,500.00 


$105,210.20 

In your last transaction you lost $1,000 on Western 
Union and made $2,000 out of Missouri Pacific, and as 
your advances for margin amount in all to $12,000 you 
are now $2,460.20 ahead. 

Suppose the next time you take a “ flyer” by buying 
100 shares of Louisville and Nashville at 56, and to 
protect yourself against excessive loss in case of a 
heavy decline, you buy, for $100, a Put, running sixty 
days at 51. The stock has been subject to wide fluct¬ 
uations. Within the sixty days that you are insured 
against a greater loss than five per cent and commis¬ 
sions, and the cost of your insurance (the price of the 
“ put”), it may sell at either 70 or 40—possibly both. 


This time, after selling at 59, at which you failed to 
take your profit, it declined to 45, and during the 
remainder of the time did not rally above 48. The 
day that your put was to expire and before the hour 
named in the agreement, your broker took around 100 
shares Louisville and Nashville to the person who had 
sold you the privilege, and received a check for $5,100 
(the amount at 51) which he placed to your credit. 
You had already been charged with $5,600 (the cost at 
56) and commissions, $25, and $100 for the “ put,” mak¬ 
ing your total loss $625. There was no interest charge 
because your balance with your broker was more than 
the total cost of the 100 shares of stock. The person 
who sold you the put may have sold the stock before 
the break at 59, and thus made $800, besides the $100 
which you paid him, out of the stock which you deliv¬ 
ered (or put) to him at 51, and with which he in turn 
balanced his short account. If he waited until the 
stock was put to him, of course he lost money. 

If you had sold Louisville and Nashville short, 
instead of buying it, and wished to insure against a 
given amount of loss, you would have bought a call 
instead of a put, that is, you would have paid a pre¬ 
mium (the price of the call) for the privilege of calling 
for the stock at a given price, with which to close your 
short account. If the market takes the course that 
you think it will, and you therefore have no use for 
your put or call, you lose the money paid for it in the 
same way that you lose the premium on your fire insur¬ 
ance, when the house does not burn. 

Persons buy puts and calls also without taking any 
other risk in the market. If you should pay $125 for 
the privilege of “putting” 100 shares of Delaware, 
Lackawanna and Western stock at any time within ten 
days at 128, and yon were able to buy it in the mean¬ 
time at 125, you would evidently make three per cent, 
$300 less the price of the put, $125, or a net profit of 
$175. If the stock during the time did not sell below 
126f, the privilege would be of no value to you. A 
“straddle,” or “double privilege,” permits you either 
to put or to call the stock at the prices named. If 
Lake Shore is selling at 108 and the market is feverish 
and liable, as you believe, to wide fluctuations, while 
at the same time you are in doubt as to whether it will 
advance or decline, you may be willing to pay, we 
will suppose, $200 for the privilege of putting 100 
shares of Lake Shore at 104 or of calling it at 112, at 
any time within ninety days. Of course, you lose your 
$200, unless the stock sells either above or below the 
extreme quotations mentioned, and your profit depends 
upon the advance or decline from those figures. The 







































WALL STREET AND THE NEW YORK STOCK EXCHANGE. 


operation is just what the terms indicate—you straddle 



the market, or have a double privilege in either putting 
or calling the stock. 

HOW STOCKS ARE LISTED AND FORGERIES 

OBVIATED. 

The adjudication of all disputed questions as to the 
regularity of stock certificates, bonds, etc. (except 
United States government securities), dealt in at the 
Exchange, and all applications for placing on the list 
the securities of the several states, are referred to the 
committee on securities. The United States govern- 
ment securities have a special committee. The most 
important of the securities committees, however, is 
the committee on stock list, to which is referred the 
arrangement of the calls of stocks and bonds, and all 
applications for placing stocks, bonds, etc., except 
those above mentioned, on the list dealt in at the Stock 
Exchange. Each application must be accompanied by 
a fee of $100 (formerly the fee was $50), to cover cost 
of printing and other expenses of the committee. 
The fee becomes the property of the Exchange, 
whether the application is accepted or rejected. When 
making application for listing additional amounts of 
stocks or bonds which are already on the list, the fee 
is $50. All applications should be addressed and 
checks should be drawn to the order of the Chair¬ 
man of the Stock List committee, who for many years 
past has been Mr. S. T. Russell. 

In all cases of application for placing either stocks 
or bonds of railroad companies on the list, it is 
required that a full statement of the location and 
description of the property, and, when possible, a map 
shall be furnished. The statement should give: 1, 
Title of the company; 2, when organized, and by what 

authority; 3, route from-to-; 4, miles of road 

completed and in operation, and any contemplated 
extension; 5, gauge; 6, iron rails; 7, steel rails; 8, 
equipment; 9, liabilities and assets; 10, number of 
shares and par value of each; 11, a list of the com¬ 
pany’s officers, etc.; 12, office of the company; 13, 
transfer office; 14, registry. When possible the state¬ 
ment should be made by an officer of the company. If 
it is a reorganization of an old road the particulars 
should be stated. 

It is also required that a sample of each issue of 
stock or bonds shall be shown to the committee, so that 
it may ascertain whether proper precautions have been 
taken against forgery. No form of stock certificate or 
bond will be accepted unless it has been carefully 


engraved by some responsible bank note engraving 
company. The face of every bond, coupon or certifi¬ 
cate of stock must be printed from steel plates which 
have been ergraved in the best manner, with such 
varieties of work as will afford the greatest security 
against counterfeiting by hand. For each document 
or instrument there must be at least two steel plates, 
viz.: a tint'plate, from which will be printed an anti¬ 
photographic color, so arranged as to underlie impor¬ 
tant portions of the face printing, and a face plate 
containing the vignettes and lettering of the descrip¬ 
tive or promissory portion of the document, to be 
printed in black or in black mixed with a color. These 



A BROKER’S OFFICE. 

two printings must be so made upon the paper that the 
combined effect of the whole, if photographed, would 
be a confused mass of lines and forms, to secure effect¬ 
ually against counterfeiting by scientific processes. 

All active stocks must be registered at some institu¬ 
tion satisfactory to the committee, and each application 
must be accompanied by a letter from the registrar 
stating the amount of stock registered at the time of 
application, and also by “The Form of Agreement 
with Registrars,” duly executed, provided such form has 
not already been filed with the committee. In case of 
any subsequent increase of capital stock, at least thirty 
days’ notice must be given through the newspapers, 
and in writing to the president of the Stock Exchange, 
of any intended increase of the number of shares, 
either direct or through the issue of convertible bonds, 
and a statement must be made of the object for which 



















































































562 


WALL STREET AND THE NEW YORK STOCK EXCHANGE. 


such increase of stock or bonds is about to be made. 
After any stock lias once been placed on the list, any 
change in the form of certificate, or place of regis¬ 
try, must receive the consent of the committee, other¬ 
wise the stock will be liable to be stricken from the 
list. Coupon bonds with privilege of registration 
cease to be a good delivery on the Stock Exchange in 
case the unmatured coupons are removed. 

Applications to place bonds on the list must give a 
description of the bonds as follows: 1, The amount of 
the issue; 2, the date of the issue; 3, the maturity; 4, 
the par value of each kind of bond issued; 5, the series 
of numbers under each mortgage; 6,-the rate of inter¬ 
est; 7, when payable; 8, the names of the trustees. 
Five copies of the mortgage must also be furnished, 
and the issue must be only on such portions of road as 
are actually completed. 

The committee has the power to transfer stocks and 
bonds from the free list to the regular list, and from 
the regular list to the free list, as it may deem 
proper. 

GOVERNMENT LOANS IN WALL STREET. 

The solid, substantial and conservative character of 
Wall street has been most fully displayed by the man¬ 
ner in which it has handled the national loans, and the 
statement will probably go unrefuted by any one of 
judgment, that without Wall street aid, the national 
cause could not have had a successful issue. When 
Jay Cooke & Co. were selected as the fiscal agents of 
the government for the negotiation of the first great 

O O O 

loan of five hundred millions of the 5-20s of 1863, they 
immediately came to New York and appointed two or 
three leading Wall street banking houses as their rep¬ 
resentatives there. One of those, Fisk & Hatch, which 
since became the leading government bond house of the 
country, was only about a year old, and both the mem¬ 
bers of the firm were young men. But they possessed 
an abiding faith in the government, and with great 
zeal they began their work. Every dollar of their 
commissions was spent in advertising the bonds, and 
the placing of the loan, about which there had been so 
much solicitude, both by the government officials and 
the patriotic people of the country, soon became an 
accomplished fact. When most of the bonds had been 
disposed of, the demand for them became so great that 
in the final transaction $15,000,000 more were bid for 
than the amount remaining unsold, and subsequently 
the loan was increased by that amount, making the 
total $515,000,000. 

In all subsequent negotiations of the government 


loans, and especially in the refunding operations that 
have taken place since the war, Wall street has done 
most or all of the business. The largest single sub¬ 
scription that was ever made in this or any other 
country, was when the last of the four per cents were 
taken. The amount authorized which had not yet been 
subscribed for was about $180,000,000. Early one 
morning—before the usual banking hours—the officers 
of the First National Bank were closeted with Fisk & 
Hatch, who had proposed that the whole amount 
remaining with the treasury be taken in a block. It 
was an extremely bold proposition, and at first the 
First National officials hesitated. They wanted to 
advise with some of their friends. In this way the 
scheme leaked out, and several prominent banking 
houses forwarded private subscriptions amounting in 
the aggregate to $60,000,000. When the subscription 
of the syndicate, which had been formed during the 
day, was telegraphed to Washington in the afternoon 
agreeing to take all the four per cents that were 
remaining unsold at one-half per cent above par and 
accrued interest, there were, therefore only $120,000,- 
000 left of the $180,000,000, which the secretary had 
on hand in the morning. 

When congress failed to provide for the redemption 
of the 5s and 6s of 1881, Secretary Windom visited 
New York to consult with the bankers there and per¬ 
fect a plan by which the honor and good faith of the 
government would be maintained. Earnest efforts 
were made to persuade the secretary that a three per 
cent bond could be floated at par, but others advocated 
four per cent, and Mr. Windom adopted a medium 
between the two rates—3^ per cent. Since that time, 
however, three per cents have sold at 104. In the past 
twenty years Wall street has seen six per cent govern¬ 
ment bonds sell at 90 and four per cents at 123. Gold 
rose from par to 285 and went back to par again. 

Government bonds are bought and sold mostly over 
the counters of a few leading bankers, and they have 
passed entirely from the speculative portion of the 
market, but the time was when there were large trans- 
actions on the Stock Exchange, although the whole of 
the day’s business was never done there, as is practi¬ 
cally the case with railroad stocks and bonds that are 
listed. In April, 1879, the total sales of government 
bonds reported at the Stock Exchange were $15,822,- 
850, and for the whole year they aggregated $112,571,- 
850. In 1880 the business at the board fell to $58,- 
459,600, and in 1881, to $36,663,250. For some time 
past there were several days in succession without 
the report of a single transaction. 


























WALL STREET AND THE NEW YORK STOCK EXCHANGE. 


563 


When the government officials visit New York to 
consult the financiers on Wall street, the conferences 
during the day are usually held in the sub-treasury 
building on the corner of Wall and Nassau streets— 
sometimes at the custom house. The evening sessions 
are generally at the Fifth Avenue hotel. It was at the 
latter place that William II. Vanderbilt, then a young 
man, called on President Grant, when the General vis¬ 
ited the city on a memorable occasion to see what aid 
could be extended to Wall street. William H. had 
come as an emissary from his father, and before he 
had proceeded far in the presentation of the Commo¬ 
dore’s scheme, he was interrupted by the General sud¬ 
denly inquiring after the Commodore’s health. 

“ It is very good, thank you,” replied William H. 

“Then why don’t he come himself to see me?” 



CUSTOMERS' ROOM. 

The hint was sufficient, and the Commodore lost no 
time in calling on the President. But nothing ot a 
substantial character was accomplished by the inter¬ 
view. In fact, the history of Wall street has become 
so closely interwoven with the financial history ot the 
government, that neither can be told without giving in 
part the record of the other. If the government 
wants money, it goes to AVall street to get it. If 
Wall street wants money, it goes to the people. Once 
the secretary of the treasury thought he would ignore 
Wall street. In his refunding operations he prepared 
a bond for the people, and to make it particularly 
attractive to the masses, he provided that any one who 
had $10 to invest could place it in a government inter¬ 


est-bearing certificate, and when enough of these cer¬ 
tificates were accumulated to equal its face, they were 
convertible into a bond. These certificates could be 
obtained direct from the government, and in this way 
the secretary proposed to avoid the payment of a com¬ 
mission for the negotiation of the bonds. The scheme 
was such a complete failure as to become the subject of 
ridicule. 

In all its subsequent refunding operations the gov¬ 
ernment has unhesitatingly availed itself of the assist¬ 
ance of Wall street, and its pre-eminent success is 
demonstrated by the fact that United States govern¬ 
ment three percents, redeemable at any time at the will 
of the government (but never payable until the gov¬ 
ernment is ready to discharge the debt), thus having 
an uncertain time to run, command a higher price in the 
market than British three per cent consols that are cer¬ 
tain to have a life of at least a century. At one time, 
when prices were lower, Europe bought very largely 
of our bonds through AVall street banking houses hav¬ 
ing branches abroad, but the refunding of the bonds 
bearing a high rate of interest into bonds bearing a 
low rate of interest and the high price which all of our 
bonds command in our own market, have caused most 
of those held abroad to bo returned to this country, in 
exchange for which European capitalists have invested 
more largely in the better class of American railroad 
stocks and bonds, many millions of which are now 
held by them. 

MISCELLANEOUS SPECULATIONS. 

The business of Wall street is not confined to deal¬ 
ings in government and state bonds and railroad stocks 
and bonds. As early as 1865 a mining stock exchange 
was established, three years after the organization of 
the first mining exchange in San Francisco, but its 
usefulness was short-lived. It was nearly ten years 
before the subject was again revived, since which time 
there have been one, and for three years prior to June 
1, 1883, two mining exchanges in the vicinity of AVall 
street. Trading in mining stocks reached such magni¬ 
tude that the sales reported at the two exchanges in 
1881 amounted to 43,027,426 shares, and for the first 
six months of 1882, to 28,211,052 shares. The most 
profitable period, however, was from 1878 to 1881, 
when many millions of eastern capital was invested in 
mining stocks. The business was so badly managed, 
and some of the manipulations were of such an out¬ 
rageous character, however, that mining stocks havo 
fallen into great disrepute. One of the exchanges has 
closed its doors, and the other has avoided a similar 


































































































































56 4 


WALL STREET AND THE NEW YORK STOCK EXCHANGE. 



fate by adding dealings in other securities to those of 
mining, especially petroleum. Nevertheless a good 
deal of money is still finding its way from Wall street 
into mining enterprises, but instead of corporations 
capitalized at many times the value of the properties 
represented, most of the business is now done quietly, 
by the formation of small syndicates or similar com¬ 
binations, and the purchase of mining property, which 
is developed under the direct supervision of a few per¬ 
sons most deeply interested in the mines. 

An important feature of Wall street speculation, 
which has assumed very large proportions within the 
past year or two, is the dealings in grain and provision 
options, mostly on the Chicago market. Started by 
the efforts of a single broker, whose office was under 
his hat, the business to-day furnishes a handsome profit 
for more than twenty firms who devote their attention 
exclusively to the Chicago market, where the “New 
York party” forms a very important element in the 
dealings. 

Still more recently dealings in petroleum have 
assumed a business like shape. First one and then a 
second petroleum exchange was organized, and the 
daily purchases and sales range from 1,500,000 to 10,- 
000,000 barrels. A remarkable feature of the present 
market is the fact, that petroleum certificates are con¬ 
sidered a irood collateral among' the Wall street bro- 
kers in negotiating loans. 

USE OF THE TICKER. 

A very important part performed in the great vol¬ 
ume of business transacted in Wall street, is to be 
credited to an ingenious little instrument called the 
“ ticker,” which supplies the brokers’ and other offices 
in the vicinity of the Stock Exchange with a report of 
the sales and quotations. Prior to its adoption the 
means of communication between the brokers’ offices 
and the floor of the Exchange consisted of messenger 
boys, who were sent to and fro. This involved, neces¬ 
sarily, considerable delay, and wide fluctuations some¬ 
times took place on ’change before the state of affairs 
could be made known to the brokers in their offices 
and their customers. 

Various inventors have produced different devices for 
the purpose of transmitting the quotations, all some¬ 
what similar in their construction, and the method is 
to have reporters stationed throughout the Exchange 
hall to watch and report the movements of each crowd. 
Until recently the Stock Exchange had never exacted 
nor received any compensation for the privilege of 
allowing reporters on the floor of the Exchange, but 




the competition from different companies representing 
the different patents on “tickers” became so strong 
that they offered to pay the Exchange for the exclu¬ 
sive privilege, and as a result, the Stock Exchange now 
receives $36,000 per annum. 

The reports of purchases and sales are obtained by 
trained employes, who are constantly watching the 
different groups of operators on the floor of the 
Exchange, and who are supposed to make a record of 
every transaction. To aid them they have the privi¬ 
lege of overlooking the memoranda made by the bro¬ 
kers, and if a broker has reason to suppose that a sale 
which he has made has not been reported, he is 
expected to furnish one of the reporters with the 
information. If there is delay in getting report of a 
sale and the price in the meantime has changed, the 
transaction appears on the ticker with the word “ sold” 
before it, thus indicating that one or more recent 
reports at a different price have been published. Occa¬ 
sionally it happens that a sale is made at a price which 
does not appear on the published list throughout the 
day. In such cases, for the purpose both of satisfying 
the customer and of protecting the broker against sus¬ 
picion, the ticker, on the following day, announces the 
sale,- together with the name of the broker. Reports 
of the sales are sent from the floor of the Exchange to 
the operating rooms of the companies, as fast as they 
are collected, by means of an ordinary Morse telegraph 
instrument, and are read by sound in the operating 
rooms, but a record is also made by a recording instru¬ 
ment in order that any errors may be corrected. The 
reports are distributed from the operating rooms of 
each company to all of its indicators, or “ tickers,” at 
the same time, by means of an instrument called the 
“ transmitter,” the key-board of which has much the 
the same appearance as the key-board of a piano, the 
black keys representing letters and the white keys 
figures and fractions. By striking anj^ given key of 
this instrument, a small wheel of the indicator, which 
is similarly lettered, is liberated, and by a weight not 
unlike that of a clock, or by power carried over the 
electric wire, as the ease may be, the wheel is made to 
revolve until the desired letter or figure comes in con¬ 
tact with a narrow strip of paper (called the “ tape”) 
passing through the instrument, when the further 
revolution of the wheel is arrested, and at the same 
instant the tape is pressed firmly against it. There are 
two wheels, one for figures and the other for letters, 
and by keeping them properly inked by means of an 
ink ball, the tape comes from the ticker with the 
desired letters and figures very distinctly printed upon 

































WALL STREET AND THE NEW YORK STOCK EXCHANGE. 


it. Thus, if Lake Shore and Michigan Southern stock 
has just sold at 112f, the transaction will appear on the 
tape with the letters “ L. S.” on the upper side of the 
tape, and the figures “ 112f” just beyond and on the 
lower side. At present the Gold and Stock Telegraph 
Company has about 1,000 instruments in operation in 
the various brokers’ and bankers’ offices, the leading 
hotels and other places of resort by speculators, all of 
which furnish only the sales and quotations of the 
Stock Exchange. The Commercial company has sev¬ 
eral hundred tickers in operation. It has been in 
business only a short time and the number is rap¬ 
idly increasing. The Gold and Stock company also 
operates about 300 instruments, which give quota¬ 
tions of cotton and petroleum and of mining stocks, 
and about 300 more which furnish financial news, 
miscellaneous quotations 
and other matter of inter¬ 
est on Wall street. 

BROKERS AND THEIR 
OFFICES. 

A peculiarity of Wall 
street offices, is, the man¬ 
ner in which the public 
appears to be shut out. 

The doors are closed, 
screens and partitions and 
wire work put up, and the 
stranger to an office finds 
his communications must 
be sent through a small 
circular aperture in a 
ground - glass partition 
that shuts out all that is 




JAY GOULD IN HIS PRIVATE OFFICE. 


transpiring inside. But there is always entrance for 
those whose business calls them there. And inside, 
the offices are cozy and comfortable, but, in very few 
instances are they expensively or elaborately furnished. 
The commission brokers have a customers’ room, a pri¬ 
vate office, and apartments for clerks who are, invaria¬ 
bly, fenced in by wire lattice-work cages from the 
visitors and customers. For success in Wall street is 
always dependent upon the secrecy with which opera¬ 
tions are conducted. Space is very valuable in “the 
street,” and the general offices of brokers are con¬ 
tracted to occupy as small a proportion of buildings as 
is convenient to the proper discharge of business. 
Rapidity and accuracy are much more important than 
display, although everything is arranged with a view to 
the comfort of all. Our illustration on a previous page 



represents the entrance to one of the principal stock 
commission houses in Broadway. Behind the parti¬ 
tion, the working force of the office is placed and the 
secrecy of its duties is maintained by wire partitions 
the same as the tellers’ apartment in a bank—hundreds 
of such offices within a few blocks about and near the 
exchange. The customers’ room, as shown in our 
illustration, is open to the general public. It must 
not be supposed, however, that brokers do a miscel¬ 
laneous trading business like dealers in commodities, 
for none of them will take orders to buy or sell stocks 
except from persons known or well recommended, and 
of whose bank accounts and financial responsibility 
they have information. So that from one day to 
another, the same faces may be seen in the offices, and 
the same speculators congregate where they are best 

known, and where their 
dealings are. The scene 
shown is a real one and 
has its counterpart in hun¬ 
dreds of rooms, and every 
day in the year when the 
Stock Exchange is open. 

No more plainly furn¬ 
ished, or less pretentious 
office can scarcely be found 
in New York than that of 
the king of speculators 
and millionaires, Jay 
Gould, an illustration of 
which isgiven on this page. 
Situated in the second 
story of an old fashioned 
and unpretentious build¬ 
ing at the southwest cor¬ 
ner of Rector street and Broadway, the plainly lettered 
sign over the Broadway windows reading W. E. Con¬ 
nor & Co., would never suggest to the mind of a casual 
visitor or passer by, the fact that within those windows 
is the office of the great railroad magnate and stock 
speculator. The firm is Washington E. Connor, who 
for years has been Mr. Gould’s most trusted broker, 
and George J. Gould, the eldest son of the great mag- 
nate. Mr. Gould is a special partner. The rooms are 
small and narrow. George Gould’s room is filled very 
full with the two great safes, his desk and a telegraph 
operator’s table. It opens into the hallway, but the 
door is always locked. Another door connects with 
his father’s private office where Private Secretary 
Morisini presides. Mr. Gould visits the office daily in 
busy times, but his visits are usually of brief duration, 
















































































































































MALL STREET AND THE NEW YORK STOCK EXCHANGE. 


as much of his time is occupied in attending directors’ 
meetings and in conferences with his railroad and other 
lieutenants, and he has other offices in the Western 
Union building. An ordinary office desk, or table, 
and another of smaller size covered with green oil 
cloth, chairs and a stock ticker comprise about all the 
furniture. Back of this room is the clerk’s room where 
four or five young men are employed, and back of that 
still, Mr. Connor’s private room, which is about ten by 
twelve feet in dimensions, and completely filled with a 
large cylinder desk and two stock tickers. These latter 
two rooms look out on Trinity church yard, the others 
on Broadway. The doors are always locked and no 
one is admitted except after their names are taken by 
one of the clerks through the pigeon-hole windows. 
But the office is democratic. Any one who enters is 
treated without ceremony. The business is too exact¬ 
ing to permit of red tape, and Mr. Connor or Mr. 
Gould dispose of their callers in the promptest busi¬ 
ness manner. 

Two rooms back on the same floor a door opens out 
of the dirty hall passage into the office of another of 
the great millionaires and stock speculators, Mr. Rus¬ 
sell Sage, which, although somewhat larger, is no 
more pretentious. Yet these men transact business 
that nets them millions of dollars annually. 

It will be readily seen that display is not a feature of 
Wall street, if we except, perhaps, some of the private 
banking offices, and the banking institutions where 
more formality, more luxurious and pretentious ap¬ 
pointments are natural, and in keeping with the char¬ 
acter of the financial administration of the affairs of 
men and governments the world over. 

A GREAT DAY IN WALL STREET. 

The 24th of September, 1869, has passed into history 
under the name of “Black Friday,” and stands as a 
memorable day in the annals of Wall street. Those 
were the days when gold speculation divided the atten¬ 
tion of the bulls and bears, with the Stock Exchange, 
and “ Black Friday” was the result of an attempted 
corner on gold. For some time previous to this mem¬ 
orable Friday, there had been a growing stringency in 
the money market and the stock market was feverish 
and full of excitement. On Wednesday there was a 
sudden and heavy decline in New York Central of 24 
per cent, and Hudson 12 per cent. But the scene of 
excitement was transferred from the Stock Exchange 
to the Gold Room, and here, since the fall of Rich¬ 
mond, nothing had equaled the spectacle. The opera¬ 
tors undertook to secure as much as possible of the 



$15,000,000 of gold held by the New York banks, and, 
hoping that the United States Treasury, which held 
about $100,000,000 in gold would not dare to afford 
any relief, endeavored to raise the price of gold from 
132 to an enormous figure (they hoped 200 per cent), 
sell out and pocket the gain. They had been steadily 
purchasing for several days, and there were forebodings 
of the coming battle on the night previous to this 
memorable Friday. Thursday closed with every pre¬ 
monition of the struggle by the bears making an attack 
upon the stocks at the close of dealings. Threats and 
rumors were flying through the air. The attack on 
stocks was but preliminary to the great struggle which 
was to take place in the Gold Room. Long before the 
hour for opening on Friday, the crowd pressed and 
surged, and after the doors were opened there was a 
rush for admittance. To get into the Gold Room from 
either the Broad street or rear entrance was more dan¬ 
gerous than entering a burning building. The steps, 
narrow passages and little vestibules were solidly occu¬ 
pied. Men were fighting their way in and out with 
desperation; men who, anywhere else, and at any other 
time would be regarded as gentlemen, ready to sacrifice 
their own comfort and convenience for a fellow, were 
now pushing and pulling, and screaming and trampling 
upon all in their way, rabid with the gold excitement, 
and blind to everything but the all-important crisis at 
hand. Once into the passage, in a maniacal crew, with 
no room to breathe the dense, distracting air, one might 
have heard what seemed the screeches of the damned ; 
it was only the operators in the Gold Room. Men were 
fighting to get in ; begging to get in. Men were fight¬ 
ing to get out. Once in the Gold Room the scene was 
indescribable. If the place were a “black hole” from 
which God’s blessed air had been entirely excluded and 
those five hundred men were struggling for existence 
with all the condensed agony of sudden suffocation, it 
could not have been much worse. 

When the report reached the Exchange that Secre¬ 
tary Boutwell had ordered $4,000,000 of gold to be 
placed on the market, it was like the lisditniniz' had 
struck in the room. The great bubble burst. The 
bulls fled. v Gold, which had gone up to 162, suddenly 
dropped to 130. As the news spread, there was a rush¬ 
ing of men throughout Wall street beyond all prece¬ 
dent. Thus burst a panic which was entirely artificial, 
and not based on the condition of the country. The 
transactions aggregated over five hundred million dol¬ 
lars, and the bull side of the house, of which Jas. 
Fisk, Jr. and Jay Gould were prominent manipulators, 
profited about $11,000,000 by the day’s disasters. 

































^TEAM 

Heated 

. . AND . . 

Electric 

Cighted 



BETWEEN 

Chicago 

Milwaukee 
St. Paul and 
Minneapolis 






























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